DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
- Divided into three parts: fundus, body or greater
Functions
- Take food into mouth, where it is mechanically
broken down
- Peristalsis – rhythmic muscular contractions and
segmented movement when single segments of
the intestine alternate between contraction and
relaxation to push food through the digestive
tract
Organs of digestion
 Mouth
- Inside is covered by mucous membrane
- Roof – consists of hard and soft palate
- Uvula – cone-shaped flap of tissue hanging from
the middle of the soft palate; prevents food from
entering the nasal cavity when swallowing
 Tongue
- Helps in chewing and swallowing
- Lingual frenulum – band of tissue that attaches
the tongue to the floor of the mouth; limits the
motion of the tongue
 Salivary amylase
- Saliva is 99.5% water
- Salivary amylase – begins the breakdown of
complex carbohydrates into simple sugars
- Three pairs of salivary glands: parotid,
submandibular, and sublingual
- Parotid gland: largest salivary gland found on
both sides of the face; inflamed during an attack
of mumps
- Submandibular gland – secretions contain mucin
and salivary amylase
- Sublingual gland – smallest of the three; found
under the side of the tongue; contains mainly
mucus
 Teeth
- Helps in mastication; break down food into very
small morsels
o Incisors – biting
o Canines – tearing
o Molars – crushing and grinding
 Esophagus
- Muscular tube about 25 centimeters long
- Begins at the lower end of the pharynx toward
the mediastinum and passes through the
diaphragm going to cardiac portion of the
stomach
- Upper third muscle: voluntary; lower portion:
smooth muscle
- Cardiac/esophageal sphincter – muscular ring;
closes to prevent the stomach contents from
regurgitating into the esophagus
 Stomach
curvature, and pylorus
- Esophageal/cardiac sphincter – opening from the
esophagus into the stomach
- Pyloric sphincter – end of the stomach; regulates
entrance of food into duodenum
 Gastric juices
- Enteroendocrine glands – secrete gastrin;
stimulates cells to produce HCl and pepsinogen
- Parietal cells – produce HCl acid, which
converts pepsinogen into pepsin and destroys
bacteria and microorganisms that enter the
stomach
- Parietal cells – also produce intrinsic factor,
element necessary for the absorption of vitamin
B12
- Chief-type cells – produce pepsinogen, which
converts to pepsin; pepsin breaks down protein
into smaller pieces called proteoses and peptone
- Mucous cells – secrete alkaline mucus, which
helps neutralize the effects of HCl acid and the
other digestive juices
 Small Intestine
- Final absorption (duodenum)
- 20 feet
- Three sections: duodenum, jejunum, and the
ileum
- Held in place by the mesentery
- Secretes digestive juices and covered with villi;
absorb the end products of digestion
- Hepatopancreatic ampulla – site where the
pancreatic duct and the common bile duct of the
liver enter
- Pancreatic duct – empties the digestive juices of
the pancreas and the common bile duct empties
bile from the liver
 Digestive Juices in the small intestine
- Secretin and cholecystokinin – stimulate
digestive juices in the liver, pancreas and
gallbladder
- Pancreatic juices (protease) – breaks down
protein to amino acids
- Amylase (carbohydrase) – breaks down starches
to glucose
- Lipase – breaks down fats to fatty acids and
glycerol
- Pancreatic juices – contain sodium bicarbonate
which neutralizes the food content of the
stomach which is high in acid
- Bile – necessary to break down or emulsify fat
into smaller fat globules to be digested by lipase
- Intestinal juices – maltase, lactase and sucrase
change starch into glucose; peptidase changes
proteoses and peptone into amino acids; lipase
changes fat into fatty acids and glycerol
 Pancreas
- Functions both an exocrine gland and endocrine
gland
- Islets of Langerhans – produce insulin and
glucagon
- Acini cells – produce digestive juices
- Duct cells – secrete sodium bicarbonate, which
helps neutralize the acidic content of food as it
leaves the stomach
- Pancreatic duct – unite with common bile duct
and enter the duodenum in a common duct
called hepatopancreatic ampulla
 Liver
- Largest organ in the body
- Portal vein – carries the products of digestion
from the small intestine to the liver
- Manufactures bile – necessary for digestion of
fat
- Bile – contains bile salts, bilirubin
- Hepatic duct joins with the cystic duct of the gall
bladder to form the common bile duct, which
carries bile to the duodenum
- If common bile duct is blocked, it could cause
jaundice (yellowish color of the skin and sclera)
- Produces and stores glucose in the form of
glycogen
- Detoxifies
- Prepares urea, chief waste product of protein
metabolism
- Stores vitamins A, D, E, and K
- Removes worn-out RBC
 Gall Bladder
- Small green organ
- Stores and concentrates bile
- When food high in fat enters duodenum, bile is
released by the gallbladder through the cystic
duct
 Large Intestine
- About 5 feet long and 2 inches in diameter
- Haustra – provide more surface area in the colon
 Cecum and appendix
- Blind pouch located below ileocecal valve
- Lower left of the cecum is the vermiform
appendix
- Appendix has massive amounts of lymphoid
tissue and plays a role in immunity
OVERVIEW OF DIGESTION
1. Mouth
- Food is broken down by the teeth and mixed
with saliva
- Salivary amylase – converts the starches in
carbohydrates into simple sugars
2. Pharynx
- Common passageway for food and air
- Swallowing – voluntary process; Involuntary
process in the esophagus
3. Esophagus
- Food is pushed through the esophagus by
peristalsis
4. Stomach
- Cardiac sphincter relaxes and allows the food to
enter
- The action of the gastric juices is helped by the
churning of the stomach walls
- Chyme – semiliquid food
- Chyme leaves the stomach through the pyloric
sphincter
5. Small intestine
- Process of digestion is completed and absorption
occurs
- Bile emulsifies fat to prepare it for digestion by
pancreatic and intestinal juices
- Pancreatic juices neutralize the acidic chyme
and complete the digestion of carbohydrates, fats
and proteins
- Carbohydrates – simple sugars
- Fat – fatty acids and glycerol
- Proteins – amino acids
- Passage of food through the small intestine
occurs because of peristalsis and segmented
movement
6. Large Intestine
- Concerned with water absorption, bacterial
action, fecal formation, gas formation, and
defecation
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Functions
- Provides structures for the exchange of oxygen
and carbon dioxide in the body through
respiration
1. External respiration
- Breathing
- Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
between the lungs, the body, and the outside
environment
2. Internal respiration
- Exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen
between the cells and the lymph surrounding
them, plus the oxidative process of energy in the
cells
Respiratory organs and structures
 Nasal Cavity
 - Air enters through the nostrils
 Pharynx
- Commonly known as the throat
- Common passageway for air and food
- About 5 inches long and can be subdivided into
the nasopharynx, oropharynx and
laryngopharynx
- Epiglottis – flap of cartilage lying behind the
tongue and in front of the entrance to the larynx;
allows air to pass through the larynx and to the
lungs
 Larynx
- Voice box
- Lined with mucous membrane
 Trachea
- Windpipe
- Tubelike passageway some 11.2 centimeters
- Extends from the larynx, passes in front of the
esophagus, and continue to form the two bronchi
- Walls are composed of alternate bands of
membranes and C-shaped rings
 Bronchus
- Right bronchus – shorter, wider and more
vertical in position
- As bronchi enter the lung, they subdivide into
bronchial tubes and smaller bronchioles
 Alveoli
- Rapid exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen
occurs
- In the blood capillaries, carbon dioxide diffuses
from the erythrocytes, through the capillary
walls, into the alveoli and is exhaled through the
mouth and nose
- Opposite process occurs with oxygen, which
diffuses from the alveoli into the capillaries, and
from there into the erythrocytes
 Lungs
- Separated from each other by the mediastinum
and the heart
- Porous and spongy
- Right lung is larger and broader than the left
lung because the heart inclines to the left side
- Right side is also shorter due to diaphragm’s
upward displacement on the right to
accommodate the liver
 Pleura
- Covering of the lungs
- Visceral pleura – covering the lungs
- Parietal pleura – lining the thoracic cavity and
upper surface of the diaphragm
 Diaphragm
- Separates the thoracic cavity from the abdomen
 Mediastinum
- Called the interpleural space
Breathing process
 Inhalation
- External intercostals lift the ribs upward and
outward
- Diaphragm contracts and becomes flattened,
moving downward
- Decrease in pressure
- Atmospheric pressure is now greater, air rushes
in all the way down to the alveoli
 Exhalation
- Passive process
- Intercostal muscles and diaphragm relax
- Ribs move down, diaphragm moves up
- Surface tension of the fluid lining the alveoli
reduces the elasticity of the lung tissue and
cause the alveoli to collapse
- Relaxes the lungs, space between the thoracic
cavity decreases, thus increasing the internal
pressure
- Increased pressure forces air from the lungs,
resulting in exhalation
Normal rate: 14 to 20 breaths per minute
Lung capacity and volume
 Tidal volume
- Amount of air that moves in and out of the lungs
with each breath
- Normal amount is about 500 mL
 Inspiratory reserve volume
- Amount of air you can force a person to take in
over and above the tidal volume
- Normal amount is 2100 to 3000 mL
 Expiratory reserve volume
- Amount of air you can force a person to exhale
over and above the tidal volume
- Normal amount is 1000 mL
 Vital lung capacity
- Total amount of air involved with tidal volume,
inspiratory reserve volume, and expiratory
reserve volume
- Normal vital capacity is 4500 mL
 Residual volume
- Amount of air that cannot be voluntarily
expelled from the lungs
- Allows for the continuous exchange of gases
between breaths
- Normal residual volume is 1500 mL
 Functional residual capacity
- Sum of the expiratory reserve volume plus the
residual volume
- Normal amount is 2500 mL
 Total lung capacity
- Includes tidal volume, inspiratory reserve,
expiratory reserve and residual air
- Total amount is 6000 mL
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Functions
- Circulates blood to all parts of the body
- Take blood from the heart to the cells and return
from the cells back to the heart
- Carries the waste products away and carries
oxygen and nutrients
- Returns excess fluid from the tissues to the
general circulation
Organs of the circulatory system
 Heart
- Responsible for circulating blood throughout the
body
- Pericardium – surrounds the heart
- Epicardium – outer muscle tissue
- Myocardium – cardiac muscle tissue
- Endocardium – inner lining; cover heart valves
and lines blood vessels
- Interventricular septum – separates heart into
right half and left half
Structures leading to and from the heart
1. Superior and inferior vena cava
- Large venous blood vessels that bring
deoxygenated blood to the right atrium from all
parts of the body
2. Pulmonary artery – takes blood away from the
right ventricle to the lungs for oxygen
3. Pulmonary vein – takes oxygenated blood from
the lungs to the left atrium
4. Aorta – takes blood away from the left ventricle
to the rest of the body
Chambers and valves
a. Atrium – upper chambers
b. Ventricle – lower chambers
c. Valves – open and close during the contraction of
the heart, preventing blood from flowing backward
o Tricuspid valve – positioned between right
atrium and right ventricle; there are three
points or cusps of attachment (chordae
tendineae)
o Bicuspid valve (mitral valve) – located
between the left atrium and left ventricle
d. Semilunar valves – located where blood will leave
the heart
o Pulmonary semilunar valve – found at the
orifice of the pulmonary arteries; allows
blood to travel from the right ventricle into
the right and left pulmonary arteries and
then into the lungs
o Aortic semilunar valve – at the orifice of the
aorta; permits the blood to pass from the left
ventricle into the aorta but not backward
into the left ventricle
Circulation/physiology of the heart
1. Right heart
- Blood (deoxygenated) flows into the heart from
the superior and inferior vena cava, to the right
atrium, to the tricuspid valve, to the right
ventricle, through pulmonary semilunar valves,
to the right and left pulmonary arteries which
take blood to the lungs for oxygen
2. Left heart
- Oxygenated blood flows into the heart from the
lungs by the pulmonary veins to the left atrium,
through the bicuspid (mitral) valve to the left
ventricle through the aortic semilunar valve to
the aorta to general circulation
Cardiac output – total volume of blood ejected from the
heart per minute
Heart sounds
 Lubb
- Made by the valves (tricuspid and bicuspid)
closing between the atria and ventricles
 Dupp
- Second sound heard
- Shorter and higher pitched
- Caused by the semilunar valves in the aorta and
the main pulmonary artery closing
Conduction system of the heart
 Sinoatrial node
- Pacemaker
- Sends out an electrical impulse that begins and
regulates the heart
- Impulse spreads out over the atria, making them
contract
- Stimulates the contraction of both atria
 Atrioventricular node
- Where electrical impulse reaches
- Another conducting cell group located between
the atria and ventricles
- Stimulates contraction of both ventricles
 Atrioventricular bundle or bundle of His
- Where the electrical impulse is carried from the
AV node
- Divides into a right and left branch
 Purkinje network
- Fine network of branches spreading throughout
the ventricles; electrical impulses shoot along
Purkinje fibers
Types of Circulation  Diastole
- Relaxation
1. Cardiopulmonary circulation – blood from the
heart to the lungs, and back to the heart Pulse
- Alternating expansion and contraction of an
artery as blood flows through it
2. Systemic circulation – blood from the heart to
the tissues and cells and back to the heart Blood
- Transporting fluid of the body
- Carries nutrients from the digestive tract to the
cells, oxygen from the lungs to the cells, waste
3. Coronary circulation – brings blood from the products from the cells to the various organs of
heart to the myocardium excretion, and hormones from the secreting cells
to the other parts of the body
- Aids in the distribution of heat formed in the
4. Portal circulation – takes blood from the more active tissues to all parts of the body
organs of digestion to the liver through the - Regulate the acid-base balance and protect
portal vein against infection
Composition of blood
1. Plasma
5. Fetal circulation – occurs in the pregnant - Contains cellular elements
female 2. Erythrocytes
- Red blood cells
3. Leukocytes
- White blood cells
4. Thrombocytes
Blood vessels - Platelets
 Arteries Blood plasma
- Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to
the capillaries (except pulmonary artery) - Comprising 55% of the blood volume
- Transport blood under very high pressure: - Water makes up about 92% of the total volume
elastic, muscular, and thick walled of plasma
 Capillaries Hematopoiesis
- Smallest blood vessels
- Branches of finest arteriole divisions - Formation of blood cells
- Responsible for transporting blood to all tissues - Occurs in the red bone marrow (myeloid tissue)
 Veins
- Carry deoxygenated blood away from the Hemoglobin
capillaries to the heart - Red pigment
- Less elastic and muscular - Protein molecule called globin and an iron
- Walls of the veins are thinner than those of the compound called heme
arteries because they do not have to withstand  Oxyhemoglobin
such high internal pressures - Circulate to the capillaries of tissues
- Have valves along their length; allow blood to - Oxygen is released to the capillaries of tissues
flow in one direction - Carbon dioxide that is formed in the cells is
picked up by the plasma as bicarbonate
- Blood cells that travel in the arteries carry
Blood pressure oxyhemoglobin, which gives blood its bright red
color
- When the heart pumps blood into the arteries,  Carbaminohemoglobin
the surge of blood filing the vessels creates - Contained in blood cells of the vein
pressure against their walls - Responsible for dark, reddish-blue color
 Systole characteristic of venous blood
- Contraction
White Blood Cells Blood types
- Called leukocytes - Four major blood types: A, B, AB, O
- Have nuclei and no pigment - Determined by the presence or absence of
- Granular or agranular agglutinogen or antigen on the surface of the red
- Manufactured in both red bone marrow and blood cell
lymphatic tissue o Type A = A antigen
- Body’s natural defense against injury and o Type B = B antigen
disease o Type AB = both A and B antigens
o Type O = neither of the antigens
Granulocytes - There is a protein present in plasma known as
- When stained with Wright’s stain, the cytoplasm agglutinin or antibody
of a leukocyte will show the presence or absence o Type A = B antibodies
of granules o Type B = A antibodies
 Granulocytes o Type AB = no antibodies
a. Neutrophils o Type O = both A and B antibodies
- Also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes - Agglutination – clumping of blood, clogs blood
- Phagocytize bacteria with lysosomal enzymes vessels, impeding circulation
- Surrounds, engulfs and digests harmful bacteria - Rh factor – first found in the rhesus monkey;
- 2-6 lobes found on the surface of red blood cells
b. Eosinophils - If an Rh- individual receives a transfusion of
- Phagocytize the remains of antibody-antigen Rh+ blood, he or she will develop antibodies to
reaction it. The antibodies take 2 weeks to develop
- Increase in great numbers in allergic conditions, - Second transfusion – accumulated Rh antibodies
and in parasite or worm infestations will clump with Rh antigen (agglutinogen of
c. Basophils blood being received)
- Activated during an allergic reaction or - When an Rh- mother is pregnant with an Rh+
inflammation fetus, the mother’s blood can develop anti-Rh
- Produce histamine (a vasodilator) and heparin antibodies to the fetus’s Rh antigens. The
(an anticoagulant) firstborn child will normally suffer no harmful
- Become mast cell effects; however, subsequent pregnancies will be
 Agranulocytes affected because the mother’s accumulated anti-
d. Lymphocytes Rh antibodies will clump the baby’s red blood
- B and T lymphocytes cells
- Helps form antibodies at a site of inflammation
- Protects against cancer
e. Monocytes Blood Norms
- Assist in phagocytosis of cellular debris and
foreign substances - Complete blood count – information about
- Become macrophages kinds and numbers of cells, includes RBC,
WBC, WBC differential, hemoglobin (Hgb),
hematocrit (Hct), and platelet counts
- Hematocrit – blood test that measures the
Thrombocytes percentage of the volume of the whole blood
- Smallest of the solid components of blood that is made up of red blood cells
- Ovoid-shaped structures, synthesized from the
larger megakaryocytes in red bone marrow
- Platelets
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
 Interstitial fluid
- Acts as intermediary between the blood in the
capillaries and the tissue
- Similar in composition to blood plasma
- Carries metabolic waste products away from the
cells and back into the capillaries for excretion
 Edema
- Some fluids that are not reabsorbed, which
results into swelling of the tissue
- The contractions of the skeletal muscles against
the lymph vessels cause the lymph to surge
forward into larger vessels
- Breathing movements also cause lymph to flow
- Valves located within lymph capillaries prevent
backward lymph flow
 Lymph vessels
- Accompany and closely parallel the veins
- Form an extensive, branchlike system
throughout the body
- May be considered auxiliary to the circulatory
system
 Lymphatics
o Thoracic duct (left)
 Receive lymph from the left side of
the chest, head, back, abdominal
area and lower limbs
 Lymph is carried to left subclavian
vein, brachiocephalic vein, superior
vena cava, and right atrium
o Right lymphatic duct
 Right arm, right side of the head,
and upper trunk
 Enters the right subclavian vein,
brachiocephalic vein, and flows into
superior vena cava
- Lymph only travels in one direction
 Lymph nodes
- Filter the lymph
- As lymph enters the node through the afferent
vessel, the immune response is activated
- Any microorganisms or foreign substances in
the lymph stimulate the germinal centers to
produce lymphocytes, which are then released
into the lymph
- Grouped in various places in the body
 Tonsils
- Masses of lymphatic tissues that are capable of
producing lymphocytes and filtering bacteria
 Spleen
- Blood passing through the spleen is filtered
- Stores large amounts of red blood cells
- Destroys and removes old or fragile red blood
cells and forms erythrocytes in the embryo
 Thymus gland
- Function to produce and mature lymphocytes
- T lymphocytes
- Secretes hormone called thymosin, which
stimulates the maturation of lymphocytes into T
lymphocytes
 Peyer’s patches
- Found in the walls of small intestines
- Produce macrophages
 Lacteals
- Specialized lymph capillaries in the villi of the
small intestine
- Absorb digested fat and fat-soluble vitamins and
carry them to the general circulation
Immunity
 Non-specific Immune Defense
- Not dependent on prior exposure to the antigens
- Innate
- Skin and normal flora – physical barrier against
infectious agents
- Mucous membranes – entrap infectious agents
and contain antibodies, lactoferrin, and
lysozyme, which inhibit bacterial growth
- Elimination and an acidic environment present
microbial growth of pathogenic organisms:
include resident flora of the large intestine,
acidity of urine, and normal vaginal flora
- Inflammation
- Immunoglobulins:
o Ig G – most abundant class of
antibodies; found in the blood serum
and lymph; active against bacteria,
fungi, viruses and foreign particles
o Ig A – class of antibodies produced
against ingested antigens; found in
saliva, sweat, tears; function to prevent
the attachment of viruses and bacteria to
the epithelial cells
o Ig M – antibodies that are first to appear
in response to an initial exposure to an
antigen
o Ig D – found only on B cells and are
important in B-cell activation
o Ig E – responsible for allergic reactions
 Specific Immune Defense into a person’s body to protect him or her
against a specific disease
 B cells - Ex. Baby acquiring antibodies from mother’s
- Found in the lymph node, spleen and other placenta and milk
lymphoid tissue  Active acquired immunity
- Form plasma cells and memory cells - Lasts longer
 Plasma cells o Natural acquired immunity
- Formed by B cells and produce huge quantities  Result of having had and
of the same antibody or immunoglobulin recovered from a disease
 Helper T cells o Artificial acquired immunity
- Bind with specific antigens presented by  Comes from being inoculated
macrophages with a suitable vaccine, antigen,
- Stimulate the production of killer T cells and or toxoid
more B cells to fight the invading pathogens  Ex. Child being vaccinated for
- Release lymphokines measles
 Killer T cells/Cytotoxic T cells
- Kill virus-invaded body cells and cancerous
body cells
 Suppressor T cells
- Slows down the activities of B and T cells once
an infection has been controlled
 Memory cells
- Descendants of activated T and B cells produced
during an initial immune response
- Exist in the body for years, enabling it to
respond quickly to any future infection from the
same pathogen
 Macrophages
- Engulf and digest the antigen
- Present parts of these antigens in their cell
membrane for recognition by T cells

 Lymphokines
- Released by lymphocytes and macrophages
- Help cellular immunity by stimulating activities
of monocytes and macrophages
 Cytokines
- Proteins produced by damaged tissue and WBC
 Interferon
- Type of cytokine produced by cells that have
been infected by a virus
- Binds to neighboring cells and stimulates them
to produce chemicals that may protect these
adjacent cells from the virus

Natural and Acquired Immunities

 Natural Immunity
- Immunity with which we are born
- Inherited and permanent
 Passive acquired immunity
- Borrowed immunity
- Acquired artificially by injecting antibodies
from the blood of other individuals or animals