Journal of Sport Psychology in Action

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A transition program to help student-athletes

move on to lifetime physical activity

Erin J. Reifsteck & DeAnne Davis Brooks

To cite this article: Erin J. Reifsteck & DeAnne Davis Brooks (2017): A transition program to help
student-athletes move on to lifetime physical activity, Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, DOI:
10.1080/21520704.2017.1303011

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21520704.2017.1303011

Published online: 30 Mar 2017.

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JOURNAL OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION
http://dx.doi.org/./..

A transition program to help student-athletes move on to

lifetime physical activity
Erin J. Reifstecka and DeAnne Davis Brooksb
a
The University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina, USA; b Salem College,
Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Maintaining healthy levels of physical activity after competitive Identity; motivation; physical
sports careers end can be challenging. Evidence-based programs activity; program; sport
are needed to prepare athletes for the transition from highly struc- transition
tured, competitive athletics to lifetime physical activity. In this arti-
cle, we describe the development of our Moving On! program,
which is designed to help student-athletes make healthy tran-
sitions to life after college sports. By outlining our experiences
with this program, we offer a blueprint that may serve as a useful
guide for sport and exercise psychology practitioners who wish
to implement sport transition programs that foster the long-term
health and well-being of student-athletes.

Despite spending thousands of hours training for sports, building up their fit-
ness, and honing their athletic skills, former athletes may find it difficult to main-
tain healthy levels of physical activity participation once they transition out of the
competitive sport environment. Contradicting conventional expectations, former
student-athlete alumni may be no more physically active or healthier than non-
athlete college alumni (Kerr, DeFreese, & Marshall, 2014; Sorenson, Romano, Azen,
Schroeder, & Salem, 2015), and former student-athletes report lower health-related
quality of life after college than non-athletes (Simon & Docherty, 2014). Whereas
extensive attention has been devoted to the emotional and career challenges that
coincide with end-of-sport transitions (e.g., Douglas & Carless, 2009; Houle, Brewer,
& Kluck, 2010; Lally & Kerr, 2005; Stambulova, Alfermann, Statler, & Cote, 2009;
Taylor & Ogilvie, 1994), there has been limited focus on how athletes transition to
physically active lifestyles (Reifsteck, Gill, & Brooks, 2013; Reifsteck, Gill, & Labban,
2016; Sorenson et al., 2015). In this article, we highlight the existing gap in evidence-
based practices and describe our transition program as an example of how applied
sport and exercise psychology (SEP) professionals can address this important issue
within the collegiate athletics setting.

CONTACT Erin J. Reifsteck ejreifst@uncg.edu Department of Kinesiology, The University of North Carolina at
Greensboro,  Coleman Building,  Walker Avenue, Greensboro, NC , USA.
©  Association for Applied Sport Psychology
2 E. J. REIFSTECK AND D. DAVIS BROOKS

Identifying the gap in existing practices

Many collegiate athletics departments offer general life skills programs, but these
programs are largely targeted at the transition into college and maintaining eligi-
bility, often focusing on study skills, time management, and substance abuse pre-
vention. Services related to the transition to life after college athletics are not as
common and usually focus on career transition. For instance, an athletics depart-
ment may partner with the university’s career services to provide resume-writing
workshops, conduct mock interviews to help student-athletes leverage their sport
experience on the job market, or host career fairs to connect employers with grad-
uating student-athletes. However, similar efforts to provide life skills programming
that specifically promotes health-related physical activity and the long-term well-
being of transitioning student-athletes are rare, despite the potential health conse-
quences for student-athletes who may drop from very high levels of activity to inac-
tivity following retirement from a sports career (Witkowski & Spangenburg, 2008).
This existing gap in programming may in part reflect a commonly held perception
that most student-athletes already value physical activity and will therefore con-
tinue to be active throughout their lives. However, some evidence suggests this is
not always the case. For instance, Sorenson and colleagues (2015) found that while
current student-athletes reported significantly higher volumes of weekly exercise
and perceived exercise importance than their non-athlete peers, no appreciable dif-
ferences were found in either outcome between former student-athletes and non-
athlete alumni. As post-competition health and physical activity issues begin to gar-
ner increased national and organizational (i.e., NCAA) attention (Reifsteck, 2014;
Sorenson, 2014; Underhill, 2016), the present moment is prime for developing and
implementing health and wellness-focused transitional programs at the collegiate
level.
During their collegiate careers, student-athletes are accustomed to having the
support of coaches, strength and conditioning staff, sports medicine personnel,
and state-of-the-art facilities. When they no longer have access to these resources
or the structured schedule of collegiate athletics to support their daily training, it
should not be surprising that former student-athletes might struggle with maintain-
ing a physically active lifestyle after college without these environmental support
structures and external motivators (Ryan, Williams, Patrick, & Deci, 2009; Sallis,
Bauman, & Pratt, 1998). Further, athletes today are specializing in a specific sport
at earlier ages, which may limit their opportunities to engage in a variety of youth
sport experiences that might otherwise promote continued physical activity par-
ticipation in adulthood (Côté, Lidor, & Hackfort, 2009; Jayanthi, Pinkham, Dugas,
Patrick, & LaBella, 2012; Malina, 2010; Tammelin, Nayha, Hills, & Jarvelin, 2003).
Additionally, the majority of the population is generally unaware of the recommen-
dations for weekly physical activity levels to achieve health benefits (Bennett, Wolin,
Puleo, Mâsse, & Atienza, 2009; Kay, Carroll, Carolson, & Fulton, 2014), and there is
no evidence to suggest that student-athletes are any more knowledgeable than non-
athletes about these guidelines. Without the requisite knowledge of healthy physical
 JOURNAL OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION 3

activity or the experience and competence to engage in varied activities outside of

their specific sport, former student-athletes may struggle to plan for and adopt a
health-enhancing, life-long exercise routine.

Developing an evidence-based physical activity transition program

SEP practitioners working in collegiate athletics settings are well positioned to
play a leading role in planning and delivering effective life skills and mental skills
education to support student-athletes. However, few model programs exist to
provide SEP practitioners with a blueprint for implementing applied strategies that
support student-athletes in transition. To improve existing practices and help col-
lege student-athletes transition from highly structured and competitive collegiate
athletics to lifetime physical activity, we developed the Moving On! program. In the
sections that follow, we outline the theoretical framework underlying this program
and describe how we developed and implemented it on two college campuses.
Our program can help SEP practitioners apply effective strategies to support the
holistic development of student-athletes beyond their involvement in competitive
sport. In doing so, practitioners can better ensure that student-athletes are able to
effectively move on from the structured environment of collegiate athletics, but
also keep moving in order to achieve a physically active and healthy lifestyle after
college.

Development of program content and strategies

Our program is grounded in a theory-based conceptual model connecting identity,
motivation, and physical activity. According to identity theory (Burke & Reitzes,
1981; Stryker & Burke, 2000), identity functions to self-regulate behavior. When
sport, exercise, and physical activity are central to a person’s self-identity, he or
she is more likely to engage in those activities (Brewer, Van Raalte, & Linder,
1993; Kendzierski & Morganstein, 2009; Reifsteck, Gill, & Labban, 2016; Strachan,
Woodgate, Brawley, & Tse, 2005). When exercise is a valued component of an indi-
vidual’s self-concept, it plays an important role in maintaining future exercise behav-
iors (Anderson & Cychosz, 1994; Anderson, Cychosz, & Franke, 2001; Strachan,
Fortier, Perras, & Lugg, 2012; Vlachopoulos, Kaperoni, & Moustaka, 2011). “Athletic
identity,” which is rooted more specifically in competitive sport, is often the primary
source of self-identity for competitive athletes (Brewer, Van Raalte, & Linder, 1993).
Athletic identity may be related to participation in competitive sport training, but
may not be associated as strongly with lifetime physical activity participation (Reif-
steck, Gill, & Labban, 2016). Thus, developing a broader activity-based identity like
an “exercise identity” may be key to promoting lifelong physical activity outside of
sport. In other words, former student-athletes who view sport and exercise as an
important aspect of their self-identity, and especially those who see themselves more
broadly as a “physically active person” and not just, for instance, a “basketball player,”
are more likely to be physically active after college.
4 E. J. REIFSTECK AND D. DAVIS BROOKS

Former student-athletes who have developed or maintained these active identi-

ties after college are also more likely to have greater “self-determined” motivation
for physical activity, meaning that they value physical activity, it is part of who they
are, and it is consistent with their goals in life (Reifsteck, Gill, & Labban, 2016).
Self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan, Williams, Patrick,
& Deci, 2009) suggests that motivation exists along a continuum from being
motivated by external and controlling factors (e.g., running sprints because your
coach made you) to more self-determined and volitional reasons (e.g., running
because you want to achieve personally-valued health goals). When individuals
are motivated by self-determined rather than controlling reasons, they are more
likely to engage in and maintain the behavior over time (Edmunds, Ntoumani,
& Duda, 2006; Markland & Tobin, 2004; Thøgersen-Ntoumani & Ntoumanis,
2006). Fulfilling the basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and
relatedness can help individuals develop more self-determined motivation for
engaging in physical activity (Edmunds, Ntoumani, & Duda, 2006). Specifically, a
person is likely to have higher self-determined motivation if they feel in control,
competent, and connected to others through the activity. In particular, feelings
of competence must occur within the context of autonomy in order to enhance
intrinsic motivation. Alternatively, when the social context creates an environment
(e.g., via a controlling coach, presence of controlling external rewards) in which
physical activity experiences do not meet these needs, individuals may demon-
strate non-self-determined motivation or discontinue their participation altogether
(Ryan et al., 2009).
In general, people are less intrinsically motivated to participate in exercise com-
pared to sport (Ryan et al., 2009). This is especially likely to be an issue for student-
athletes who are transitioning out of college sport and losing other motivators to be
active such as scholarships, encouraging coaches, and supportive teammates. Fur-
ther, controlling sport environments have the potential to undermine feelings of
competence and autonomy required for sustained, internalized motivation for phys-
ical activity beyond the external pressures and rewards of college sports (Ryan et al.,
2009). However, individuals are more likely to maintain physical activity when the
behavior is integrated into their self-identity (Springer, Lamborn, & Pollard, 2013)
and when they are motivated by self-determined reasons (e.g., value and enjoy activ-
ity; Strachan et al., 2012).
Enhanced physical activity-related identity, motivation, and participation can
be fostered through targeted intervention programs (e.g., Caruso & Gill, 1992;
Strachan et al., 2012; Strachan & Whaley, 2013; Ryan et al., 2009). Stephan,
Bilard, Ninot, and Delignieres (2003; 2007) argued that implementing transi-
tional programs might prevent an abrupt change in physical activity that could
threaten an athlete’s identity, self-worth, and long-term health. Translating this
research into practice, the Moving On! program content and specific strategies
were designed to foster a broader active-based identity and self-determined moti-
vation for physical activity among student-athletes as they transition out of college
(see Table 1).
 JOURNAL OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION 5

Table . Program components and strategies.

Components Objectives Program strategies

Identity Explore impact of transition on Reflection activity followed by group

identity and cultivate physical
activity-related self-perceptions
beyond sports.
Self-determined Develop competence in a wider
motivation: range of lifetime physical
Competence activities and build self-efficacy
for maintaining physical activity
after college.
Self-determined Encourage choice in activities to
motivation: promote personal agency in
Autonomy developing a physically active
lifestyle.
Self-determined Encourage social support and
motivation: create connections to others
Relatedness through physical activity
participation in order to increase
self-determined motivation.
Knowledge about Increase knowledge about physical Student-athletes are provided with physical
physical activity activity guidelines and benefits
guidelines to promote greater intentions to
participate in long-term physical
activity.
Goal setting and physical Adopt effective goal setting
activity promotion practices. Create action plans
strategies that identify potential barriers to
maintaining physical activity and
behavioral strategies to
overcome barriers.
discussion provides the opportunity to
explore likely identity changes through the
transition (e.g., Who I am now; Who I would
like to be). Student-athletes are prompted
to consider the role that physical activity
will play in their future lives.
Each session includes a guided physical
activity that is transferable to life after
college and requires minimal equipment or
resources. Activities are designed to be fun
and provide opportunities to develop new
skills.
Discussion activities are guided by a program
facilitator but emphasize student-athletes’
self-determination by choosing their own
goals and developing their own action
plans for physical activity participation.
Discussion activities are designed to promote
interaction among the student-athletes.
Exercises are group-based and encourage
positive shared experiences through
physical activity.
activity and health-related education. An
interactive presentation tests
student-athletes’ current knowledge about
physical activity guidelines and the
benefits of regular physical activity.
Student-athletes learn how exercise
intensity is measured and have the
opportunity to practice assessing their
heart rate during physical activity.
Student-athletes are provided with guidelines
on “SMART” goal setting strategies.
Student-athletes practice setting weekly
physical activity goals and record their
activity in a log. Guided discussion
activities also challenge student-athletes
to create an action plan for how they will
integrate physical activity in the future.

Program description

We implemented a pilot version of our program for the first time in Spring 2015.
The initial prototype was designed for senior student-athletes (or those who have
otherwise exhausted their eligibility or sustained a career-ending injury) with con-
tent delivered through four 1-hr sessions. The first session included an introduction
to the college sport transition and an overview of physical activity benefits, risks,
and recommendations. Session 2 encouraged student-athletes to explore their
current identities, the impact that transitioning out of competitive sport is likely
to have on their identities, and especially how physical activity and health fit with
their views of themselves for the future. Session 3 emphasized effective goal-setting
practices and strategies for overcoming barriers to enhance student-athletes’ con-
fidence in their abilities to maintain an active lifestyle after college. In this session,
student-athletes practiced setting their own (i.e., autonomous) physical activity
goals for the future and created action plans for achieving those goals, which should
6 E. J. REIFSTECK AND D. DAVIS BROOKS

improve perceptions of competence when met. Session 4 connected content from

each of the previous sessions and focused on planning for the transition out of
college and staying physically active.
Guided physical activity demonstrations were built into each of the four sessions
to provide active experiences with varied lifetime physical activities like yoga and
dancing that can, with some modification, be performed across the lifespan using
minimal equipment or resources. The goal of these physical activity experiences was
to expand participants’ knowledge of physical activity options and what “counts”
as exercise. Through their participation in the physical activity demonstrations,
student-athletes discovered that health-related physical activity differs from the
competition-focused training they engaged in as student-athletes, and they learned
to redefine physical activity as something that can be fun and health-enhancing.
These demonstrations focused on choice and skill development in order to promote
feelings of autonomy and competence so that student-athletes might be more likely
to pursue alternative physical activity options that they can continue to participate
in after college. We have found that actually engaging in these activities first-hand,
rather than simply being informed of available options, reifies these concepts for the
student-athletes. To foster a sense of relatedness (i.e., connection with their peers),
all sessions were conducted in a group-based format where the student-athletes had
the opportunity to share their experiences with similar peers also facing the immi-
nent transition out of college sport by discussing their common challenges, fears,
expectations, and goals.

Ongoing development and evaluation

Prior to implementing the pilot version of the program with current student-
athletes, content and materials for the program were reviewed by former student-
athletes who provided insights about their own transition experiences. Former
student-athletes were asked about how their physical activity has changed since leav-
ing college, why they are physically active or inactive, and how they would design a
program to promote physical activity participation after college.
After reviewing and incorporating feedback from former student-athletes, the
program was then piloted in the standard four, 1-hr session format outlined above
and in a modified 4-hr, half-day workshop with small groups of current student-
athletes at a Division I university and a Division III college.1 Feedback was solicited
from program participants through evaluation ratings, as well as through separate
focus group interviews. Average evaluation ratings based on a 5-point scale (1 =
strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree) suggested that the program increased par-
ticipants’ knowledge (4.75), and that they enjoyed their experience in the program
(4.92), felt more prepared to transition to a physically active lifestyle after college
(4.77), and importantly, would highly recommend the Moving On! program to their
peers (4.92). Participants greatly valued the resources provided in the program,
expressed their appreciation of the program activities and structure, and offered

 Research for this project was approved by the Institutional Review Board.
 JOURNAL OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION 7

few suggestions for improvement, with most comments indicating a demand for
expanding the duration, content, and frequency of the program sessions. Given that
student-athletes are concerned by the time demands of college sports participation
(National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2016), the desire for even greater time
spent in a program like this one likely reflects student-athletes’ perceived need for
and prioritization of transitional resources.
Scheduling challenges within the college athletics environment likely precludes
the feasibility of offering many additional program sessions; thus, to balance demand
with feasibility we have since extended the length of each session from 60–90 min.
We made these revisions based on our findings and experiences from this initial pilot
implementation in order to optimize future impact and delivery of the program. One
key revision resulting from the pilot was to add a component focused on healthy eat-
ing behaviors. In the pilot, both athletics department administrators and student-
athlete participants recognized the important role that nutrition plays in a healthy
lifestyle and that, like physical activity, nutritional needs for post-competitive ath-
letes vary from those of current student-athletes. Targeting physical activity and
nutrition together is a natural combination, and we have now expanded the program
to include additional content and resources addressing healthy eating behaviors.
The conceptual model underlying the updated program, which prepares student-
athletes for making healthy transitions to life after college sports, emphasizes the
roles of self-identity and self-determined motivation in promoting health behav-
iors. Specifically, the Moving On! program helps student-athletes plan for a healthy
lifestyle after college through program content and strategies designed to (1) help
student-athletes develop positive health-related self-perceptions beyond college
sports and (2) enhance self-determined motivation for lifetime physical activity and
healthy eating behaviors.
We have since conducted a second pilot implementation in spring 2016, and
a preliminary outcomes assessment is underway to evaluate the extent to which
the program influences self-perceptions and self-determined motivation, which are
affected by the transition out of competitive sport and, in turn, may impact health
behaviors. To promote program adoption and sustainability, we also developed a
facilitator guide and student-athlete workbook that direct program participants and
leaders through discussion activities. A companion website housing educational
content and resources has been created to support program participants and facil-
itators, as well as to provide continuing support and resources for former student-
athletes (http://athletesmovingon.org/).

Practical recommendations
Based on the current literature and our own experiences delivering a transition pro-
gram, we believe that there are important ways that SEP consultants, coaches, and
other sport professionals can support student-athletes in making healthy transitions.
We summarize a few “take-home” recommendations for promoting healthy physical
activity that extends beyond an athlete’s competitive playing career.
8 E. J. REIFSTECK AND D. DAVIS BROOKS

r Expand physical activity identity to include a focus on health. SEP professionals

can encourage the athletes whom they work with to learn to see themselves
beyond their sport-specific identities by emphasizing the value of being active,
physically competent people who model health behaviors for their community.
For many elite athletes, “health” is measured by one’s ability to compete, and
athletes are often willing to sacrifice their physical health in order to continue
competing (Theberge, 2007). Consequently, when transitioning into their post-
competitive lives, athletes may not be prepared to pursue physical activity for
health-related reasons rather than solely performance reasons. In-depth group
discussions through educational workshops can help student-athletes re-orient
their perceptions of health. Cultivating this broader identity with a focus on
health can be reinforced through ongoing conversations about how physical
activity fits with student-athletes’ current views of themselves and vision for
the future outside of their roles as competitive athletes.
r Foster self-determined motivation. The environment of competitive athletics
tends to rely on a highly external reward structure in which student-athletes are
motivated by scholarships, playing time, winning, and praise or punishment
from their coaches. Coaches can help athletes shift to more self-determined
motivation by de-emphasizing these external regulators and instead offering
variety, choice, and new options in athletes’ training regimens. For instance,
coaches can work together with strength and conditioning staff to provide
cross-training opportunities in the off-season that enable student-athletes to
expand their interest and skills in a variety of activities beyond their spe-
cific sport. Coaches, strength and conditioning specialists, and athletic training
staff can also support student-athletes in developing greater ownership of their
training. Providing multiple options that achieve the desired outcome while
allowing athletes some choice in the process is an important transferable skill
for life after sports. After college, most student-athletes will no longer have
a team of coaches and support staff telling them what to do or how to do it,
so it is important for student-athletes to learn how to plan and choose activi-
ties for themselves. Adding this element of choice can foster more enjoyment
and motivation for the activity by including student-athletes in the decision-
making process. While shifting towards a more autonomous climate may be
challenging within the culture of highly competitive collegiate sport, several
practical coaching strategies can be incorporated to enhance athlete motiva-
tion and performance (see Mageau & Vallerand, 2003).
r Plan ahead. As with any life or career transition, student-athletes face some
significant challenges when they finish their college sports career. SEP consul-
tants and other sport professionals working closely with student-athletes can
start an ongoing conversation early on in the individual’s athletic career to bet-
ter prepare student-athletes for this inevitable transition while providing them
with emotional support as they navigate the process. Engaging in these early
conversations can encourage student-athletes to consider potential challenges
ahead of time and identify strategies to help them plan accordingly.
 JOURNAL OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION 9

Conclusion
The physical and mental health benefits of physical activity participation
depend upon maintaining healthy behaviors throughout the lifespan (Sarna, Sahi,
Koskenvuo, & Kaprio, 1993; Sorenson et al., 2015). Participating in transition pro-
grams may encourage the adoption of an active lifestyle beyond college, and thus
promote the physical and mental health benefits of continued regular physical activ-
ity for student-athletes (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2008).
Sport and exercise psychology practitioners and other sport professionals can play
a proactive role in supporting positive transitions out of sport by adopting simi-
lar strategies in their work with student-athletes. Additional research and programs
utilizing applied sport and exercise psychology frameworks are needed in order to
establish best practices for professionals working to promote optimal health and
well-being among athletes at all levels as they transition out of their competitive
sport careers.

Funding
Research for this project was conducted with the support of the NCAA. Any opinions, findings,
and conclusions are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National
Collegiate Athletic Association.

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