WIRELESS

COMMUNICATIONS

P. Muthu Chidambara Nathan

Associate Professor
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
National Institute of Technology
Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu

New Delhi-110001
2013
WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS
P. Muthu Chidambara Nathan

© 2008 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of
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without permission in writing from the publisher.

ISBN-978-81-203-3514-1

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Fifth Printing … … November, 2013

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House,

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To
My Parents and Teachers,
Wife and Son,
Friends and Students
 CONTENTS

Preface.................................................................................................................... xiii
Abbreviations .......................................................................................................... xv

1 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION 1–9

1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 1
1.2 History of Wireless Communication ........................................... 1
1.3 Wireless Services ............................................................................. 2
1.3.1 Broadcast ............................................................................. 2
1.3.2 Paging .................................................................................. 2
1.3.3 Cellular Telephony ........................................................... 2
1.3.4 Cordless Telephony .......................................................... 2
1.3.5 Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN) ...................... 3
1.3.6 Ad Hoc Networks ............................................................. 3
1.3.7 Personal Area Networks (PAN) ..................................... 3
1.3.8 Satellite Cellular Communication .................................. 3
1.4 Requirements in Wireless Communication ................................ 4
1.4.1 Data Rate ............................................................................ 4
1.4.2 Range and Number of Users .......................................... 4
1.4.3 Mobility ............................................................................... 4
1.4.4 Energy Consumption........................................................ 5
1.5 Introduction to Modern Wireless Communication
Systems .............................................................................................. 5
1.6 Wireless Communication System Definitions ............................ 8
Exercises .......................................................................................................... 8

v
 vi Contents

2 CELLULAR CONCEPT 10–20

2.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 10
2.2 Frequency Reuse ............................................................................ 11
2.3 Channel Assignment Strategies .................................................. 14
2.4 Interference ..................................................................................... 14
2.5 Cochannel Interference and System Capacity ......................... 14
2.6 Adjacent Channel Interference ................................................... 18
2.7 Handover ........................................................................................ 19
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 20

3 CELLULAR CAPACITY AND

IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES 21–32
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 21
3.2 Capacity of Erlang-B System ...................................................... 22
3.3 Capacity of Erlang-C System ...................................................... 23
3.4 Improving Capacity in Cellular Systems .................................. 23
3.4.1 Cell Splitting .................................................................... 23
3.4.2 Cell Sectoring ................................................................... 25
3.4.3 Coverage Zone Concept ................................................ 27
3.4.4 More Efficient Modulation Formats and Coding ..... 27
3.4.5 Better Source Coding...................................................... 27
3.4.6 Discontinuous Transmission ......................................... 28
3.4.7 Multiple Antennas .......................................................... 28
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 31

4 WIRELESS PROPAGATION MECHANISMS 33–50

4.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 33
4.2 Free Space Propagation Model ................................................... 34
4.3 Reflection ......................................................................................... 35
4.3.1 Ground Reflection (2-ray) Model ................................ 35
4.4 Diffraction ....................................................................................... 38
4.4.1 Knife-edge Diffraction Model ....................................... 38
4.4.2 Multiple Knife-edge Diffraction ................................... 44
4.5 Path Loss Prediction over Hilly Terrain ................................... 45
4.6 Introduction to Fading and Diversity Techniques ................. 47
4.6.1 Small Scale Fading (Fading) ......................................... 47
4.6.2 Diversity Techniques ...................................................... 47
4.6.3 Space Diversity in the Channel ................................... 48
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 50

5 WIRELESS CHANNEL AND DIVERSITY 51–62

5.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 51
5.2 Overview of the Wireless Communication Channel ............. 51
5.2.1 Frequency Selective and Flat Fading Channels ........ 52
5.2.2 Slow and Fast Fading Channels .................................. 53
 Contents vii

5.3 Flat and Slow Fading Channels ................................................. 54

5.4 Diversity Systems .......................................................................... 54
5.4.1 Establishing Diversity Branches ................................... 55
5.4.2 Factors Affecting Diversity Performance:
Power Imbalance ............................................................. 56
5.4.3 Factors Affecting Diversity Performance:
Envelope Correlation ...................................................... 57
5.4.4 Diversity Combining Techniques ................................ 60
5.4.5 Diversity Gain .................................................................. 60
5.4.6 Additional Factors Affecting Diversity Systems ....... 61
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 61

6 COMBINING SCHEMES AND

THE RAYLEIGH CHANNEL 63–80
6.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 63
6.2 Diversity Combining Schemes .................................................... 63
6.2.1 Selection Diversity .......................................................... 63
6.2.2 Maximal Ratio Combining ............................................ 68
6.2.3 Equal Gain Combining .................................................. 71
6.3 Analysis of Rayleigh Fading Channels ..................................... 73
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 80

7 JOINT PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION

OF TWO CORRELATED AND UNBALANCED
RAYLEIGH SIGNALS 81–92
7.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 81
7.2 Separating Two Rayleigh Signals into
Gaussian Components .................................................................. 82
7.2.1 Correlation between the Gaussian Components
of Two Rayleigh Signals ................................................ 83
7.2.2 Joint Probability Density Function of
Four Gaussian Variables ................................................ 85
7.3 Transforming a Four Dimensional Gaussian pdf into
the Joint Probability Density of Two Rayleigh Signals ......... 87
7.3.1 Joint Probability Density Function of
Two Rayleigh Signals ..................................................... 87
7.3.2 Relating the Gaussian Correlations to the
Rayleigh Envelope Correlation and
Branch Power ................................................................... 90
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 92

8 TWO-BRANCH SELECTION DIVERSITY

IN A RAYLEIGH CHANNEL 93–102
8.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 93
 viii Contents

8.2 Distribution of the SNRV ............................................................ 94

S

8.2.1 Probability Density Function of the SNRV ............... 94

S

8.2.2 Cumulative Distribution Function of the SNRV ...... 98

S

8.3 Probability Density Function of the SNRP ........................... 100

s
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 102

9 TWO-BRANCH MAXIMAL RATIO COMBINING

IN A RAYLEIGH CHANNEL 103–113
9.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 103
9.2 Distribution of the SNRV ....................................................... 104
M
9.2.1 Probability Density Function of the SNRV ........... 104
M
9.2.2 Cumulative Distribution Function
of the SNRV ................................................................ 109
M
9.3 Probability Density Function of the SNRP ......................... 110
M
9.4 Maximal Ratio Combining Example ....................................... 111
9.4.1 Interpretation of Diversity Measurements,
and Extraction of Statistics .......................................... 111
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 113

10 INTRODUCTION TO 4G WIRELESS
TECHNOLOGIES AND SMART ANTENNAS 114–123
10.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 114
10.2 Evolution to 4G Technologies ................................................... 114
10.3 Smart Antennas ........................................................................... 117
10.3.1 Switched Beam Antennas ............................................ 117
10.3.2 Adaptive Antennas ....................................................... 119
10.4 4G Tools and Techniques .......................................................... 120
10.4.1 Advanced Technologies—
Physical Layer Enhancement ...................................... 121
10.4.2 Can You Expand on this
5th Generation (5G) Wireless Features? ................... 122
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 122

11 INTRODUCTION TO MIMO SYSTEMS 124–132

11.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 124
11.2 Model of MIMO System ............................................................ 124
11.2.1 CSI (Channel State Information) ................................ 125
11.2.2 Use of Retro-directive Antennas ................................ 126
11.2.3 Effects of Mutual Coupling
at the Antenna Arrays ................................................. 126
 Contents ix

11.3 MIMO System Channel Capacity ............................................ 127

11.3.1 Maximum Capacity, if there is no CSI
at the Transmitter ......................................................... 129
11.3.2 Maximum Capacity when Channel
is Known to the Transmitter ...................................... 129
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 132

12 CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS 133–144

12.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 133
12.2 Basic Principles of Spread Spectrum ....................................... 133
12.3 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum ........................................... 135
12.4 Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum ..................................... 136
12.5 Time Hopped Spread Spectrum ............................................... 138
12.6 CDMA System Overview .......................................................... 138
12.6.1 Principle of CDMA ....................................................... 139
12.6.2 Pseudo-random Noise (PN) Code Sequences ......... 140
12.6.3 Properties of Maximal Length Sequences ................ 141
12.7 DSSS Modulation ......................................................................... 142
12.8 DSSS Demodulation .................................................................... 142
12.9 Overall Process in CDMA ......................................................... 143
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 143

13 ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY
DIVISION MULTIPLEXING 145–153
13.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 145
13.2 Advantages of OFDM Transmission Scheme ........................ 146
13.3 Disadvantages OFDM Transmission Scheme ........................ 147
13.4 Multiple Access Techniques ...................................................... 147
13.4.1 Frequency Division Multiple Access ......................... 147
13.4.2 Time Division Multiple Access .................................. 148
13.4.3 Code Division Multiple Access .................................. 148
13.5 OFDM System Model ................................................................. 150
13.5.1 Serial to Parallel Conversion ...................................... 150
13.5.2 Modulation of Data ...................................................... 150
13.5.3 Inverse Fourier Transform .......................................... 151
13.5.4 OFDM Versus Single Carrier Transmission ............ 151
13.6 Applications of OFDM ............................................................... 152
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 152

14 MULTICARRIER CODE DIVISION

MULTIPLE ACCESS (MC-CDMA) 154–160
14.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 154
14.2 What is Orthogonal Multicarrier-CDMA ............................... 155
14.3 Advantages of MC-CDMA ........................................................ 155
14.3.1 Compared to Direct Sequence (DS) CDMA ............ 155
14.3.2 Compared to OFDM .................................................... 155
 Wireless Communications

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