JAINISM

 Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma, is an ancient, non-theistic, Indian religion,

founded by Jina Mahavira in the 5th century BCE
 Followers of Jainism are called "Jains", Jain connotes the path of victory in crossing over
life's stream of rebirths through an ethical and spiritual life
 Jains trace their history through a succession of 24 victorious saviours and teachers
known as Tirthankaras, first was Rishabhanatha and twenty-fourth being the Mahāvīra

 Main religious premises of Jainism are ahiṃsa, anekāntavāda, aparigraha (non-

attachment) and asceticism
 Devout Jains take five main vows: ahiṃsā, satya, asteya (not stealing), brahmacharya,
and aparigraha
 ‘The function of souls is to help one another’ is the motto and Ṇamōkāra mantra is the
basic prayer in Jainism

 Jainism has two major ancient sub traditions- Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras
 Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras have different views on ascetic practices, gender and
canonical texts
 Jainism has 4-5 million followers, major festivals include Paryushana and Daslakshana,
Mahavir Jayanti, and Diwali

Main Principles:
 1. Non-violence- Believes that one must abandon all violent activity, emphasizes non-
violence against all beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought
 Without commitment to nonviolence all religious behavior is worthless, non-violence is
one's highest religious duty
 All living creatures must help each other, violence negatively affects and destroys one's
soul, particularly when the violence is done with intent, hate or carelessness

 2. Many-sided reality- Anekāntavāda means ‘not one sided’, ‘many-sidedness’ and it

states that truth and reality is complex and always has multiple aspects
 Any attempts to express the experience is syāt or valid "in some respect" but it remains
a "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete"
 Spiritual truths are complex, have multiple aspects, and language cannot express their
plurality; through effort and appropriate karma they can be experienced

 3. Non-attachment- Aparigraha means non-attachment to worldly possessions; for

ascetics, Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property
 For laypersons, it recommends limited possession of property that has been honestly
earned, and giving excess property to charity
 Jainism views attachments to material or emotional possessions as what leads to
passions, which in turn leads to violence

Jain Ethics and Five Vows:

 Jain has access to a guru or Jina to make individual free from five offences: doubts about
the faith, indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism, sincere desire for Jain teachings,
recognition of fellow Jains, and admiration for their spiritual pursuits
 Ahiṃsā- To cause no harm to other human beings as well as all living beings; applies not
only to one's actions but to one's speech and thoughts also
 Satya- To always speak the truth, neither lie, nor speak what is not true; do not
encourage others who speaks an untruth

 Asteya- A Jain layperson should not take anything that is not willingly given; Jain
mendicant should ask for permission to take it if something is being given
 Brahmacharya- Abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures is prescribed for Jain monks
and nuns; for laypersons, the vow means chastity, faithfulness to one's partner
 Aparigraha- Non-attachment to material and psychological possessions; Jain monks and
nuns renounce property and social relations, avoid craving and greed

Traditions and Sects:

 Śvētāmbaras trace their practices and dress code to the teachings of Parshvanatha, the
23rd tirthankara; Digambaras believe in teachings of Mahāvīra
 Śvētāmbaras believe that he taught only four restraints; Mahāvīra taught Five vows,
which Digambara follow
 Śvētāmbara (white-clad) monastics wear seamless white clothes; Monks of the
Digambara (sky-clad) tradition do not wear clothes

 Digambaras believe that both Parshvanatha and Mahāvīra remained unmarried,

whereas Śvētāmbara believe the 23rd and 24th did indeed marry
 Digambara believe Rishabha, Vasupujya and Neminatha were the three tirthankaras
who reached omniscience while in sitting posture; Śvētāmbaras believe it was Rishabha,
Nemi and Mahāvīra who were the three in sitting posture
 Digambara monasticism rules are more rigid and their iconography is plain; Śvētāmbara
icons are decorated and colored to be more lifelike

Beliefs and Philosophy:

 1. Dravya (Substance)- dravya are fundamental entities called astikaya, means
'collection that exists'
 They are eternal, the ontological building blocks that constitute and explain all
existence, whether perceived or not
 There are five eternal substances - Soul (jiva), Matter (pudgala), Space (akasha), motion
(Dharma), rest (Adharma); Digambara tradition adds Time (kala)
 2. Jīva (Soul), Ajīva (Non-Soul)- Jiva means soul, soul is believed to be eternal and a
substance that undergoes constant modifications, in every birth of a living being
 Jiva consists of pure consciousness and has innate free will that causes it to act, is
believed to be intangible and formless, Jiva is everywhere, in every minuscule part of
the loka
 Soul experiences existence and gains knowledge; soul is the mechanism of rebirth and
karma accumulation; Ajiva consists of everything other than jiva

 3. Tattva (Reality)- Tattva connotes Reality/Truth, is the framework for salvation,

Digambara believe in seven tattvas while Śvētāmbaras believe in nine
 1. The sentient (jiva, soul), 2. The insentient (ajiva), 3. The karmic influx (Āsrava) to the
soul, 4. Good karma (punya, merits), found in the tattva theory of Śvētāmbara, but not
of Digambaras, 5. Bad karma (papa, negatives), found in the tattva theory of
Śvētāmbara, but not of Digambaras
 6. The bondage (Bandha) of karmic particles to the soul, thereby causing its change,
which cumulatively determines the future rebirths, 7. The stoppage (Saṃvara) of karmic
influx, 8. The dissociation and wiping away of past karmic particles (Nirjarā) from the
soul, 9. The liberation (Moksha)

Soul and Karma:

 The existence of ‘a bound and ever changing soul’ is a self-evident truth; there are
numerous souls
 Soul has three qualities (Guṇa)- consciousness (caitanya, the most important), bliss
(sukha) and vibrational energy (virya); the vibration draws karmic particles to the soul
and creates bondages
 Karma connotes the universal cause and effect law; is believed to obscure and obstruct
the innate nature and striving of the soul as well as its spiritual potential in the next
rebirth

Saṃsāra:
 In Jain traditions, soul (jiva) is accepted as a truth similar to as assumed in Hindu
tradition; however, Saṃsāra or the cycle of rebirths has a definite beginning and end in
Jainism
 The Jaina theosophy asserts that each soul passes through 8,400,000 birth-situations as
they circle through Saṃsāra; it goes through five types of bodies- earth bodies, water
bodies, fire bodies, air bodies and vegetable lives
 Souls begin their journey in a primordial state, and exist in a state of consciousness
continuum that is constantly evolving through Saṃsāra; some evolve to a higher state
while some regress; there exists a class of souls that can never attain moksha

Cosmology:
  Universe consists of many eternal lokas; Jain cosmology believes both time and the
universe are eternal without beginning and end, and the universe is transient
(impermanent in attributes) at the same time
 The universe, body, matter and time are separate from the soul (jiva or jivatman); their
interaction explains life, living, death and rebirth; the universe is divided into three
parts, the upper, middle, and lower worlds
 The cosmic wheel of time called kālachakra rotates ceaselessly; there are six periods of
time within two aeons (ara), in 1st aeon universe generates (happiness, prosperity), in
2nd it degenerates (sorrow, immorality); it is now the 5th ara (half time cycle of
degeneration)

God:
 The universe was never created, nor will it ever cease to exist; it is independent and self-
sufficient and does not require a creator, destroyer, superior or judge; Jainism rejects
the idea of a creator or destroyer god, postulate an eternal universe
 Believes in the world of gods and hell beings who born, die and reborn like living beings
in the earthly realm; souls who live in the body of a god do so because of their positive
karma; they have a metamorphic body and are able to change their body at will
 The gods live a life of happiness, fun and frolic whose wishes are automatically fulfilled;
they possess more transcendent knowledge about material things; but once their past
karmic merit is exhausted the souls leave the ‘god body’ and are reborn as humans or
animals

Salvation and Liberation:

 Purification of soul and liberation can be achieved through the path of three jewels
 Correct View- Faith in basic tenets of Jainism, acceptance of the self-evident truth of
soul; Correct Knowledge- Knowledge of the tattvas without any doubt or
misapprehension
 Correct Conduct- behavior consistent with the Five vows; the three jewels are called
moksha marg; the liberated pure soul (Siddha) goes up to the summit of universe

Scriptures and Texts:

 Jain scriptures are called Agamas; they are believed to have been verbally transmitted
by the oral tradition from one generation to the next
 Jain tradition believes that their religion is eternal; the teachings of their first
Tirthankara Rishabhanatha were their scriptures millions of years ago
 An araha (worthy one) speaks meaning that is then converted into sūtra (sutta) by his
disciples; from such sūtras emerge the doctrine

VAISHNAVISM
 Vaishnavism is one of the major traditions within Hinduism; its followers are called
Vaishnavas; it considers Vishnu as the Supreme Lord
 The tradition is notable for its avatar doctrine; Krishna is revered in one of many distinct
incarnations; ten avatars of Vishnu are the most studied
 The tradition has traceable roots to the 1st millennium BCE; as Bhagavatism or
Krishnaism; affiliated itself with Vedism in order to become acceptable to the orthodox
establishment

 Ancient emergence of Vaishnavism is unclear; syncretism of various traditions and

Vedism resulted in Vaishnavism; Vishnu of the Rig Veda also got assimilated into non-
Vedic Krishnaism
 Vaishnava tradition has many sampradayas; ranging from the medieval era Dvaita
school of Madhvacharya; to Vishishtadvaita school of Ramanuja
 Two main historical denominations of Vishnavism; the Bhagavats worship Vasudeva-
Krsna, are followers of brahmanic Vaishnavism; the Pacaratrins worship Narayana, are
followers of Tantric Vaishnavism

Beliefs:
 Theism with many varieties- Vaishnavism is centered on the devotion of Vishnu and his
avatars; polymorphic monotheism recognizes many forms of the one, single unitary
divinity
 Vaishnavism precepts include the avatar doctrine; Vishnu incarnates numerous times,
in different forms, to set things right and bring back the balance in the universe
 Madhvacharya’s Vaishnava sampradaya is a monotheistic tradition; Vishnu (Krishna) is
omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent

 Ramanuja’s Sri Vaishnavism sampradaya has monotheistic elements but differs in

several ways; goddess Lakshmi and god Vishnu are considered as inseparable equal
divinities
 Vallabhacharya’s Vaishnava sampradaya is a form of pantheism; it is in contrast to the
other Vaishnavism traditions
 Chaitanya’s Gaudiya Vaishnava is closer to a polymorphic bi-monotheism; both goddess
Radha and god Krishna are simultaneously supreme

 Vishnuism and Krishnaism- "Krishnaism" has been used to describe the sects focused on
Krishna; "Vishnuism" may be used for sects focusing on Vishnu in which Krishna is an
Avatar
 Vishnuism believes in Vishnu as the supreme being, manifested himself as Krishna;
Krishnaism accepts Krishna to be Svayam bhagavan, manifested himself as Vishnu
 The belief in the supremacy of Vishnu is based upon the many avatars of Vishnu listed in
the Puranic texts; differs from other Hindu deities such as Ganesha, Surya or Durga
 In Krishnaism or Bhagavatism branch of Vaishnavism (Gaudiya Vaishnava, Nimbarka and
Vallabhacharya traditions) Krishna is the One Supreme form of God based on Bhagavata
Purana; source of all avatars and Svayam Bhagavan
 Bhagavatas maintains that there are ten avatars of Vishnu, including Rama and Krishna
 Pancaratrins follow the vyuhas doctrine and says that God has four manifestations;
namely Vasudeva, Samkarsana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha representing ‘the Highest
Self, the individual self, mind, and egoism’

Texts and Scriptures:

 The Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Agamas are the scriptural
sources of Vaishnavism; other important texts are Mahabharata, Ramayana, texts by
various sampradayas
 The Vedanta schools of Hindu philosophy that interpreted the Upanishads and the
Brahma Sutra provided the philosophical foundations of Vaishnavism
 Given the ancient archaic language of the Vedic texts, each school's interpretation
varied, and this has been the source of differences between the sampradayas of
Vaishnavism

 These interpretations have created different traditions within Vaishnavism; from

dualistic Vedanta of Madhvacharya, to nondualistic Vedanta of Madhusudana Sarasvati
 Vaishnava-inspired scholars authored 14 Vishnu avatar-focused Upanishads called the
Vaishnava Upanishads; they present diverse ideas ranging from bhakti-style theistic
themes to a synthesis of Vaishnava ideas with Advaitic, Yoga, Shaiva and Shakti themes
 Bhagavad Gita is a central text in Vaishnavism; it is a summary of the classical
Upanishads and Vedic philosophy and closely associated with the Bhagavata and related
traditions of Vaishnavism

 Vaishnava Agamas- The Pancaratra Samhitas is a genre of texts where Vishnu is

presented as Narayana and Vasudeva; this genre of Vaishnava texts is also known as the
Vaishnava Agamas
 This doctrine is in stories within the Narayaniya section of the Mahabharata; Narayana is
presented as the ultimate unchanging truth and reality who pervades the entirety of the
universe and is asserted to be the preceptor of all religions
 The Pancaratra includes the theories of evolution of matter and life, cosmology,
methods of worship, tantra, Yoga and principles behind the design and building of
Vaishnava temples

Practices:
 Bhakti- Bhakti movement originated among Vaishnavas of South India during the 7 th
cent CE; spread northwards from Tamil Nadu through Karnataka and Maharashtra
towards the end of 13th cent
 Gained wide acceptance by the 15th cent throughout India; during era of political
uncertainty and Hindu-Islam conflicts
 The Alvars (those immersed in God) were Vaishnava poet-saints; they sang praises of
Vishnu as they travelled from one place to another, established temple sites; spread
ideas about Vaishnavism

 Their poems compiled as Divya Prabhandham developed into an influential scripture for
the Vaishnavas
 Vaishnava bhakti practices involve loving devotion to a Vishnu avatar (often Krishna), an
emotional connection, a longing and continuous feeling of presence
 Community practices such as singing songs together, praising or ecstatically celebrating
the presence of god together, usually inside temples but sometimes in open public are
part of varying Vaishnava practices

 Tilaka- Vaishnavas mark their foreheads with tilaka made up of Chandana either as a
daily ritual or on special occasions; different Vaishnava sampradayas have their own
distinctive style of tilaka each depicting the siddhanta of their particular lineage
 The general tilaka pattern is of a parabolic shape resembling the letter U or two or more
connected vertical lines on and another optional line on the nose resembling the letter Y
 This represents the foot of Vishnu and the centre vertical line symbolizing his manhood;
alternate interpretations suggest that the symbol is representation of male and female
parts in union

 Initiation- In tantric traditions of Vaishnavism, the initiation (diksha) is given by a guru to

the initiates to understand Vaishnava practices; the initiates accept Vishnu as supreme
 During initiation the disciple is traditionally given a specific mantra; the disciple will
repeat it either loud or within the mind
 The practice of repetitive prayer is known as japa; it is an act of worship to Vishnu or
one of his avatars

Traditions:
 Four sampradayas and other sects- The Vaishnavism traditions may be grouped within
four sampradayas; each exemplified by a specific Vedic personality
 They have been associated with a specific founder, providing the following scheme-
Brahma Sampradaya (Madhvacharya), Sri Sampradaya (Ramanuja), Rudra Sampradaya
(Vishnuswami, Vallabhacharya), Kumaras sampradaya (Nimbarka)
 They all revere an avatar of Vishnu; but have varying theories on the relationship
between the soul (jiva) and Brahman, on the nature of changing and unchanging reality,
methods of worship, as well as on spiritual liberation for the householder stage of life
versus sannyasa (renunciation) stage

Early traditions:
 Bhagvatas- The Bhagavats were the early worshippers of Krishna; the followers of
Bhagavat; the Pāñcarātra is the tradition of Narayana-worship
  The Vaikhanasas are associated with the Pāñcarātra but regard themselves as a Vedic
orthodox sect; mixture of Vedic and non-Vedic ritual worship
 The Smarta tradition developed during the Classical Period of Hinduism; Smartism
developed and expanded with the Puranas genre of literature
 The Alvars were twelve Tamil poet-saints of South India; espoused bhakti to the Hindu
god Vishnu or his avatar Krishna in their songs of longing, ecstasy and service

Contemporary traditions
 Sri Vaishnava- The Sri Vaishnava community consists of both Smarta Brahmans and non-
Brahmans; existed along with a larger purana-based Brahamanic worshippers of Vishnu,
and non-Brahmanic groups who worshipped and felt possessed by non-Vishnu village
deities
 In Gaudiya Vaishnavism, Gaudiya refers to the Gauḍa region with Vaishnavism meaning
‘the worship of Vishnu or Krishna’; its philosophical basis is Bhagavad Gita and
Bhagavata Purana
 The Varkari-tradition is a non-Brahamanical tradition which worships Vithoba, also
known as Vitthal, who is regarded as a form of Vishnu or Krishna
 The Ramanandi Sampradaya emphasizes the worship of Rama as well as Vishnu and
other incarnations; most Ramanandis consider themselves to be the followers of
Ramananda, a Vaishnava saint in medieval India

BUDDHISM

 Buddhism religion and philosophy developed from the teachings of the Buddha; teacher
who lived in northern India between the mid-6th and the mid-4th centuries BCE
 Spread from India to Central and Southeast Asia, China, Korea, and Japan; Buddhism has
played a central role in the spiritual, cultural, and social life of Asia
 Ancient Buddhist scripture and doctrine developed in Pali and Sanskrit; Buddhism
occupies the central position in the development of Indian philosophy

 Doctrines were systematized and details were worked; great attention came to be paid
to logic and epistemology
 Precise terminology was evolved; an immense shastra-literature came into being
 Indian philosophy became critical and richer; gained depth and comprehension

 Buddha used critical analysis as the way to truth; insisted on observation and reasoning
 Left metaphysical background free from the flight of the speculators; increased the
uncertainty about the ultimate foundation of things
 Experience according to Buddha was the only substantial datum open to us, the real
existence, the ultimate; though all thought must reckon with
 The empiricism of Buddhist schools is an intelligent application of the critical method to
experience itself
 The empiricism of Buddha led to a thorough criticism and disintegration of conventional
beliefs
 Through the pressure of logic rather than of set design, Buddhism resulted in different
schools of thought

The life of the Buddha:

 The teacher known as the Buddha lived in northern India sometime between the mid-
6th and the mid-4th centuries
 Title buddha referred to an enlightened being who has awakened from the sleep of
ignorance and achieved freedom from suffering
 Some Buddhists believe that there is only one buddha for each historical age, others
that all beings will become buddhas because they possess the buddha nature

 Names of Buddha- Siddhartha Gautama; the Buddha was born into the ruling Shakya
clan and was a member of the Kshatriya or warrior caste
 His early life was one of luxury and comfort; his father protected him from exposure to
the ills of the world, including old age, sickness, and death
 Siddhartha finally did experience evils; by encountering a sick man, an old man, a dead
man, and a wandering ascetic

 He determined immediately to renounce the world and seek enlightenment like the
ascetic; after years of fasting and other ascetic practices, he felt that he had achieved
nothing
 Siddhartha then sat down under a tree with the determination not to arise until he had
achieved enlightenment; the tree became the Bodhi tree
 The Buddha proceeded to Sarnath near Banaras and delivered his first sermon in Deer
Park; that set the Wheel of the Law, the Dharmacakra, in motion

Traditional concept of Buddhas:

 The belief is that the universe is the product of karma; the law of the cause and effect of
actions
 The beings of the universe are reborn without beginning in six realms as gods,
demigods, humans, animals, ghosts, and hell beings
 The cycle of rebirth called samsara is regarded as a domain of suffering; the Buddhist’s
ultimate goal is to escape from that suffering

 The means of escape remains unknown until a person perfects himself; ultimately
gaining the power to discover the path out of samsara
 Then reveals that path to the world; person who has set out to discover the path to
freedom from suffering and then to teach it to others is called a bodhisattva
 A person who has discovered that path, followed it to its end and taught it to the world
is called a Buddha; Buddhas are not reborn after they die but enter a state beyond
suffering called nirvana

 The historical Buddha is regarded as neither the first nor the last buddha to appear in
the world
 Sites associated with the Buddha’s life became important pilgrimage places
 Although the Buddha did not leave any written works, various versions of his teachings
were preserved orally by his disciples

The Buddha’s message:

 Suffering, impermanence- Buddha’s teaching was based on the fact of human suffering
and the ultimately dissatisfying character of human life
 Existence is painful; conditions that make an individual are precisely those that also give
rise to dissatisfaction and suffering
 Individuality implies limitation, limitation gives rise to desire, desire inevitably causes
suffering, since what is desired is transitory

 Karma- The belief in rebirth or samsara indicates a potentially endless series of worldly
existences in which every being is caught up; rebirth is associated with doctrine of
karma
 Good conduct brings a pleasant and happy result and creates a tendency toward similar
good acts; bad conduct brings an evil result and creates a tendency toward similar evil
acts
 Some karmic acts bear fruit in the same life in which they are committed; others in the
immediately succeeding one and others in future lives that are more remote

 The Four Noble Truths- Awareness of these fundamental realities led the Buddha to
formulate the four noble truths
 1. the truth of misery (dukkha), 2. the truth that misery originates within us from the
craving for pleasure and for being or nonbeing (samudaya)
 3. the truth that this craving can be eliminated (nirodhu), 4. and the truth that this
elimination is the result of following a methodical way or path (magga)

 The law of dependent origination- The law of dependent origination (paticca-

samuppada) signifies that one condition arises out of another which in turn arises out of
prior conditions
 In the chain of causes, there are 12 links- 1.ignorance, 2. karmic predispositions, 3.
consciousness, 4. form and body, 5. the five sense organs and the mind
 6.contact,7. feeling-response, 8. craving, 9. grasping for an object, 10. action toward life,
11. birth, and old age, 12. death
 The Eightfold Path- Misery pervades all existence and there must be a means to
overcome this process; the means to this end is found in the Eightfold Path
 1. Right Knowledge (or Views), 2. Right Resolve, 3. Right Speech, 4. Right Conduct (or
Action)
 5. Right Livelihood, 6. Right Effort, 7. Right Mindfulness, 8. Right Meditation (or
Concentration)

 Nirvana- The aim of Buddhist practice is to be rid of the delusion of ego; free oneself
from the fetters of this mundane world
 One who is successful in doing so is said to have overcome the round of rebirths
 The person achieves enlightenment; this is the final goal in most Buddhist traditions

Literature of Buddhism:
 Buddha wrote no books, there is vagueness about his teaching because it was gathered
from works compiled a long time after his death and cannot therefore be regarded as
exactly representing what he taught
 This literature includes the Pali Tipitaka (Three Baskets)- the Sutta Pitaka (Basket of
Discourse), the Vinaya Pitaka (Basket of Discipline), the Abhidhamma Pitaka (Basket of
Special Doctrine)
 The Sutta Pitaka contains the Buddha’s sermons, the Vinaya Pitaka contains the rule
governing the monastic order, the Abhidhamma Pitaka contains doctrinal
systematizations and summaries

Buddhist schools:
 The various views falling under later Buddhism are broadly classified under two heads-
Mahayana and Hinayana; signify respectively the ‘small way’ and the ‘great way
 The inferiority indicated by the word hina (low) were devised by the followers of
Mahayan
 Hinayan had an earlier origin but the distinction between two is not merely one of
chronology

 Theravada- The thervavada or the Sthaviravada school had convened the council of
Vaishali
 Developed during the second and first century B.C. into a number of schools,
Dharmaguptikas, Mahishasakas, Kashyapiyas,Sankrantikas
 The main branch of the thervada school was from the second century downwards
known as the Hetuvadins or Sarvastivadins

 The belief of this school was that the Buddha is gone, and individual practitioners must
work out their salvation on their own
 The Buddha was unique, and individual practitioners cannot become Buddhas, only
arhats (saints); there will be a future Buddha, Maitreya, but not for thousands of years
  Nirvana (liberation) and samsara (the place of death and rebirth) are definitely
different; Samsara is a place of suffering to be left behind and Nirvana is a liberation
that is free of death and rebirth but is beyond description and rational understanding

 Mahayana- Mahayana developed during 1st century AD to 6th century

 The belied of this school is that Gautama Buddha is not gone and individual practitioners
are not on their own
 The Buddha taught the dharma out of compassion and his compassion would prevent
him from being unavailable to practitioners now

 To emulate the compassion of the Buddha practitioners become bodhisattvas who vow
to carry all beings with them into salvation; Bodhisattvas are available like the Buddhas
to help people work out their salvation
 The Buddha was not unique and individual practitioners who have become bodhisattvas
can become Buddhas; there are already multiple Buddhas
 Nirvâna and samsâra are no longer different and Fourfold Negation is applied to their
relationship; Samsara and nirvana are neither the same, nor different, nor both the
same and different, nor neither the same nor different

 Vajrayâna- Vajrayâna Buddhism is also called Tantrik Buddhism

 The school developed between 6th to 11th century
 The vajra was originally the thunderbolt of Indra; in Vajrayâna it symbolizes the magical
power of Tantrism

 Tantric magic could be worked through mandalas, sacred diagrams, mantras, sacred
formulas for recitation and mudras, sacred gestures
 Tantric magic could be regarded as means of achieving liberation in addition to or apart
from meditative or meritorious practices
 Just as Hindu Tantrism expresses its magical power through goddesses like Kâlî,
Vajrayâna emphasizes female figure

Festivals of Buddhism:
 Buddha Jayanti or the Buddha Purnima celebrates the birth of Prince Siddharta on the
full moon night in the month of Vaisakh
 On the same day Prince Siddharta attained enlightenment and became the Buddha and
also attained parinibbana; both birth and death on Buddha Purnima
 Parinirvana Day or Nirvana Day is celebrated on 8 or 15 February; Buddha is said to
have achieved Parinirvana or complete Nirvana upon the death of his physical body

SAIVISM
 The origin of Saivism is lost in obscurity; Saivism is a blend of two lines of development-
the Aryan or Vedic and the Pre-Aryan
 Saivism is one of the four most widely followed sects of Hinduism; reveres Shiva as the
Supreme Being and followers are called Shaivas
 Belief that Shiva is all and in all; the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and
concealer of all that is

 While the Vedas are realized through vedic rishis; but Shaiva teachings are told by the
Shiva himself
 As per Shiva Sutras, Vasugupta (9th cent) received these verses in a dream by Shiva who
told him to go up to the top of a nearby mountain
 Find a rock there inscribed with the verses; entrusting him with the task of spreading
the non-dualism

 Shaiva tradition can be understood under the division of two streams of Hinduism-
Vedic (orthodox/ Brahmanical) and Tantric (non-orthodox)
 Rudra is a pheripheral deity in the vedic pantheon; lived away from Aryan community
and thus, is non-aryan or non-vedic
 Daksha represents Vedic tradition and he didn’t invite Rudra on the occasion of Vedic
sacrifice; later, Rudra was absorbed within the Vedic pantheon under the process of
Sanskritization

Different Forms of Shiva:

 Ardhanarishvara rupa- In the Ardhanarishvara form, one half of him is a fully developed
woman; it is said that if the inner masculine and feminine meet, you are in a perpetual
state of ecstasy
 Masculine and feminine does not mean male and female, these are certain qualities; it is
not two people longing to meet, it is two dimensions of life longing to meet- outside as
well as inside
 This is a symbolism to show that if you evolve in your ultimate context, you will be half a
man and half a woman, not a neuter but a full-fledged man and a full-fledged woman;
that is when you are a full-blown human being

 Kalabhairava- Kalabhairava is a deadly form of Shiva; when he went into a mode of

destroying time
 Shiva put on the right kind of costume and became Kalabhairava to create the Bhairavi
Yatana; Yatana means ultimate suffering
 When the moment of death comes, many lifetimes play out with great intensity;
whatever pain and suffering needs to happen to you, will happen in a microsecond
 Linga Puja- Linga is an abstract or an iconic representation of the Hindu deity Shiva; used
for worship in temples, smaller shrines, or as self-manifested natural objects
 The linga is rather seen as a symbol of the energy and potential of God, Shiva himself;
the lingam is often represented alongside the yoni, a symbol of the goddess or of Shakti,
female creative energy
 The union of lingam and yoni represents the ‘indivisible two-in-oneness of male and
female, the passive space and active time from which all life originates’

 Nataraj- Represents Shiva as the Lord of Dance; represents the exuberance and dance of
creation which self-created itself from eternal stillness
 Adiyogi- Siva not worshipped as God but the first Yogi from whom the yogic sciences
originated; Adiyogi transmitted these sciences to the Saptarishis, his first seven disciples
 Trayambakam- Referred Triambaka because of third eye which means that his
perception has reached its ultimate possibility; third eye is of vision, other two are just
sensory organs

History:
 Indus-Valley Civilization- Suggest to a deity akin to Shiva, Pashupati; suggests a
prototype of Shiva as yogi and Pashupati
 Shiva as Rudra in Rigveda- The earliest mentions of Rudra occur in the Rigveda, three
entire hymns are devoted to him; in the Rigveda, Rudra has been praised as the
‘mightiest of the mighty’
 He is ferocious, destructive, Lord of the Storms deity who attacks like ‘a ferocious wild
beast’; he is so beautiful, attractive, benevolent healer, cobbler of disease, lord of
cattles, lord of medicinal herbs

 Pauranic Shaivism & Shiva in Ramayan and Mahabharat- Shiva developed as a major
strand of Hindu religiosity during the Gupta Dynasty (320-500 CE)
 Stories of Purnas spread rapidly through the singers, reciters and composers of the
narratives
 Linga Purana and Shaiva Purana are the most important Shaiva purana

Major Schools/Sects of Shaivism:

 Pashupata- The oldest of the major Shaivite schools; dispute regarding founder- Lakula
or Shrikantha or deity Pashupati was the founder and Lakul was the incarnation of
Pashupati
 Rituals (Yajna and Karmakanda), Practice of sacrifice (Bali pratha), Shradha (performed
on the death anniversary) were strictly prohibited; five ashramas- Brahmacarya,
Grihastha, Vanaprastha, Sanyasa and Siddha were accepted while in vedic tradition
there were only four ashramas
 Only a Brahman man can be a pashupata ascetic; the ascetic practices include the
thrice-daily smearing of their bodies with ashes, meditation, and chanting the symbolic
syllable OM
 Some of the mystical practices gave rise to two extreme sects- Kapalika and Kalmukha;
the Kāpālika tradition was a non-Puranic, tantric form of Shaivism
 From 8th 13th century; who became notorious for their practices of esoteric rituals that
allegedly included both animal and human sacrifice
 They were successors of the Pashupatas, one of the earliest sects; the Kapalikas are
worshippers of Kapalin (shiv), the skull bearer, a name of Shiva

 The Kalamukhas or Black-Faced are so called because of the black mark, or tilak,
customarily worn on their foreheads
 The Kāpālika ascetic imitated his ferocious deity, covered himself in the ashes from the
cremation ground; propitated his gods with the impure substances of blood, meat,
alcohol, and sexual fluids from intercourse unconstrained by caste restrictions
 The Kāpālikas flaunted impurity rules and went against Vedic injunctions; the aim was
power through evoking deities, especially goddesses

 Shaiva Siddhanta- One of the most ancient schools of Saivism; considered normative
tantric Saivism and provides the normative rites, cosmology and theological categories
of tantric Saivism
 Its roots can be traced back to both Kashmir and southern India; it has a history of more
than 2000 years
 Have a dualistic dimension to Shaivism, the soul doesn’t ultimately become perfectly
one with Brahman but shares with the Supreme all excellent qualities

 Lingayat- Means the wearer of this Linga; worship the Ishtalinga as God.
 Rejects gender based discrimination, accepts theory of reincarnation and karma; only
vegetarian food is eaten, any kind of meat, alcohol is strictly prohibited
 The dead are buried in the Dhyana mudra (meditating position) with their Ishta linga in
their left hand

 Kashmir Shaivism- A householder religion, based on a strong monistic interpretation of

the Bhairava Tantras written by Kapalikas
 Kashmir Saivism claimed to supersede the dualistic Shaiva Siddhanta; this tradition
accept the Shaiva Tantras as their main scriptures
 The goal of Kashmir Shaivism is to recognize one's already existing identity with Shiva,
the deity who represents Universal Consciousness