Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Sudil Paudyal, RT
THE LOADING BENCH (Dry bench):
The dark room must always be kept clean and tidy. The chemicals used during processing can
damage the cassettes the films and even wood or concrete. On one side of the darkroom there
should be a dry workbench for films, clean film hangers, film boxes and cassettes. The hands
must be dry when working at this bench. It contains an area for loading and unloading film
holders, a cassette transfer cabinet, a film bin, compartments for cassettes and exposure holders,
storage for hangers, a wastepaper receptacle, and storage for processing materials.
Loading Area. The length of the loading bench depends
on the volume of work and the space available. The
minimum length of the working surface should
accommodate two 14 by 17-inch cassettes, side by side,
to permit unloading and reloading of two cassettes.
Preferably, it should be long enough to accommodate at
least four 14 by 17-inch cassettes, side by side, to
preclude piling of cassettes. The working surfaces shown
in figure require approximately 96 inches, exclusive of
transfer cabinet and dryer space. The bench should be
about 36 inches high and 24 inches deep. A strip of one-
half by one-inch molding placed lengthwise and six
inches from the back edge of the bench anchors the
cassettes while they are being opened and closed and
keeps them at the front of the bench within the working Darkroom loading bench
area of maximum efficiency.
Unloading the cassette:
Under safelights, the cassette is placed face downwards on the bench and the locking clip is
released. The cassette is then turned over and the front of the cassette is tipped so that the film
falls from the cassette well. The film is removed with the dry hand and the cassette closed.
Loading the cassettes:
Under safelights the cassette is placed face downwards on the bench and as before opened from
the back. The unexposed film, lightly gripped at its edge is lowered gently into the cassette well.
The cassette is closed by bringing over the back and engaging the locking lip.
Darkroom illumination:
This may be considered under two headings:
1. Ordinary white lighting
White lighting is necessary for the following tasks:
Servicing of equipment
2. Safelighting
While all film materials would instantly be fogged if exposed to white light, safelighting which is
the use of dim colored lighting provides sufficient illumination by which one can handle,
manipulate and process film. Providing exposure to such lighting is brief, no significant fogging
will occur. But it is to be noted that no safelighting is completely safe; all films will become
significantly fogged if exposed to safelights for ling enough.
INTRODUCTION
Image forming x-rays exit the patient and expose the radiographic intensifying screen placed in
the protective cassette. The radiographic intensifying screen emits light, which exposes the
radiographic film placed between the two screens. The emulsion of x- ray films must be
chemically processed to render visible and permanent the information recorded in the latent
image. Processing causes the silver ions in the silver halide crystals that have been exposed to
light to be converted into microscopic black grains of silver. The processing sequence comprises
the following steps: wetting, developing, rinsing in stop bath, fixing, washing and drying. These
processing steps are completed in an automatic processor. Film processing involves a number of
complex chemical reactions whose activity and efficiency are influenced by various factors
including temperature and pH of the chemical environment in which the reactions take place.
Before the introduction of automatic film processing, x-ray films were processed manually. All
radiographic processing is automatic today. The chemicals involved in both are basically the
same. In automatic processing, the time for each step is shorter and the chemical concentration
and temperature is higher.
FILM PROCESSING
The latent image is invisible because only a few silver ions have been changed to metallic silver
and deposited at the sensitivity center. Processing the film magnifies this action many times until
all the silver ions in exposed crystals are converted to atomic silver, thus converting the latent
image into a visible radiographic image.
The exposed crystal becomes a black grain that is visible microscopically. Processing is as
important as technique and positioning in preparing a quality radiograph. A change in
recommended processing conditions should never be a substitute for a poor radiographic
exposure because the result is always a higher patient dose.
PROCESSING SEQUENCE
Radiographic film processing involves several steps which are summarized as:
Event Purpose Approximate time
Manual automatic
• wear a proper mask that reduces inhalation of fumes – not the standard surgical mask that
only guard against particles and bugs.
• wear nitrite gloves. do not use surgical gloves; they only protect aganst biologic matter.
remember that photographic chemicals are designed to penetrate and thin rubber gloves
provide no guarantee of safety.
Super additive effect: the reducing effect of the combination of phenidone and
hydroquinone is much greater than the sum of the effects they produce when used
separately. This effect is known as super additivity or synergistic effect and is a
major advantage of PQ developers.
3. Accelerators: PQ developers need an alkaline medium to operate. The alkalinity of the
solution is established by the inclusion of a strong alkali such as potassium carbonate or
potassium hydroxide. The alkali is known is known as accelerator since its effect is to
accelerate the developing process.
4. Buffers: A buffer is chemical compound which has the effect if maintaining the pH of a
solution within close limits. The presence of buffering agents in developing solution
prevents the undesirable effects of changes in pH due to aerial oxidation of developer and
the acidic by-products of the development process. Normally adequate buffering action is
provided by the carbonates used as accelerators and the sulphides acting as preservatives.
Thus no additional buffering chemicals are necessary in most developing solutions.
5. Restrainers: the action of a restrainer is to modify the behaviour of the developing agents
so that they become more selective in their action. The effect is to reduce the tendency to
convert the unexposed silver halide grains to silver and prevent the chemical fogging.
The development process itself produces as by product potassium bromide, which is a
very effective restrainer.
6. Preservatives: potassium sulphite is a commonly used developer preservative.
Developing agents are easily oxidized and readily combine with atmospheric oxygen.
The function of a preservative is to reduce the oxidation of developing agents.
7. Hardeners: the gelatin in a film emulsion swells and softens when it absorbs water. In
automatic processor, excessive swelling must be prevented in order the film can be
transported successfully without jamming or being damaged by the roller mechanism of
processor. To minimize the swelling, powerful organic hardeners such as gluteraldehyde
is employed because they are effective in alkaline developer.
8. Sequestering agents: these are chemicals which prevent the precipitation of insoluble
mineral salts which tends to occur in hard water areas. Compounds based on EDTA
(ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid) are commonly included in developer for this purpose.
Starter solution
The manufacturer supplies developer replenisher for automatic processor in a concentrated liquid
form which requires dilution before it can be used in a processor. When the developer tank has
been refilled, the developer replenisher will be overactive and the first few films will be
overdeveloped. To prevent these undesirable effects, a starter solution is added to fresh
replenisher.
Developer replenisher + developer starter = working developer
In 90s processing cycle time, 26s is allowed for development.
Factors affecting development:
The production of optical decsity and radiograpihic coantrast can be used as a measure if the
efficacy of the development process. The factiors which influence the quantity and quality of
development can be described as:
1. Constitution of developing solution: the image density produces depiends on the amount
of metallic silver formed in the film emulsion.for a particular exposuter this depends on
the emulsion characteristicas and developer activity. Developer activity is influenced by:
7 min 130
3.5 min 68
110 s 30
90 s 26
• Developer temperature:
FIXING:
Fixing is the second stage in automatic processing. It has four main functions:
1. To stop any further development
2. To clear the image by removing the remaining silver halide from the emulsion
3. To fix the image i.e. to render it chemically stable so that it undergoes no further changes
Component Chemical Function
Crossover racks are out of solution and bridge the gaps between developer and fixer, fixer and
wash, and wash and dry sections of the processor. Crossover rollers must be kept free of
crystallized solutions that can cause film artifacts as the soft emulsion passes by. The last set of
rollers in each solution section has a squeegee action on film emulsion, thus removing excess
solution before film enters the
next tank. When the processor is not in use for a period of time, it is advisable to leave the lid
open so that moisture can escape. Because the crossover rollers are out of solution, chemicals
carried onto them by film can crystallize and should be cleaned off before the processor is used
again.
Turnaround assemblies are located at the bottom of the deep racks and serve to change the film
direction as it changes from downward to upward motion. Guide shoes, or deflector plates, are
also located where film must change direction. They will occasionally scratch film, leaving
characteristic guide-shoe marks, when they require adjustment.
When returning rollers to the processor after cleaning, care must be taken to seat them securely
in their proper position. Transport problems (processor jam-up) will result if racks are
misaligned.
REPLENISHMENT SYSTEM
As films travel from one processor solution section to another, chemical solution is carried away
in the swollen film emulsion. It is the function of the processor replenishment system to keep
solution tanks full. If solution level is allowed to lower, film immersion time decreases and
radiographic density and contrast changes will occur. Transport problems can also arise from
inadequate replenishment; that is, if insufficient developer replenisher, the inadequate addition of
hardener will result in excessive emulsion swelling. The essentially “thicker” film has difficulty
transporting between the closely distanced rollers.
As film travels through the fixer, it accumulates residual developer solution; fixer solution also
accumulates unexposed silver cleared from the emulsion. Wash water accumulates fixer. In these
ways, the activity of each solution is depleted through continual use. Diminished solution
activity can have the same effects as low solution levels. The replenishment system assures that
proper solution concentration
is maintained.
TEMPERATURE REGULATION
The temperature regulation system functions to control the temperature of each section of the
automatic processor. Developer is the most important solution temperature to regulate; in a 90-
second processor, developer temperature is usually maintained at 92◦F to 95◦ F. Once the correct
developer temperature is established, it must be constantly maintained. Even a minor fluctuation
(i.e., 0.5◦F) in developer temperature can cause a visible change in radiographic density and
contrast.
RECIRCULATION SYSTEM
As replenishment chemicals are added to solution, the recirculation system provides agitation
necessary for uniform solution concentration. As temperature adjustments are made, the
recirculation system agitates solution to promote temperature uniformity. Agitation provided by
the system also functions to keep fresh solution in contact with film emulsion. The recirculation
system also functions to filter debris, such as gelatin particles, from the solutions.
The dryer section functions to remove water from the film by blowing warm, dry air over the
film surface. Dryer temperature is usually 120◦F to 130◦F, sufficient to shrink and dry the
emulsion without being excessive. Excessive heat and overdrying can cause film damage. If
films emerging from a properly heated dryer are damp, the problem may be excessive emulsion
swelling and water retention as a result of inadequate developer or fixer replenisher (hardener).
SILVER RECOVERY
X-ray film is expensive and can represent a large part of a radiology department annual budget.
Approximately half of the film’s silver remains in the emulsion after exposure and processing.
The other half (unexposed silver) is removed from the film during the fixing process, and most
of it is recoverable through silver recovery methods. A drain is connected to the fixer tank, and
fixer is allowed to flow directly into a silver recovery unit or to a large centrally located
receptacle.
Silver recovery is desirable for financial and ecological reasons.
Fixer silver is toxic to the public water supply and environmental legislation makes persons
responsible for its direct passage into sewer lines, or other means of improper disposal, subject to
severe fines and penalties.
There are three types of silver recovery methods. Used fixer enters a metallic displacement (or
metallic replacement) cartridge and metallic silver is precipitated onto the steel wool within. This
method of silver recovery is most useful for low-volume locations.
Electrolytic silver recovery units (cells) pass an electric current through the fixer solution,
causing silver to be plated onto the cathode cylinder of the unit. The silver is periodically
removed by scraping it from the stainless steel cathode. Electrolytic cells are best used in
locations having medium-to-high volume.
There are a number of chemicals that will precipitate metallic silver. In the presence of one of
these chemicals (e.g., sodium borohydride), metallic silver falls to the bottom of the tank and
forms a sludge. This method of silver recovery is generally used only by large institutions having
large, centralized receptacles or by professional silver dealers, who employ special techniques
for separating the sludge or removing the entire tank.
PROCESSOR MAINTENANCE
The biggest advantage of automatic processors is their contribution to radiographic consistency.
Testing and monitoring procedures serve to indicate potential problems before they arise.
Developer, fixer, and wash temperature should be checked twice a day. Preventive maintenance
is frequently provided for by a commercial cleaning and parts replacement service.
Sensitometry is the measure of film response to exposure and processing and is used to monitor
quality control. A particular box of film is designated for testing purposes only, and a special
device (sensitometer) is used to precisely and consistently expose the film. Once the film is
processed and its densities are read (with a densitometer) and compared to known correct
readings, any variation in film density must be owing to processor variation. If solution levels in
processor and replenisher tanks are frequently low, a bigger problem may exist and should be
brought to the attention of the processor service company. Preprocessed films should not be used
to clean rollers, because they may contain residual fixer that will contaminate the developer
solution. The more effective the processor quality control program, the less troubleshooting will
be required. Nevertheless, it is important that the radiographer be able to recognize and resolve
some common processor problems.
Damp films
• Dryer temperature too low
• Faulty dryer blower
• Inadequate fixing
• Inadequate developer replenisher (hardener)