Gambar Pacybits PDF

NAME: PRACTICUM:
JOHOR MATRICULATION COLLEGE

SEMESTER 2 2018/2019
SM025 MATHEMATICS 2
LECTURE: K1MS
VENUE:DKK4/DKK3
Knowledge of what is possible is the beginning of happiness.
MISS JADE 2018/2019

SM025 MATHEMATICS 2- CHAPTER 1 INTEGRATION CHAPTER 1
1.1 Integration of Functions

1.2 Integration of Trigonometric Functions
1.3 Techniques of Integration
1.4 Definite Integral
1.1 INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONS

 Integration as anti-derivative
 Basic rules of integrations
1
 Integration of exponential functions and
x
I. INTEGRATION AS ANTI DERIVATIVE
Anti derivative Derivative
F (x) f (x)
d 2 d 2 d 2
( x )  2 x, ( x  4)  2 x, ( x  2)  2 x
dx dx dx
 2x is the derivative , not only of x 2 , but also of x 2 plus any constant.

  2 x dx  x c  the integration of 2x is x 2 + c
2
d F ( x ) 
dx
 f ( x)  f ( x)dx  F ( x)  c
II. BASIC RULES OF INTEGRATION
Differentiation Integration
d
(ax)  a  a dx  ax  c
dx
d n1
( x )  (n  1) x n x n1
 x dx  c ; n 1
n
dx n 1
d
(ax  b) n1  (n  1)(ax  b) n (a) (ax  b) n1
 (ax  b) dx  (n  1)a  c
n
dx
 af ( x) dx  a  f ( x) dx
  f ( x)  g ( x) dx   f ( x) dx   g ( x) dx
1
Example 1: Evaluate the following.
x 2
3
5
a) dx c) dx
1 x
b) x 3
dx
d) x
1
7
dx
 1 
  3x   5 x  dx
 3 
2
a)
x 2
 c) x  2 x 3  x 2  2 dx
x 2  5x  1
 7  d)  dx
b)   x  3 x  2  dx x
 (2 x  1) 4 2  5 x dx
2
a) dx c)
 3 
b)  (2  7 x)
3
dx
d)   (2 x  1) 3
 1  2 x  dx

1
III. INTEGRATION OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS AND
x
Differentiation Integration Integration

 
d ex  e dx  e  c
x x
e axb

ax b
 ex e dx  c
dx a
 
d ax ax a mx n
 a dx  
mx n
 a x ln a x
c a dx  c
dx ln a m ln a
d ln x  1 1 ln ax  b
dx

x  x dx  ln x  c 1
 ax  b dx  a
c
x dx if n  1
n
special case for

a)  e 2 x dx  e 
 e 2 x e 2 x dx
x
e)
e ex  e2x
4 x 1
b) dx
f)  e x dx
 4e
5 3 x
c) dx
3
1 x
d) dx
2
1 1 3
a)  2 x dx b) 
3x  1
dx c) 
1  2x
dx
Exercise 1 : Find:
1
a.  dx e.  e 45 x dx
(2  3x) 3
1 5
b.  2  3x dx f. 
6  7x
dx
 (4 x  1) dx g.  1  2 x dx
2
c.
 4 dx
2 x 1
d.
1.2: INTEGRATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

 Formula of integration of trigonometric functions
 The use of double angle formula
 The use of compound angle formula
I. Formula of integration of trigonometric functions
Differentiation Integration Integration
d sin x  sin( ax  b)
 cos x  cos x dx  sin x  c  cos(ax  b) dx  a  c
dx
d cos x  cos(ax  b)
  sin x  sin x dx   cos x  c  sin( ax  b) dx   a  c
dx
d tan x  tan(ax  b)
 sec x dx  tan x  c
2
 sec2 x  sec (ax  b) dx  a  c
2
dx
a)  sin 2 x dx c)  cos 3x  3sin x  dx

    x 
b)  3 cos 4 x  2  dx d)   sec
2
3x  5 cos    dx
 2 
3
II. The Use of Double Angle Formula
cos 2 A  sin 2 A

cos 2 A   2 cos 2 A  1
 1  2 sin 2 A

sin 2 A  2 sin A cos A
 sin x dx  6 sin 2 x cos 2 x dx

2
a) d)
 cos 2 x dx  sin 3x cos 3x dx

2
b) e)
 2 sin x  2 cos x dx

2 2
c)
III. The Use of Compound Angle Formula:
sin( A  B)  sin A cos B  cos A sin B
cos( A  B)  cos A cos B  sin A sin B
a)  sin x cos 2 x  sin 2 x cos x  dx

b)  sin 2 x sin 3x  cos 2 x cos 3x  dx
Exercises 2: Find:
 sin 3x  cos 2 x  dx  sin 5 x cos 2 x  cos 5x sin 2 x  dx

2
a) d)
 sin (3x)dx  sin x sin 2 x  2 cos x  dx

2 3
b) e)
c)  sin x cos x dx
4
INTEGRATION Chapter 1
1.3 Techniques of Integration
 Substitution method
 Integration by parts
 Method of partial fractions
I. Substitution Method of Integration
To evaluate the integral  f g ( x) g ' ( x)dx where f and g ' are continuous functions.
Steps of substitution method of integration:
Choose Substitute and Integrate Replace u

and differentiate u to to obtain with respect by in
get the integral to u. the result.
Example 9: Use suitable substitution to evaluate the following.
 2 x 1  x  dx.
2 5
a)
Step 1: u  1 x2
Chose u, the differentiation du
of u part of the integrand.  2x  du  2 xdx
dx
Step 2:
Substitute u  g (x) and
du  g ' ( x)dx to obtain  2 x 1  x  dx   u
2 5 5
du
 f (u )du.
Step 3: u6
Integrate with respect to u.  c
6
 1  x 2   c
Step 4: 1 6
Replace u. 6
 cos 2 sin 2  3 d .
4x 3
b) x 1
2
dx. f)
x
 2x  1e dx.  1  x dx.
x2  x g)
c)
et 1
d)  1  et
dt. h)  1 e x
dx.
1  ln x 2 dx.
e)  x
5
Exercises 3: Use suitable substitution to evaluate the following

a)  xx2  3 dx.
ln x
e) 
4
dx.
x ln x  x
x  1x  1dx.
3
b)  y 1  y 2 dy. f) 
1
t
c)  t  2e t dt. g) 1 dt.
t
cos 
d)  d .
1  sin 
II. Integration by Parts
d uv dv du
The formula for integration by parts comes from the product rule, u v
dx dx dx
dv d uv du
which can be written as u  v .
dx dx dx
Integrate both sides with respect to x,
d uv
dx   v dx or equivalent to  udv   d uv   vdu.
dv du
 u dxdx   dx dx
The integration-by-parts formula is
Rules for choosing u and dv

For u: LoPET (logarithmic, polynomial, exponential, trigonometric function)
For dv: the function can be integrated either by using formula or substitution method.
Steps of integration by parts:
Choose Differentiate Replace u, v and dv Evaluate the remaining integral

u and u and into the formula either by using formula or
dv. integrate dv. techniques of integration.
6
Example 10: Evaluate the following by using integration by parts.
 xe
x
a) dx.
Step 1:
x - polynomial ux dv  e x dx
e x - exponential function
du
1  dv   e
x
dx
Step 2: dx
Differentiate u and integrate dv du  dx v  ex
Step 3:
 xe dx  xe   e
x x x
dx
Substitute into the formula  udv  uv   vdu
Step 4:  xe x  e x  c
Evaluate the remaining integral
 
b)  cos 2  3 d .
c)  ln x dx.
 ln x  dx. (PSPM 2008/2009)

x
d)
e)  x  1 x  1 dx.
 ln x  dx.
2
f)
Exercises 4: Use integration by parts to evaluate the following.
x
3
a) ln( 3x)dx.
x
2
b) e x dx.
 x1  x  dx.
7
c)
Alternative for Integration by

part. Want to know? Be focus
during Miss Jade’s Lecture
7
III. Method of Partial Fractions

The method of partial fractions is used to integrate the rational function.
The integrand is a proper Decompose into Integrate the sum of partial

fraction and the denominator sum of partial fractions by using formula or
is factorised completely. fractions. substitution method.
Example 11: Use partial fractions to evaluate the following.

x 2  2x  4
a)  (2 x  1)x 2

1
dx.
Step 1: x 2  2x  4 x 2  2x  4

Proper fraction
 
(2 x  1) x 2  1 (2 x  1)( x  1)( x  1)
x 2  1  ( x  1)( x  1)
Step 2: x 2  2x  4 A B C
Decomposion: three   
(2 x  1)( x  1)( x  1) 2 x  1 x  1 x  1
factor in the
denominator, means x 2  2 x  4  A( x  1)( x  1)  B(2 x  1)( x  1)  C (2 x  1)( x  1)
three partial 7
x  1 : 1  2  4  0  2B  0  B 
fractions 2
1
x  1 : 1  2  4  0  0  6C  C 
2
1 1 3
x :  1  4   A  0  0  A  7
2 4 4
Step 3: x  2x  4
2
7 7 1
Integrate the sum of  (2 x  1)( x  1)( x  1)dx   2 x  1  2( x  1)  2( x  1) dx
partial fractions
 ln 2 x  1  7
 7    ln x  1  1 ln x  1  c
2  2 2
 
 x 1 
7
1
 ln ( x  1)  c
2  2x  1
x2  x 1 5x 2  4 x  3 x 1
b)  (2 x  1) x 2  2 x  1 dx.
 
c)  ( x  1) x 2  3 dx.
 
d)  ( x  1) 3
dx.
Exercises 5: Evaluate the following.

x x5 2x  2
a) x 2
 x6
dx. b) x ( x  1)
2
dx. c)  ( x  1)x 2
1
dx.
8
1.4 Definite Integrals
 Properties of definite integrals

 Area of a region
 Volume of a solid of revolution
If f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and F(x) is the anti derivative of f, then
 f ( x)dx  F ( x)  F (b)  F (a ).

b
a
a
I. Properties of Definite Integrals
Properties Example
b 3
 cdx  c(b  a)
a
 2dx  23  (1)  8
1
 2 x  e dx   2 xdx   e dx  x   e 
b b b 1 1 1
  f ( x)  g ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   g ( x)dx

x x 2 1 x 1
0 0
a a a 0 0 0
 (1  0)  (e  1)  2  e
b b  
 cf ( x)dx  c  f ( x)dx 2 2 
a a  3sin xdx  3 sin xdx  3 cos x02

0 0
 3 0  (1)   3
a 
 f ( x)dx  0 4 
xdx  tan x4  1  1  0
 sec
2
a
 4
4
 3x dx   3x dx  3x dx  x   x 
c b c 2 1 2
 f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx

2 2 2 3 1 3 2
0 1
a a b 0 0 1
where a  b  c  (1  0)  (8  1)  8
 
2
Compare :  3 x 2 dx  x 3
2
0 80 8
0
If f ( x)  0 for a  x  b , f ( x)  x 2  1
b
f ( x)  0 for 1  x  3
then  f ( x)dx  0 3
 x3 
 
3
x  1 dx    x 
a 2
1 3 1
 1  20
 (9  3)    1  0
3  3
9
Example 12:
4 4
 1 
a) If   f ( x )  dx  ln 4 , find  f ( x )dx.
3
x 1 3
3
x
b) Evaluate 
0 x2 1
dx.
2
c) Use substitution method to evaluate t t 2  1 dt. (PSPM 2010/2011)
3
1
1
d) Find  3xe
3x
dx.
0
2
e) Evaluate  x  1 dx.
0
3
e x , x 1
f) Find 
0
f ( x) dx if f ( x)  
x  1 , x  1
Exercises 6: Evaluate the following.
 x 
3
a) 2
 2 x  1 dx
2

6
cos
b)  1  sin  d
0
e2
1
c)  xx
e
2
1
dx (PSPM 2002)
3
d)  3  x  2 dx
1
 xe x x 1
2
,

3
e)  g ( x)dx if g ( x)   ln x 2 (PSPM 2009/2010)
1  , x 1
 x
10
II. Area of a Region
The area of the region between y1 = f (x) and y2 = g(x) from x = a to x = b,

(Integration w.r.t.. x)
where y1 > y2 is
b
y A    y1  y 2  dx
Area
a
b
A
   f ( x)  g ( x)  dx
a
x
a b
The area of the region between x1 = f (y) and x2 = g(y) from y = a to y = b,

(Integration w.r.t.. y)
where x1 > x2 is
b
y
A    x1  x 2  dy
Area
b b
A    f ( y )  g ( y )  dy
a a
x
Example 13:
Find the area of the region between the curve of y = 8x – 2x 2, x = 2, x = 3 and the x-axis.
Example 14 :
Find the area of the region between the curve of y = x2 – 4x, the x-axis and the lines x = 0 and
x = 4.
Example 15 :
Sketch the graph of the curve x = y(2 – y) and find the area between the curve, the y-axis and
the lines y = 0 and y = 2.
11
III. Volume of a Solid of Revolution
Let y1 = f(x) and y2 = g(x) with f(x) ≥ g(x) be continuous functions on [a, b] and R
be the region bounded by y1and y2 from x = a to x = b. The volume of the solid
(Rotation about the x-axis)
generated by revolving R about the x-axis through 2π radians is

y
 
b
V    R 2 ( x)  r 2 ( x) dx,
Volume
R( x)  outer radius, r ( x)  inner radius.
 
b
V    y1  y 2 dx
2 2
a 
b x
a
  f ( x) 
b
  g ( x) dx
2 2
Let x1 = f(y) and x2 = g(y) with f(y) ≥ g(y) be continuous functions on [a, b] and R
be the region bounded by x1and x2 from y = a to y = b. The volume of the solid
generated by revolving R about the y-axis through 2π radians is
(Rotation about the y-axis)
 
b
b V    R 2 ( y )  r 2 ( y ) dy
Volume
 
b
V    x1  x 2 dy
2 2
  f ( y ) 
b
  g ( y ) dy
2 2
a a
Example 16:
The curve y  x , the line x = 4 , and the x–axis form the sides of a bounded region R.
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving R about the
i) x-axis
ii) y-axis
Example 17: (Combination Area and Volume )

a) Find the area bounded by
i) the curves y = x 2 and y = – x 2 + 6x
ii) the curve y 2 + 2 = x and the line y = x – 8.
12
1
b) Shade the region bounded by the curves y  , y  x and y  2.
x
Find, in terms of , the volume of the solid generated when the region is rotated
through 360 about
i) the x–axis. (PSPM 2003) ii) the y–axis.
ln x
c) Let f ( x)  , 1  x  e.
x
i) Find the area of the region bounded by f (x) and the x–axis.
ii) Hence, find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region 2 radians
about the x–axis. Give the answer in terms of e and .
(PSPM 2005/2006)
d) PSPM2006/2007)
O x
4x
In the figure above, R is the region bounded by the line y  3  x, the curve y 
1 x
and the y–axis. Find
i) The area of R.
ii) The volume of solid obtained when R is rotated through 360 about the
x–axis. Give the answer in terms of .
Exercises 7:
a) Find the area bounded by the curve y  sin 4 x, the x–axis and the lines x  0 and

x .
4
b) Find the area bounded by the curve y  e x , the y–axis and the line y  2.
4
c) Find the volume obtained when the region bounded by the curve y  3  , the x–axis
x
and the lines x  3 and x  6 is rotated through 360° about the x–axis.
d) Find the volume generate when the area bounded by the curve y  x , the y–axis and
the lines y  2 and y  5 is rotated through 360° about the y–axis.
13
Suggested Answers
Exercise 1:
1
c 4 2 x 1 1
3
a) d) c g)  (1  2 x) 2  c
6(2  3 x) 2 4 ln 2 3
1 1
b)  ln 2  3x  c e)  e 45 x  c
3 5
1 5
c) (4 x  1) 3  c f)  ln 6  7 x  c
12 7
Exercises 2:
1 x 1 1
a)  cos 3x   sin 4 x  c c)  cos 2 x  c
3 2 4 4
x 1 1
b)  sin 6 x  c d)  cos 3x  c
2 12 3
e) 2 sin x  c
Exercise 3:
 
1 3
1 2 5 2
a) x 3 c c)  e  c
t
f) ( x  1) 2 (3 x  7)  c
10 15
3 d) ln 1  sin   c
4 
 
3 2
b) 1  y 2  c e) ln x  ln ln x  1  c g) t  2 t  2 ln 1  t  c
9  

Exercise 4:
a)
x4
4 ln 3x 1  c  
b) e x x 2  2 x  2  c c)
1
(1  x) 8 (8x  1)  c
16 72
Exercise 5:
a)
3 2
ln x  3  ln x  2  c  
c) 2 ln x  ln x 2  1  c
5 5
x 5
b) 6 ln  c
x 1 x
Exercise 6:
31 b) ln 2 1 e2 1
a) c) 1  ln 4
3 2 e 1
Exercise 7:
1  89 
a) c)   24 ln 2 
2  3 
b) 2 ln 2  1 3093
d) 
5
14
Properties Formula of Integration of Functions










where a < b < c

Substitution Method
Partial Fractions
u is chosen such that the derivative of u
is part of the integrand.
 is proper fraction
Integration by Parts  is factorised completely

 Decompose into sum of partial fractions

u – LoPET

dv – can be integrated
15
SM025 CHAPTER 2 FIRST ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Topic Outline:
2.1 Separable Variable

2.2 First Order Linear Differential Equation
2.3 Applications
2.1 Separable Variable
Introduction of Differential Equation
Terms Definition
Differential A differential equation is an equation that contains variables x and y, with at
Equation (DE) least one derivative of y with respect to x.
Order The highest derivative in the equation
Degree The highest power of the highest derivative
General solution The general solution of a DE contains a constant c
Particular The particular solution of a DE contains specified initial value and has no
solution constant
Example 1
Find the order and the degree of the following differential equations
Differential Equation Order Degree
ds
a)  3t  5
dt
b) xy' ' ( y ' )  y  0

3 2
2
 dy 
c)    y 2  sin x
 dx 
2
 d3y 
3
d) sin x 3   x   0

dy
 dx   dx 
16
METHODS FOR SOLVING FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Method 1: Separating the variables
This method only works for differential equations which can be rearranged to the form .
The variables can then be separated out:  g ( y)dy   f ( x)dx .

Example 2
Find the solution of the following Differential Equations
dy
a) y  3x 2  2
dx
dy tan x
b) 
dx y
dy
c) e x2 y  e y 2 x , y(0)  0
dx
 t  1v, v(0)  3
dv
d)
dt
2.2 First Order Linear Differential Equation
SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS WITH INTEGRATING FACTORS
This method works if the differential equation can be rearranged to the form
dy
 P( x) y  Q( x) .
dx
dy
Rearrange the differential equation to the form  P( x) y  Q( x) .
dx
Find the integrating factor: I ( x)  e 
P( x) dx
.
 dy 
1 Multiply through by the integrating factor: I ( x )
○   P ( x ) y   I ( x )Q( x ) .
 dx 
2 This can written as
○
d
I ( x) y   I ( x)Q( x) .
dx

3 The solution therefore is I ( x) y  I ( x)Q( x)dx .
○
Example 3
Find the solution of the following Differential Equations
dy dy
a)  y  ex b) x  y  x 3 sin 2 x
dx dx
sin 
2

c) x  4
dy
dx
 2 xy  x  2 d) y'
y

tan tan
, , y(0)  0
17
2.3 Applications
Types of model of DE
Example 4 (Population Growth)
Assume that the population of the earth changes at a rate proportional to the current
population.
a) Write the DE satisfied by the population
b) In 1990 the population was estimated to have been about 3.9 million and in 2000
about 5.3 million. By solving the DE and fitting this data, estimate the population at
any time t.
c) Hence, estimate the population in 2020.
Example 5 (Newton’s Law of Cooling)
Under certain conditions, the rate of cooling of an object varies with the difference
between the temperature of the object and room temperature. Given that the temperature
of the object at any time t is  and the constant room temperature is  0 , write down a DE
to describe the rate of cooling of the object. Given further that the room temperature is
20oC,
a) find a general solution of this DE.
b) If it takes 12 minutes for the object to cool from 100oC to 50oC, find the time taken
for the object to cool from 50oC to 25oC.
18
Example 6 (Radioactive Decay)
The rate of decay of radioactive substance varies with the mass of the substance
remaining. Write a DE that represents this relationship. If the mass of the substance
remaining after 10 years is half of the original mass, what is the percentage of the
substance remaining after 7 years?
Example 7 (Electric Circuit)
An electric circuit contains a power source with a times dependent voltage of E t  volts,
a resistor with a constant resistant R ohms and an inductor with a constant inductance of
L henrys. The current I t  amperes flows through the circuit is given by the equation
 RI  E t 
dI
L
dt
If R=12, L=3 and I(0)=0, Find I(t) if E(t)=4
what happens to the current after a long period of time?
Example 8 (Linear Motion)
A small steel ball bearing is dropped at rest into an oil tank. The velocity , v cms-1, after
time t is given by the DE
 52  v 
dv
dt

a) Show that v  2 1  e
5t
. 
b) Sketch the graph of v  21  e 5t  .
3
c) Show that the distance travelled by the steel ball bearing after 3 s is about 5 m .
5
Example 9 (Past Year Question)
a) The amount Q(t) of radioactive substance present at time t in a reaction is given by the
dQ
differential equation  kQ where k is a positive constant. If the initial amount
dt
of the substance is 100mg and is decreased to 97mg in 6 days, determine
(i) The half-life of the substance.
(ii) The amount of radioactive substance present after 30 days.
b) Find the general solution to the differential equation
1  x dy  y  1  x .
dx
19
SM025 MATHEMATICS 2- CHAPTER 3 NUMERICAL METHODS
3.1 Solutions of Non-Linear Equations

3.2 Newton-Raphson Method
3.3 Trapezoidal Rule
Introduction
- Numerical Method is a method for finding roots of any equations having numerical
coefficient.
- Finding root means finding the value of x where the graph of y = f(x) intersects the x axis.
- For any equations, there may be one or more than one solution / root.
 No formula exists for roots of f(x) = 0, where f(x) is a nonlinear function;

ITERATION METHODS will be used to compute approximate roots.
BUT
 Iteration methods construct a sequence of numbers x1, x2, . . . , xn, xn+1, . . .
that converge to a root of f(x) = 0.
 3 major issues with implementation of an iterative method:

i. Where to start the iteration?
ii. Does the iteration converge, and how fast?
iii. When to terminate the iteration? Miss Jade 2018
So, we have to resort to Numerical Methods.

The diagram below shows the brief overview of Numerical Method.
20
3.1 SOLUTIONS OF NON-LINEAR EQUATIONS
I. Locate approximately a root of an equation.
3.1.1. Solve the following:

Solution
Equations
(Algebraic Method)
Linear 2x  x  1 3
a) 2 x  1  x  3
equation x4
x2  2x  3  0
b) x 2  2x  3  0 ( x  1)( x  3)  0
x  1,  3
x3  8  0
Non-linear c) x 3  8  0 x3  8
equation x2
d) x 3  e x  0 No algebraic method exists
e) x  sin x  1 No algebraic method exists
3.1.2. Sometimes it may not be possible to solve an equation using simple algebra (eg: d and e
above). However, there are methods that can be refined to give solutions to the
equations. The methods are called Numerical Methods.
3.1.3. The two most important approaches in Numerical Methods are

i) Graphical method
ii) Algebraic method
3.1.4. The main point here is to locate an approximate root of an equation f ( x)  0 .
3.1.5. Steps in approximating the root of an equation using Numerical Methods :
3.1.6. To determine initial value, x1 of the root of f ( x)  0 , it can be found approximately by

either of the two methods :
21
Finding 1st approximation value  x1
Method 1: Graphical Approach
Case I (1 function)
i. Sketch the graph of y = f (x).

ii. An intersection occurs at the x  axis .
iii. Root = value of x that makes y = 0 (i.e.
graph cuts the x-axis)
Case II (>1 function)
i. Rewrite f(x) = 0 in the form F(x) =

G(x).
ii. Plot (or sketch) y =F(x) and y =

G(x).
iii. Root = x coordinate of the point of
intersection of the two functions.
Method 2 : Algebraic Approach
i. Find two values a and b such that f(a) and f(b) have different signs.
Example: f (x) = lnx + x – 2
f (1) = ln1 + 1 – 2 =–1<0 The root is between x = 1 and x = 2,

f (2) = ln2 + 2 – 2 = 0.69 > 0
x1= 1.5
3.1.7 Conclusion
Graphical method : The intersection implies that there is a root.
Algebraic method : f(a) and f(b) have opposite signs. Therefore the root lies between a
and b.
22
Example 1
Question Graphical Method Algebraic / Analytical Method
Find the
approximate value
of the equation
ln x  4  x
Example 2
Show that the equation x 3  x 2  1  0 has only one real root which lies between 0 and 1.
Example 3
The root of the equation 2 x  e  x  0 lies between x = a and x = b. Find the values of a and b.
23
3.2 NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD
I. Find the root by the Newton-Raphson
3.2.1 The Newton Raphson method is a technique for finding the solution (zeroes) of a
function by iteration using tangents to find a better approximation to the root of an
equation.
3.2.2 How to derive the formula for Newton-Rapshon Method :
From the above graph, the exact estimate of f(x) = 0 is x = r.

Newton Raphson method says that you can :
1) Pick a starting estimate, x1.
2) Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve at x1, (L).
3) L intersects the x – axis at x2.
4) Repeat the process with x2 as the next estimate, and continue until you achieve
desired accuracy.
3.2.3 Let x0 be the approximation to the exact root, x1. The tangent at (x1, f (x1)) intersects the
x-axis at x2.
The equation of the tangent : y  f x1   f ' x1 x  x1 
The point of intersection of the tangent line and the x-axis is (x2, 0) :
y0
f  x1 
0  f  x1   f '  x1  x2  x1   x2  x1  
f '  x1 
f  x1 
x2  x1 
f '  x1 
f  x2 
x3  x2 
f '  x2 
Therefore the iterative Newton-Raphson formula is
f  xn 
xn  1  xn 
f '  xn  24
3.2.4 Step to finding the root by using Newton-Raphson Method
Step 1 : Show your function f (x) has a root at a, b using graphical or algebraic
method.
Step 2 : Find an initial value, x1
Step 3 : Find f (x) & f ' ( x)
f  xn 
Step 4 : Start iteration xn 1  xn 
f '  xn 
f ( x1 )
x2  x1 
f ' ( x1 )
f ( x2 )
x3  x2 
f ' ( x2 )
(Stop iteration after successive approximations fixed number of steps)
Step 5 : Conclusion : The root of f(x) is x = ______
Example 5
Show the equation 2 sin x  x  0 has only one real root at interval 1, 2. Use the Newton-
Raphson method to find the solution of the equation 2 sin x  x  0 . Give the answer correct to
three decimal places.
Example 6
Using the Newton-Rapshon method, find the real root of x  1  x 6 given that a root lies between
x  1 and x  2 . Give your answer correct to three decimal places.
Example 7
The root of the equation 3e  x  xe x  1  0 lies between x  a and x  b . Find the values of a
and b. Apply the Newton-Raphson method to solve the equation 3e  x  xe x  1  0 . Give the
answer correct to four decimal places.
Example 8
Use the Newton-Raphson method to find an approximate value of 3 15 . Give your answer
correct to three decimal places.
Example 9
Find the solution for the equation 2  x  ln x correct to three significant figures by using the
Newton-Raphson method.
25
EXERCISES
1
1. By taking 0.2 as first approximation find the root of the equation, x 2   4  0 giving your
x
answer to three significant figures by using the Newton Raphson method.
2. By taking x  2 as the first approximation, calculate using the Newton-Raphson method

for 71/3 correct to three significant figures.
3. Show that there is a real root for cos x  x between x  0.5 radian and x  1 radian. Hence,
find the real root correct to four decimal places using Newton-Raphson Method.
4. Use the Newton-Raphson method to find an approximate root of the equation 2e x  cos x
in the interval (5, 4) correct to four decimal places.
5. Show that the equation 2 x  3 ln( x  1) has a root in the interval 1< x < 2 and use the
Newton-Raphson method with an appropriate first approximation to find the value correct
to three decimal places.
Answers:
1. 0.246
2. 1.92
3. 0.7391
4. -4.7300
5. 1.144
26
SM025 MATHEMATICS 2-CHAPTER 4 CONICS
4.1 Circles
4.2 Ellipses
4.3 Parabolas
Introduction to Conics
A conic section is the intersection of a

plane and a cone. By changing the angle
and the location of intersection,
a circle, parabola, ellipse or hyperbola is
produced.
4.1 Circles
Gradient of Tangent  M1
y  y1  m( x  x1 ) Gradient of Normal  M 2
ax  by  c  0 M2  
1
Equation of straight line M1
Distance between 2 points
d  x1-x2   (y1  y 2 ) 2
Perpendicular distance 2
ax  by  c
d
a 2  b2
b2  4ac  0
b2  4ac  0
(Do not intersect)
(Touch/2 equal roots)
PRIOR b2  4ac  0
KNOWLEDGE (Intersect /2 distinct roots)
27
I. Definition of Circle
A circle is a set of all points in a plane

equidistant from a given fixed point
called the center.
Completing the square
Standard Equation of Circle General Equation of Circle
(x  h)2  (y  k)2  r 2 x 2  y 2  2 gx  2 fy  c  0
Center C = (h, k ) Center C = ( g , f )
Radius = r Radius = g2  f 2  c
Expansion
Example 1: (Circle passing through two given points)
Find the equation of the circle having AB as diameter where A is the point (1,8) and B is
the point (3,14).
Example 2: (Circle passing through three given points)
Find the equation of the circle passing through the points (9 , −7), (− 3 , −1) and (6 , 2).
Example 3: (The equation of a circle passing through two points with the equation of the
diameter given)
Find the equation of the circle passing through the points (1,1) and (3,2) and with diameter
y  3x  7  0 .
28
Example 4: (The points of intersection of two circles )
Find the intersection between the two circles below

x2  y 2  2x  3  0
x2  y 2  6x  3  0
Example 5: (Intersections between the circle and line)
Find the intersections between the circle x 2  y 2  10 and line y  2 x  5 .
II. Equation of tangent to a circle
Suppose we have a general equation of a circle x 2  y 2  2 gx  2 fy  c  0 , then the

tangent to the circle at point P x1 , y1  is xx1  yy1  g ( x  x1 )  f ( y  y1 )  c  0 .
TANGENT
P ( x ,y )
1 1
C( −g , −f )
Example 6: (Determine the equation of tangent and normal)
Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the circle x 2  y 2  8 x  6 y  8  0 at the point
P(3 , 1).
The Length Of The Tangent To A circle

The length of the tangent from a fixed point P( a, b) to a circle with
equation x 2  y 2  2 gx  2 fy  c  0 is the length of TP ( denoted by d ).
T d = length of tangent P (a , b )
r
By Pythagoras Theorem on ▲ CPT
C (−g, −f ) TP  CP 2  CT 2
29
Example 7: (Find the length of tangent)
Find the length of the tangent from the point A (6,7) to the circle x 2  y 2  2 x  8 y  8 .
S1: Find the length of PC
S2: Pythagoras Theorem d 2  r 2  CP 2
d 2  (CP ) 2  r 2
d  (CP ) 2  r 2
Exercises
1. The centre of a circle lies on the line y   x  1 and the line x  2 y  15  0 is a tangent to the
circle at the point (1,7) .
a) Find the center and the radius of the circle. Hence, find the general equation of the circle.
 31 
b) Determine the value of  if the length of the tangent from the point   ,  to the
 3
circle is 115 .
c) Show that the line y  7  x and the circle do not meet.
4 7 245
(Answer: a) C ( , ) , r  , 3x 2  3 y 2  8 x  14 y  60  0
3 3 3
10
b)   @ 6 c) b2  4ac  344  0 )
3
2. A circle which lies in the first quadrant touches the x –axis, y-axis and the straight line
3x  4 y  20  0 . The point F (12,4) lies on the straight line. Find
a) the equation of the circle

b) the length of the tangent from the point F to the circle
c) the equation of another tangent from the point F to the circle
( Answer : a) ( x  5) 2  ( y  5) 2  25 b) 5 c) 4 x  3 y  60 )
30
4.2 Ellipses
Definition:
An ellipse is the sets of all points on a plane such that the sum whose distances from two fixed points
F1 and F2 (foci) is constant

PF1  PF2  2a
P
O a
F1 F2
a  b  c2  a 2  b2 b  a  c 2  b2  a 2
Completing
the square Standard Equation
General Equation
Ax 2  By 2  Cx  Dy  E  0  x  h 2   y  k 2 1
a2 b2
31
Horizontal Major Terms & Definition Vertical Major Axis

Axis
Centre
C h, k  The intersection between the major axis and C h, k 
minor axis
F h  C , k  F h, k  c 
Foci
Two fixed points on the major axis
Vertices
Vmajorh  a, k  The intersection between the ellipse with Vmin or h  a, k 
Vmin or h, k  b  major axis ( Major Vertices ) and minor axis Vmajorh, k  b
( Minor Vertices )
Length of Major Axis
2a 2b
Major Axis-the line passing through the foci
Length of Minor Axis
2b Minor Axis-the line passing through the 2a
centre and perpendicular to the major axis
Example 8:
Find the centre, vertices foci, major and minor axis for the following ellipse and sketch its graph
x2 y2
a)  1
25 9
x2 y2
b)  1
16 25
c)
x  22   y  52 1
4 16
Example 9:
Find the centre, vertices and foci of the ellipse. Hence, sketch the graph
a) 4 x 2  y 2  16 x  10 y  25  0
b) x 2  2 x  4 y 2  16 y  8
Example 10:
Determine the equation of each ellipses and sketch its graph:

a) Centre at (1,3); vertex at (5,3), focus at (3,3)
b) Vertices at (-3,-2) and (-3,6) ; focus at (-3,4)
c) F1   2,3 and F2  4,3 and the length of the major axis is 10 units
d) Centre at (-1,-2), focus at (-1,5), passing through the point (3,-2)
32
4.3 Parabolas
Parabola
Parabola with symmetrical axis Parabola with symmetrical axis

parallel to x axis parallel to y axis
Open right (p > 0) Open left (p < 0) Open upward ( p > 0) Open downward ( p< 0)
)
( y  k ) 2  4 p ( x  h) Equation ( x  h) 2  4 p ( y  k )
V (h, k ) V (h, k )
Vertex
F (h  p, k ) F (h, k  p)
Focus
xh p Directrix yk  p
Definition : A parabola can also defined as locus of points which are equidistant from a given
point (the focus) and a given line (the directrix).
33
Example 11:
Find the vertex, focus and directrix of the followings parabolas and sketch the graph.
1 2
a) y  x
8
b) ( y  2) 2  12 ( x  3)
c) ( x  1) 2  5( y  2)
Example 12:
Find the equation of a parabola that has vertex at origin, opens left and passes through the point
P(−5,4).
Example 13:
Write down the equation of the parabola below in standard form and state the coordinates of the vertex,
focus and the equation of the directrix. Hence, sketch its graph.
a) x 2  8 x  4 y  12  0
b) y 2  8 y  2 x  22  0
Example 14:
Find the equation of a parabola which satisfies the following conditions, vertex (−1,−2) ,
its axis is parallel to the y-axis and the parabola passes through the point (3,6).
Exercise
1. A gigantic gate to the entrance of a theme park in the shape of a parabola is constructed on the
level ground. The horizontal distance between the end points of the gigantic gate is 20 metres
and the maximum height from the ground is 5 metres. Calculate the height of the gigantic gate at
a horizontal distance of 4 metres from one of the end points.
( Answer: 3.2 metres)
34
SM025 MATHEMATICS – CHAPTER 5 VECTORS
5.1 Vectors in three dimension

5.2 Scalar product
5.3 Vector product
5.4 Applications of vector in geometry
5.1 Vectors in three dimension
Introduction
Diagram Definition
A vector is a quantity having both magnitude and direction.
Vectors may be represented by using directed line segments

or arrows.
I. Types of vector
diagram Formula / notes

Types of Position
vector vectors OP  xi  y j  z k
 x, y , z
 x
 
  y
z
 
Displacement AB  OB  OA
vector
Free vector
Zero vector The zero vector denoted

O  0,0,0 by O, have magnitude zero
and no specific direction.
35
diagram Formula / notes

Types of Equal vector
vector Two vectors are equal if
they have the same
magnitude and the same
direction.
Negative vector If a is any nonzero vector,

then  a the negative of a
is defined to be the vector
having the same
magnitude as a but
oppositely directed.
Parallel vector Two non-zero vectors a

and b are parallel if one is
a scalar multiple of the
other, that a   b , where
 is a scalar.
Perpendicular
vector If vector a and b are
perpendicular, hence the
angle between a and b is
90o.
ab  0
Magnitude The length of
vector OA  xi  y j  z k
OA  x 2  y 2  z 2
Unit vector A unit vector in  OA

the direction of OA 
OA
OA
36
II. Operation on vectors :
Given operation diagram

Addition uv
(Triangle Law)
Subtraction uv
Scalar 1
2u  v
multiplication 2
37
Diagram formula
Direction cosines x
cos  
OP
y
cos  
OP
z
cos  
OP
Direction angle x
  cos 1
OP
y
  cos 1
OP
z
  cos 1
OP
Example 1:
Are the following quantities vectors or scalar?

Question Answer explanation
a The cost of theater ticket.
b The current in a river.
c The population of the world.
The initial flight path from Terengganu
d to Johor.
Example 2:
What is the relationship between the point 4,7,1 and the vector 4,7,1 ? Illustrate with a
diagram.
Example 3:
If A(2, 5, 7) and B(4, -3, 2) are two points in space. Find

a)
b)
c) Unit vector in the direction of .
d) all vectors of length 3 that has the same direction as AB .
38
Example 4:
Given a  2,3,1 , b  4,1,3 , c   3,5,2 and d  19,2,5 .

Find
a) 3a  2b  4c
b) 3a  2b  4c
c) Unit vector in the direction of 3a  2b  4c
d) The value of α and β when
d  a  3b  c
e) direction cosines of a.
f) direction angle of a.
Example 5:
Show that the vectors a  1,2,1 , b   2,1,3 and c  1,3,2 form a triangle. Find the
length of the triangle sides.
Example 6:
Given the vectors a  3i  2 j  k , b  mi  j  nk and c = 5i + (m – 1)j + 3k where m and n

are constants. If a  b  c , find the numerical values of m and n. Hence, find a unit vector
in the direction of vector b. Obtain also a vector of magnitude 6 units in the direction of
vector b.
5.2 Scalar product
Formula Notes / diagram
Scalar product Let a  a1 , a 2 , a3 and b  b1 , b2 , b3
the scalar or dot product between a and b is

defined as:
 a1   b1 
   
a  b   a 2    b2   a1b1  a 2 b2  a3b3
 a  b 
 3  3
a  b  a b cos
39
If a,b and c are vectors and k is a scalar, then

Properties of scalar
aa  a
2
product i.
ii. a  b  b  a
iii. a  (b  c)  a  b  b  c
iv. (ka)  b  k (a  b)  a  (kb)
v. 0  b  0
b
Angle between 2 ab
vectors   cos 1  

a b 
 
a
Rule Descriptions Conclusion

1 If two vectors a and b are parallel and in same direction, ab  a b
the angle is 0o
2 For unlike parallel vectors (i.e the vectors are parallel but a b  a b
in the opposite direction. (θ = 180o)
3 If two vectors a and b are perpendicular, then the angle ab  0

between the two vectors is 90 o
Example 7:
Find a  b

a) a  12 , b  15 and the angle between a and b is .
6
b) a  5,0,2 , b  3,1,10
c) a  s,2s,3s , b  t,t,5t
Example 8:
If p  2i  3j  5k and q  5i  6 j  7k . Find

a) p  q
b) p and q
c) the angle between p and q.
40
Example 9:
a) Show that i  j  j  k  k  i  0
b) Show that i  i  j  j  k  k  1
c) Show that vectors a  2,5,9 and b   5,11,5 are orthogonal.
Example 10:
Simplify
a) a  b   a  b 
b) a  b  c  a  c  b
Example 11:
Given that a = 3i + t j - 2k , and b = (1 – t)i - 3j + 4k. Find t if a is perpendicular to b.
Example 12:
If a  4 , b  3 and a  b  7 . Find the angle between a and b.
Example 13:
The angle between vectors a = i +  j + 2k and b = 2i + 3 j + k is . Find .
5.3 Vector Product
i j k
1. a  b  a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
 i j k
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
 a2b3  a3b2 i  a1b3  a3b1  j  a1b2  a2b1 k
2. a  b  a b sin  nˆ where n̂ is a unit normal vector perpendicular to both a and b,
and in the direction of a  b .
Diagram
n̂
b
axb b 
 a
a
bxa
n̂ 41
Right Hand Rule
Special Case
Case Diagram  Vector Product Conclusion

o
a  b  a b sin 0 o nˆ
0
0 aa  0
Parallel
o
a  b  a b sin 180 o nˆ i  i  0, j  j  0, k  k  0
180
0
a  b  a b sin 90 o nˆ a, b and a  b are

o
Perpendicular 90 mutually perpendicular.
 a b nˆ
Turning anticlockwise POSITIVE i  j  k , j  k  i, k  i  j
Turning clockwise NEGATIVE j  i  k , k  j  i , i  k   j
Properties of Vector Product
1. a  b  b  a
2. a  b  c   a  b   a  c 
3. ma   b  ma  b  a  mb
4. a  b  c  a  c   b  c 
5. a  a  0
6. a  b  c   a  b   c
7. a  b  c   a  c b  a  b c
42
Area of Parallelogram and Triangle.
Type Diagram Area
C B
b
Parallelogram a  b  a b sin 

O a A
B
b
1 1
Triangle a  b  a b sin 
2 2
O A
a
Example 14:
If a  2i  j  k and b  i  j  k . Show that
a) a  b  b  a
b) 3a  2b  6a  b 
Example 15:
Given a  i  2 j  3k and b  i  3 j  k
a) Find a  b .
b) Prove that a  b is a vector which is perpendicular to the vector a .
Example 16:
Find all vectors of length 11 unit which are perpendicular to both a  i  2 j  k and
b  i  3k .
Example 17:
The position vectors of point P and Q relative to the origin O , are 2i  2 j  k and
4i  2 j  2k respectively. Calculate the sine of angle POQ.
Hence, find the perpendicular distance from P to the line OQ
Example 18:
Points A(2, 0, 3), B(-1, 2, 0) and C(2, 1, -3) form a triangle. Find
a) vectors AB and AC
b) area of triangle ABC.
43
5.4 Application Of Vectors In Geometry

I. Lines In Space
A line L in 3D space can be determined by specifying
i) a vector parallel to straight line L.
ii) a point on the straight line L.
Diagram
z Let R be any point on L.

v
R AR is parallel to v.
A  AR  tv , where t is a scalar.
L
OR  OA  tv , where O is the origin.
y r  a  tv , where OR  r and OA  a
0
x
So, the vector equation of a straight line is
r – a = tv
r = a + tv
In terms of vector components, it can be written as
xi + yj + zk = (x1i + y1j + z1k) + t (ai + bj + ck)
From
xi + yj + zk = (x1i + y1j + z1k) + t (ai + bj + ck)
By equating the coefficients of i , j and k of the two sides of equation (i) gives
xi + yj + zk = (x1i + y1j + z1k) + t ai + t bj + t ck
= x1i + t ai + y1j + t bj + z1k + t ck
= (x1 + t a) i + (y1 + t b)j + (z1 + t c)k
It is known as Parametric Equation
44
By eliminating t from the equation (ii):
x  x1  ta y  y1  tb z  z1  tc
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
t t t
a b c
x - x1 y - y1 z - z1
t  
a b c
which is known as The Cartesian Equation
SUMMARY of 5.4 Application Of Vectors In Geometry

Type Diagram Parallel vector, v Position vector, a
1 point on line & 1
parallel vector v
v Point A
A
2 points on line
v  AB
B
A  OB  OA Point A or B
 ba
xi + yj + zk x  x1  ta x - x1 y - y1 z - z1
t  
= (x1i + y1j + z1k) + t (ai + bj + ck) y  y1  tb a b c
z  z1  tc Cartesian Equation
Vector Equation
Parametric Equation
Example 20:
Find i) the vector equation
ii) the parametric equations
iii) the Cartesian equations
of a line, L which passes through (1, –2, 3) and is parallel to 4i + 5j – 6k
45
Example 21:
Find the vector equation of a line that contains a point A(1, 2, 3) and B(–2, 1, 3).
Example 22:
A straight line, L1 contains point (3, 1, 2) and is parallel to the y-axis. State the vector equation of the
straight line.
Example 23:
Find the vector equation of a straight line, L1 that passes through the point (0, 2, 3) and is parallel to
the line L2 with vector equation r = 3i + t(2i – j + k)
Example 24:
x 1 y  2 z  3
A line has Cartesian equation   .
3 4 5
i) Find a vector equation for a parallel line passing through the point with position vector
5i – 2j – 4k
ii) Find the coordinates of the point on this line where y = 0.
Example 25:
Show that the line, L1 with vector equation as r = (2i – j) + t (2i + j - k) is perpendicular to the line
x 1 y 1 z
L2 with Cartesian equation   .
3 2 4
III. ANGLE BETWEEN TWO STRAIGHT LINES.

Suppose the vector equation of two straight lines are:
r1 = a1 + t v1
r2 = a2 + s v2 where t, s are any scalars.
v1 is parallel to r1
v2 is parallel to r2
If θ is angle between two straight lines, it’s also the

angle between v1 and v2.
46
By using the scalar product: v1  v2  v1 v2 cos 
Therefore, the angle between two straight lines is :
v 1 .v 2
θ  cos 1
v1 v 2
Example 26:
The vector equation of two straight lines are given by
p = ( 2i + 2j - 4k ) + t ( i + 3j – 3k )
q = ( i + j + k) + s( i + 2j – 4k )
with t and s any scalars. Find the acute angle between that two straight lines.
Example 27:
Find the acute angle between L1 and L2.
L1 : r  3i  5 j  7k  t 2i  3 j  4k 
y  4 z 1
L2 : x  2  
2 4
Example 28:
Find the acute angle between the line with equation r = 2i + t (3i – j + k) and the x - axis.
Example 29:
Find the acute angle between the line with equation r = 3i + k + t(i – j + 4k) and the line which
parallel to the vector i + j – 2k
47
III. EQUATION OF A PLANE

The equation of a plane in a space is determined by a point and a vector that is perpendicular to plane
Let A = (x1, y1, z1) be a fixed point on the plane.
Let n = (a, b, c) be a vector perpendicular to the plane (also called normal vector).
Let R = (x, y, z) be any point on the plane.
Let r and a be the position vectors of point A and R respectively.

.
Since n is a normal vector to the plane, then AR and n are perpendicular
 AR  n  0
OR  OA  n  0
r  a   n  0
rnan  0
rn  an
rn = p where p = a  n
This is called the vector equation of a plane.
Since r = xi + yj + zk
n = ai + bj + ck
A = x1i+ y1j + z1k
and from the vector equation of a plane:
rn = an
(xi + yj + zk)  (ai + bj + ck) = (x1i+ y1j + z1k)  (ai + bj + ck)
by eliminating the component i, j and k
ax + by + cz = p
This is called the cartesian equation of a plane.
48
SPECIAL CASE (SUMMARY)

How to determine the position vector and normal vector of PLANE
NORMAL POSITION
TYPE DIAGRAM
VECTOR, n VECTOR, a
3 POINTS ON PLANE A C
1 PERPENDICULAR r  n1  q
PLANE
B
A
2 POINTS
1 PARALLEL A LINE @
ON PLANE
CONTAINS A LINE
1 PARALLEL LINE AND

1 PERPENDICULAR
PLANE
1 POINT ON
PLANE 1 PERPENDICULAR
LINE
1 PARALLEL PLANE
2 PERPENDICULAR
PLANES
49
NORMAL POSITION
TYPE DIAGRAM
VECTOR, n VECTOR, a
2 PARALLEL LINES
CONTAINS A LINE
1 POINT ON
PLANE
CONTAINS 2 LINES
NO POINT
ON PLANE
50
Example 30:
Find:
(a) the vector equation
(b) the Cartesian equation
of the plane that passes through the point (2, -1, 3) and is perpendicular to the vector 3i + j – k
Example 31:
A plane contains points A(1, 3, 1), B(1, 0, 2) and C(2, -1, 3). Find its Cartesian equation.
Example 32:
Find the vector equation of the plane  1 which contains a point (1, 2, 3) and is parallel to the plane
 2 with equation r . (2i – j + k) = 5.
Example 33:
A plane  contains points A(1, 2, 3) and B(-1, 2, 5) and is perpendicular to the
plane 3x  y  z  10 . Find the Cartesian equation of the plane  .
Example 34:
Find the vector equation of the plane that contains the point (1, 1, 1) and is perpendicular to the line
with equation r = 2i – j + k + t(3i – j – k)
Example 35:
Determine the Cartesian equation of the plane that passes through (4,0,-2) and perpendicular to the
plane x  y  z  0 and 2 x  y  4 z  5  0 .
Example 36:
A plane contains a point (1, 0, 1) and a line, L with parametric equations:
x=1+t, y=3–t, z=2+t
Find the vector equation of the plane.
IV. ANGLE BETWEEN TWO PLANES
The angle  between planes  1 and  2 is represented by the angle between the straight lines
L1 and L2 .
The angle between the planes is the same as the angle between their 2 normal vectors
51
V. ANGLE BETWEEN LINE AND PLANE
We slide the normal vector n until its tail is at the point of intersection with the line L and the plane P.
Then n and L together define a plane which is perpendicular to plane P.
Since A and B together make a right angle ( 90o), we can find A by using the dot product of n and the
direction vector b of line L to first find cos B.
VI. POINT OF INTERSECTION BETWEEN LINE AND PLANE
x, y, z 

To find the intersection point between line and the plane, we can solve the Cartesian
equation of the plane and the Parametric equation of the line simultaneously.
52
SUMMARY
Type Diagram Method
r  n1  p
Angle between 2 n1  n2
   cos 1
planes n1 n2
r  n2  q
nv
n   90 o  cos 1  

 n v 
Angle between line 
or
and planes
nv
  cos 1    90 o

l
 nv 
Plane (Cartesian Eq)
l
ax  by  cz  p (1)
Point of x, y, z 
intersection  Line(Parametric Eq)
between line and x  x1  ta1
plane
y  y1  tb1 (2)
z  z1  tc1
Substitute (2) into (1).
Example 37:
Two planes  1 and  2 are defined by
 1 : 3x  y  4 z  8
 2 : 4 x  3 y  z  2
Calculate the angle between the planes  1 and  2 .
Example 38:
Find the angle between the plane  : r  13i  3j  11k   15 and the straight line L
r  i  2 j  4k  λ2i  j  k  .
53
Example 39:
A straight line l and a plane  are defined by
l : r  i  j  2k   2i  3 j  k 
 : r  3i  j  2k   11
Find the coordinates of the point of intersection between line l and a plane  .
Example 40:
x  2 y 1 z  3
Find the point of intersection of the plane 2 x  4 y  3z  1 and the line  
3 2 2
Example 41: (Past Year Question)
Given two straights lines,
x 1 y  2 z x2 y z4
L1 : t    and L2 : t   
3 8 3 10 10 7
a) Show that L1 and L 2 are not parallel and find the acute angle between the two
straight lines. [5 marks]
b) Determine intersection point between L1 and plane
 : 2 x  y  5z  25  0 [4 marks]
c) Find an equation of the plane containing L1 and L 2 . [4 marks]
54
SM 025 MATHEMATICS 2- CHAPTER 6 DATA DESCRIPTIVE
6.1 Introduction to Data

6.2 Measures of Location
6.3 Measures of Dispersion
6.1 Introduction to Data
I. Definition
Population:
 Collection of all elements whose characteristics are being studied
Parameter:
 Summary measure of a population or sample (such as population mean, variance, etc.)
Sample:
 Any set of entities, cases, subjects, items or experimental units chosen from the
population.
Variable:
 Any measured characteristic or attribute that differs for different subjects
Quantitative Data:
 Refers to observations can be measured numerically.
Qualitative Data:
 Not in numerical form but instead assigned as attributes
Example 1:
A survey was carried out on 40 boys and 60 girls at a college to find whether they liked the
subject Mathematics or not. State :
a) the population
b) the sample
c) the variable
d) whether the variable is qualitative or quantitative.
55
Example 2:
Here are the marks gained by 30 PST students in a Math exam.
63 58 61 52 59 65 69 75 70 54 57 63 76 81 64 68 59 40 65 74 80
44 47 53 70 81 68 49 57 61
This is an example of ungrouped data (raw data).
Example 3:
Construct a frequency distribution table for the data.
Mark Tally Frequency
40 – 49
50 – 59
60 – 69
70 – 79
80 – 89
56
6.2 Measures of Location
Measure of Location
[UNGROUP]
MEAN MODE MEDIAN

Average Most Frequent Middle value a set of
value data is arranged in
 ∑n
x order of magnitude

1

x n  x n 1 
Even
2 2 2
 x n1
Odd
2
QUARTILE PERCENTILE
E
The values that The values that
divide a list of divide a list of
arranged numbers arranged numbers
into quarters. into 100 equal
parts.
P25 P50 P75
57
I. Ungrouped Data
Mean
Example 4:
(a) Find the mean of a set of numbers
3, 5, 7, 4, 5, 9, 6
(b) Find the mean of a set of data
Number of Male Children 0 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency 2 5 7 3 2 1
Mode
Example 5:
Find the mode for the following set of data.
(a) 5, 2, 3, 3, 5, 4, 28, 5
(b) 2, 3, 5, 8,10
(c) 0.2, 0.4, 0.4, 0.4, 0.5, 0.7, 0.7, 0.7, 0.5
Median
Example 6:
Find the median for the following set of data.
(a) 180 186 191 201 209 219 220

(b) 21, 24, 17, 28, 36, 20, 32
(c) 3.56, 2.71, 5.48, 8.61, 4.35, 6.22
Example 7:
A set of data is 11, 2, 13, 6, x, 11, 3, 12, 6, y, the mode is 6 and the median is 7.Find the
values of x and y, Hence calculate the mean of the data.
Quartile
Example 8:
By using formulae, find the first, second and third quartile of the following data:
a) 5, 8, 4, 4, 6, 3, 8
b) 3, 4, 5, 7, 2, 1, 6, 9, 2, 8, 6, 8
58
Percentile
Example 9:
By using formulae, find the 15th, 25th and 60th percentile of the following data:
3, 4, 5, 7, 2, 1, 6, 9, 2, 8, 6, 8
Exercise
1. Find the mean of the following data
(a) 1, 4, 8, 15, 14, 20, 23 Ans: 12.143
(b) 2, 3, 4, 7, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16 Ans: 9.33
2. To obtain grade A, Susan must achieve an average of at least 75 marks in four tests. If
her average mark for the first three tests is 70, calculate the lowest mark she must get
in her fourth test in order to obtain grade A. Ans: mean 90
3. The mean of 5 numbers is 7, and the mean of 4 other numbers is 12. Find the mean of
the 9 numbers together. Ans: mean=9.222
4. Find the median, first and third quartile for the following sets of sample data.
(a) 3, 4, 7, 3, 10, 12, 5 Ans : 5, 3,10
(b) 9, 7, 2, 4, 15, 10, 8,13 Ans : 8.5, 5.5, 11.5
5. Find the median, 20th and 85th percentile of each of these sets
(a) 1, 9, 6, 7, 12, 8, 3, 10, 11 Ans :9, 3, 11
(b) 2, 5, 1, 6, 7, 11, 13, 8 Ans :6.5, 2, 11
6. Find the mode of each of the following sets
(a) 4, 5, 5, 1, 2, 6, 7, 2, 5 Ans : mode = 5
(b) 3, 5, 10, 8, 7, 4 Ans : no mode
(c) 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6 Ans :modes 2 and 4
7. Find the mode of the following data
The occupations for a sample of 7 men are teacher, doctor, manager, teacher, teacher,
teacher, manager Ans : mode = teacher
8. A sample of 10 for type of calculators sold in a shop is shown below.
Type A, Type A, Type B, Type A, Type A, Type C, Type A,
Type C, Type A.
Find the mode. Ans : mode = Type A
59
Measure of Location
[GROUP]
MEAN MODE MEDIAN

Average Highest frequency in a set Middle value a set of
of data data is arranged in order
Mean , x 
fx i i  d 
of magnitude
f Mode = xˆ  L   1  C n 
i d d 
 1 2  2F 
Median = x  L   C
 f 
QUARTILE PRECENTILE
The values that The values that

divide a list of divide a list of
arranged numbers arranged numbers
into quarters. into 100 equal parts.
k   k 
 ( n)  Fk   (n)  Fk 
Qk  Lk   4  Ck , k  1, 2, 3 Pk  Lk   100  Ck , k  1, 2, 3, ...,99
 fk  fk
   
Lk= lower boundary of the class where Qk lies Lk= lower boundary of the class where Pk lies
n = total number of observations n = total number of observations
Fk= cumulative frequency before the Qk class Fk= cumulative frequency before the Pk class
Ck= class width where Qklies Ck = class width where Pklies
fk= frequency of the class where Qk lies fk= frequency of the class where Pk lies
Observation; k=1, 2, 3
L=lower class boundary of the modal class
 
th
Q  k n



d1 = the frequency difference between the
k 4   modal class and the class before it
d2 = the frequency difference between the
Interquartile Range: modal class and the class after it
Q Q C= class width
3 1
60
II. Grouped Data
Example 10:
The table shows the weight frequency distribution of 304 contestants in a competition.
Find:
a) Mode
b) Median
c) Mean
d) Q1 , P30 , P80 (using formulae)
Example 11:
The waiting time for 50 customers to have their food served at a restaurant on a particular
day is shown in the following table.
Time (minutes) Number of customers

1-5 5
6 – 10 13
11 – 15 31
16 – 20 19
21 – 25 8
26 – 30 4
31 – 35 4
Calculate:
a) Mean d) Q1 and Q3
b) Median e) Interquartile range
c) Mode f) P10
61
Example 12:
Marks Frequency
0  x  20 9
20  x  40 29
40  x  60 42
60  x  80 26
80  x  100 14
Find:
a) Mean d) Q1 and Q3
b) Median e) Interquartile range
c) Mode f) P70
Stem and Leaf Plot
 The leaf is the trailing

digit
 The stemis the leading
digit(s) of the data
Example 13:
Construct stem and leaf of the following data:
The heights of 11 fourth-grade badminton players are (in inches)
56,61,61,60,59,57,58,58,63,61,59
Example 14: Volleyball Scores for Our Team

Stem Leaves
0 5,6,7,9
1 3,5,5,5,6
a) How many volleyball games were played?

b) What are the scores?
c) What is the median?
d) What is the mode?
62
Example 15:
Here is a set of data (pupil heights in cm)
143 148 149 152 152 154 155 158

159 160 163 164 167 167 167 168
168 169 170 171 173 175 177 179
a) Make a tally chart
b) Construct stem and leaf
c) What is the mode and median
Exercise:
1. Make a Stem & Leaf Plot and then find the mode and median.
a) 26, 44, 35, 28, 31, 36, 31, 25, 28, 28, 41, 28, 23
b) 30, 42, 35, 39, 26, 37, 25, 38, 38, 26, 28, 31, 29
c) 31, 42, 39, 34, 36, 31, 39, 57, 37, 42, 39, 31, 40
d) 24, 37, 57, 81, 31, 25, 43, 39, 33, 40, 34, 65, 50
e) 5, 64, 57, 63, 68, 54, 64, 60, 59, 58, 65, 56, 58, 64, 60, 55, 66, 57, 61
Answers
63
Box and Whisker Plots
STEP TO CONSTRUCT BOX AND WHISKER
S1: Arrange data in order form

S2: Find mean
S3: Find Q1
S4: Find Q3
S5: Determine outlier (if any)
Lower Fence =Q1 – 1.5(Interquartile range)
Upper Fence =Q3 + 1.5(Interquartile range)
Interquartile range = Q3 - Q1
64
No Skew / Symmetrical Positively Skew / Skewed to Negatively Skew / Skewed

Skew the RIGHT to the LEFT
Example 16:
Construct box and whisker for the following data.
5, 10, 20, 22, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 30, 40, 45
Example 17:
Ali works at a computer store. He recorded the number of sales he made each month for the
past 12 months. He sold the following numbers of computers:
51, 17, 25, 39, 7, 49, 62, 41, 20, 6, 43, 13
Illustrate and interpret the data by drawing a box-and-whiskers plot.
Example 18: ( PYQ 2011/2012)

The following is the stem and leaf diagram for sample of height (in cm) of a type of herbal
plant. All observation are integers.
a) Calculate mean
b) Find median, first and third quartiles
c) Construct box and whiskers plot and comment the
data
distribution
65
6.3 Measures of Dispersion
s  variation
 x 2  fx2
 x2   fx 
2
n s 
2 n
s2  n 1
n 1 Note:
If sk = 0, the distribution is symmetric
Variance and standard deviation for ungrouped dat
If sk> 0, the distribution is positively skewed
If sk< 0, the distribution is negatively skewed
 Dispersion (variation) is how the data is spread out, or dispersed from the mean.
 The smaller the dispersion values, the more consistent the data (values are close
together).
 The larger the dispersion values, the more spread out the data values are. This
means that the data is not as consistent.
66
I. Symmetry and skewness
Skewness Condition Distribution Best Measurement
Mean=median=mode symmetrical Mean
Mode<median<mean Positively
Median
skewed/ skewed
to the right
Mean<median<mode Negatively Median

skewed/ skewed
to the left
Example 19:
Find the variance and standard deviation of all the following numbers:
6, 7, 10, 11, 11, 13, 16, 18, 25
67
Example 20:
The data below represents the number of kilometers that 20 runners ran during one week.
Find the variance and the standard deviation for the distribution.
Distance (km) Frequency

5.5 – 10.5 1
10.5 – 15.5 2
15.5 – 20.5 3
20.5 – 25.5 5
25.5 – 30.5 4
30.5 – 35.5 3
35.5 – 40.5 2
Example 21:
Class Intervals Frequency

10-19 5
20-29 7
30-39 4
40-49 4
50-59 3
60-69 2
2
Find :
a) Mean
b) Median
c) Mode
d) Variance
e) Standard deviation
f) Pearsons’Coefficient and interpret your answer
g) State with reason whether mean or median is a better measure of location
68
Example 22:(PYQ 2012/2013)

The following table gives the cumulative frequency distribution for the weights (kg) of
fifty hampers during a festival at a supermarket.
(a) Find the mean, median and standard deviation

(b) Hence, calculate the Pearson’s coefficient of skewness and interpret your answer.
(c) State with reason whether mean or median is a better measure of location.
Example 23:
The following table shows the scores of a Math test of 100 KMJ students. Compute the
Pearson's coefficient of skewness. Hence state the shape of the distribution of this Math
scores.
Score 60 – 62 63 – 65 66 – 68 69 – 71 72 – 74
No of students 5 18 42 27 8
Given that the average score of Physics test is 69.25 with the standard deviation of 9.8175,
determine which score is more stable.
69
SM 025 MATHEMATICS 2- CHAPTER 7 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS
7.1 Permutations
7.2 Combinations
multiplication principle m  n 
takes all n
Pn  n !
permutation
Permutation
& takes r n!
n
Pr 
combination n different
object
n  r  !
combination repeated object n!

n! r1! r2 ! ... rk !
n
Cr 
n  r ! r !
conditional permutation
7.1 Permutations
I. Definition
 Permutation is an arrangement of objects in a definite order (order is important).

 So, ab and ba are considered two different permutations.
 The permutations of ABC will be ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB and CBA.
 Permutations can be calculated by using the multiplication principle. If there are m

ways for an event to occur and n ways for another event to occur, then there are
m  n ways for the two events to occur.
70
Example 1
Suppose there are 4 ways from Johor to Penang and 2 ways from Penang to Pulau Langkawi.
How many ways can we go for a journey from Johor to Pulau Langkawi through Penang?
Example 2
A fair coin and a die are tossed together. How many different outcomes are possible?
II. PERMUTATIONS of n DIFFERENT objects
 Number of permutations of n different objects taken all at a time without

repetition n
Pn  n  n  1  n  2  ... 2 1  n!
 n
Pn  n ! means the products of all the integers from 1 to n inclusive and is called
‘n factorial’.
 If repetition is allowed, the number of permutations of n different objects, is n n .
Example 3
How many three-digit numbers can be made from the integers 2, 3, 4 ?
Example 4
Four people, Aishah, Badrul, Cyra and Daniel must be scheduled for job interviews. In how
many different orders can this be done?
Example 5
In how many ways can ten instructors be assigned to ten sections of a course in mathematics?
Example 6
How many different 4 digit numbers can be formed from the digits 5, 6, 7 and 8
i) if repetition is not allowed.

ii) if repetition is allowed.
Exercises
1. How many permutations of the set  a, b, c, d , e  begin with a and end with c?
2. Six people are going on a motoring holiday in a six-seater car. In how many ways can
they be seated if all six are able to drive?
3. If there are 3 ways from Penang to Kuala Lumpur and 2 ways from Kuala Lumpur to
Genting Highlands, how many ways can we go for a journey from Penang to Genting
Highlands through Kuala Lumpur?
Answers
1. 6 2. 720 3. 6
71
III. PERMUTATIONS of r OBJECTS taken from n DIFFERENT objects
 The number of permutations of r objects chosen from a set of n different objects is

n!
n
Pr 
n  r !
denoted by .
 If repetition is allowed, the number of permutations of r objects chosen from n

different objects is n r .
Example 7
Suppose you have 4 different flags. How many different signals could you make using
(i) 2 flags
(ii) 2 or 3 flags
Example 8
A relay team has 5 members. How many ways can a coach arrange 4 of them to run a
4x100 m race.
Example 9
How many arrangements of the letters of the word B E G I N are there if
(i) 3 letters are used
(ii) 4 letters are used. Repetition is allowed.
(ii) all of the letters are used
IV. CONDITIONAL PERMUTATION
Example 10
Find the number of arrangements of 4 digits taken from the set { 1, 2, 3, 4}. In how many
ways can these numbers be arranged so that
a) The numbers begin with digit ‘1’
b) The numbers do not begin with digit ‘1’
Example 11
Four sisters and two brothers are arranged in different ways in a straight line for several
photographs to be taken. How many different arrangements are possible if
a) there are no restrictions
b) the two brothers must be separated
Example 12
Arrange 6 boys and 3 girls in a straight line so that the girls are separated. In how many ways
can this be done ?
72
Example 13
There are 10 students out of whom six are females. How many possible arrangements are
there if
a) they are arranged in a row?
b) males always sit on one side and female on the other side?
Example 14
A witness to a hit-and-run accident told the police that the plat number contained the letters
PDW followed by 3 digits, the first of which is 5. If the witness cannot recall the last 2
digits, but is certain that all 3 digits are different, find the maximum number of automobile
registrations that the police may have to check.
Example 15
In how many ways can 4 girls and 5 boys sit in a row if the boys and girls must sit alternate to
each other?
Example 16
Four digit numbers are to be formed from the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 without repetition. How
many numbers can be formed if each number
a) is less than 5000
b) begins with digit 4 or 6
c) is between 2000 and 6000
d) is an odd number
Example 17
How many four-digit even numbers can be formed from the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 to
make up numbers between 2000 and 6000
a) without repetition
b) with repetition
Example 18
Three married couples have bought 6 seats in the same row for a concert. In how many
different ways can they be seated
a) with no restrictions
b) if each couple is to sit together
c) if all the men sit together to the right of all the women
Exercises
1. Find the number of different ways in which a gold, a silver and a bronze medal can be
awarded to 15 competitors if each competitor can win only one medal.
2. In how many different ways may 10 different letters be placed in 15 different boxes, not
more than one letter being placed in any box? You may leave the answer in factorial
form.
3. A shop has 5 different printers but there is space for only 3 printers on the display
shelf. How many arrangements are possible ?
73
4. A photographer wishes to arrange 7 children consisting of 3 boys and 4 girls in a

straight line for a picture. In how many ways can he do this if
(a) the girls are separated
(b) the 3 boys occupy the 3 central positions
5. Find the number of ways ABCDE can be arranged if
(a) the arrangements must begin with the letter A.
(b) do not begin with the letter A
Answers
1. 2730
15 !
2.
5!
3. 60
4. (a) 144 (b) 144
5. (a) 24 (b) 96
V. PERMUTATIONS where some objects are REPEATED

 The number of permutations of n objects comprising of r1 identical objects, r2
n!
identical objects, ………., rk identical objects is .
r1 ! r2 !..........rk !
Example 19
How many different permutations can be made using the letters of the words
(i) BOOKS (ii) LOTTO (iii) MATHEMATICS
Example 20
There are 2 copies of each of 3 different books to be arranged on a shelf. In how many
distinguishable ways can this be done?
Example 21
In how many of the possible permutations of the letters of the word ADDING are the two
D’s:
(i) together
(ii) separated
Example 22
How many different arrangements are there for the letters of the word ARRANGEMENTS
if
a) begins with “R” and ends with “E”
b) the two letters “E” are separated
c) the two letters “E” and the two letters “A” are together
d) the consonant letters GMTS are together
e) the two letters “N” occupied both ends
74
Exercises
1. A dancing contest has 11 competitors, of whom three are Americans, two are Malaysians,
three are Indonesians, and three are Italians. If the contest result lists only the nationality
of the dancers, how many outcomes are possible?
2. In how many ways can the letters of the word STATISTICS be arranged?
Answers
1. 92400
2. 50400
7.2 Combinations
I. Definition
 A combination is a selection of objects with no consideration given to the order

(arrangement) of the object.
 So while ABC and BCA are different permutations, they are the same combination of
letters.
 PQR, PRQ, QPR, QRP, RPQ, RQP are considered as 1 combination (because the
order is not considered) and 6 permutations (because the order is considered).
Determine whether each of the following is a permutation or combination:

a) 5 pictures placed in a row.
b) 3 story books picked from a rack.
c) A team of 9 players chosen from a group of 20.
d) The arrangements of the letters in the word OCTOBER.
e) Types of food in a plate taken for lunch consist of rice, vegetables, chicken curry and
prawn paste sambal.
75
II. Combinations of r object from n objects

 The number of combinations (or selections) of r objects chosen from n unlike objects
n!
is C r 
n
.
n  r  ! r !
Consider the following table;
Combination Permutation
N
taken r Number of Number of
different n! n!
object n
C r Combinations n
P r permutations
object n  r  ! r ! n  r  !
A, B 2 AB 1 AB, BA 2
AB, BA, AC,

A, B, C 2 AB, AC, BC 3 6
CA, BC, CB
ABC, ACB,
A, B, C 3 ABC 1 BCA, BAC, 6
CAB, CBA
Example 23
A quiz team of four is chosen from a group of 15 students. In how many ways could the team
be chosen?
Example 24
If there are eight girls and seven boys in a class, in how many ways could a group be chosen
so that there are two boys and two girls in the group?
Example 25
A school committee consists of six girls and four boys. A social sub-committee consisting of
four students is to be formed. In how many ways could the group be chosen if there are to be
more girls than boys in the group?
Example 26
In a football training squad of 24 people, 3 are goalkeepers, 7 are defenders, 6 are midfielders
and 8 are forwards. A final squad of 16 selected for a match must consist of 2 goalkeepers, 4
defenders, 5 midfielders and 5 forwards. Find the number of possible selections if one
particular goalkeeper, 2 particular defenders, 3 particular midfielders and 3 particular
forwards are automatically selected.
76
Example 27
ABCDEFGH is a regular octagon.
(a) How many triangles can be formed with the vertices of the octagon as vertices ?
(b) How many diagonals can be drawn by joining the vertices?
A
B
H
C
G
Example 28
15 students are divided into 3 groups, with A having 7 students, group B having 5 students
and group C having 3 students. Find the number of ways to form
a) the 3 groups
b) the 3 groups with 2 given students must be in group A.
Example 29
A 3 member committee is to be formed from 4 couples of husband and wife. Find the
possible number of committees that can be formed if
a) all the members are men
b) the husband and the wife cannot be in the committee at the same time.
Example 30
In how many ways can a teacher choose one or more students as a prefects from 5 eligible
students?
Example 31
A school committee consists of 10 girls and 5 boys. In how many different ways can
a) 5 girls and 3 boys be chosen?
b) 5 girls and 3 boys be arranged in a row?
c) 5 girls and 3 boys be arranged in a row such that 3 boys are next to each other?
77
Exercises
1. A father buys nine different toys for his four children. In how many ways can he give
one child three toys and the remaining three children two toys each?
2. A party of nine people consists of five men and four women, and a group of four
people is to be chosen at random from this party. In a how many ways can a group of
four be chosen that contains at least three women?
3. For a badminton doubles game, 2 players are chosen from among 5 male players and
3 female players to represent a club. In how many ways can this doubles pair be
selected if
(a) the team is a mixed double, comprising one male player and one female player?
(b) The team is either a male pair or a female pair and no mixed pair are allowed?
Answers
1. 7560
2. 21
3. (a) 15
(b) 13
78
SM 025 MATHEMATICS 2- CHAPTER 8 PROBABILITY
8.1 Probability
I. Introduction
Definition Notes
a Random A random experiment is an action or process Roll a die.
experiment that leads to one of several possible outcomes. Record the grades of
an examination.
Toss two coins.
b Outcomes An outcome is the result of an experiment No two outcomes can

or other situation involving uncertainty. occur simultaneously
c Sample Space The set of all possible outcomes The symbol S will be
of a random experiment is called the used to denote the
sample space of the experiment sample space
d. Event An event is a collection of one or more Event is a subset of

of the outcomes of an experiments , the sample space.
which is satisfies a given condition.
It means that an event is a subset of
the sample space
e. Probability Let A be an event in sample space, S. n( A)

The probability of A occurring, P(A) is P( A) 
n( S )
defined
number of outcomes in A
P( A) 
number of outcomes in S
Example 1:
A die is rolled. Identify
a) the basic outcomes.

b) the sample space.
c) the event of getting odd number.
What relationship can be obtained from part b) and c).
79
II. Basic Laws of Probability
Basic Laws Notes
0  P(A)  1
P( A ) = 1 means that the event is an absolute certainty
P( A ) = 0 means that the event is an absolute

impossible
P ( A’ ) = 1 - P( A )
The sum of probabilities of all events for an

experiment is always 1
Probability goes from 0 (imposssible) to 1 (certain):
Example 2:
A die is tossed . What is the probability of
a) getting an even number?

b) getting an odd number?
c) getting a number bigger than 4?
80
III. Events and Probability
Event definition Venn diagram Formula

a Intersection Intersection : P (A  B) =
and Union  ‘A and B’ : the P (A) + P (B) – P(A  B)
intersection of A and B,
represented by A  B
 ‘A and B’ means that
both A and B happens.

Union : P (A  B) =
 ‘ A or B ’ : the union P (A) + P (B) – P(A  B)
of A and B , represented
by A  B
 ‘ A or B ’ means that
either A or B or both A
and B happens.
b Mutually Exclusive events are events A B P (A  B) = 0

Exclusive that cannot happen together.
Events If A and B are mutually P ( A  B ) =P ( A ) + P (B)
exclusive events then either
one happens, but not both.
c Conditional When an event happens is P( A  B )

events considered with the condition P( B A) 
P( A)
that another event happens,
P( B  A)
then the event is a conditional 
event. P( A)
P(A|B) is read as “the
probability of A given B”
d Independent When an event A is a)P(A  B)=P(A)●P (B)
Events independent of B, the b) P( A B)  P( A)
probability of A happening
does not depend on whether B c) P( B A)  P( B)
happens or not
Example 3:
A die and a coin are tossed together. Find the probability that we get
a) a head
b) a number greater than 2
c) a head and a number greater than 2
d) a head or a number greater than 2
81
Example 4:
17 1 3
Two events A and B are such that P ( A ) = , P ( B ) = and P ( A  B ) = . Find
25 5 5
P ( A  B ).
Example 5:
The following table gives a two-way classification, based on gender and employment status
of a group of youth in a city.
If a youth is selected at random from the group of youth, find the probability that the youth is
a) unemployed
b) employed
c) a female
Example 6:
1 7 1
Events A and B are such that P(A) = , P(B)= and P( A  B)'  . Are A and B mutually
2 12 4
exclusive?
Example 7:
The probability that a worker in company X gets a pay increase is 0.7, the probability that he
gets a job promotion is 0.5 and the probability that he gets both is 0.3 .
a) Mr. Yong has been given a pay increase. What is the probability that he is getting a
job promotion as well?
b) Mr. Ravi has been promoted. What is the probability that he is getting a pay
increase too?
82
Example 8:
Events A and B are independent. P ( A ) = 0.3 and P ( B ) = 0.5 . Find
(a)P ( A  B ) (b) P(A  B)
IV. Methods to solve Probability
(a) Venn Diagram

a) Venn diagram.
b) Tree diagram.
c) Table.
d) Permutation and
combination.
P (A  B) = P (A) + P (B) – P(A  B)
Example 9:
Given a Venn Diagram

A B
Shade the region of the following.
a) P( A) b) P( A' ) c) P( B ) d) P( B' )
e) P( A  B ) f) P( A  B )' g) P( A  B ) h) P( A  B )'
i) P( A' B ) j) P( A  B' ) k) P( A  B' ) l) P( A' B )
Example 10:
All 40 students in a class have their own hobbies. Among them, 7 like reading ( R ) only, 22
like games ( G ) only and the rest have both hobbies. State whether the two events R and G
are
(a)Mutually exclusive
(b)Independent
83
Example 11:
A, B and C are three events such that A and B are independent whereas A and C are mutually
exclusive. Given P(A) = 0.4 , P(B) = 0.2 , P(C) = 0.3 and P(B ∩ C ) = 0.1 . Find
(a) P( A  B)
(b) P( C | B )
(c) P( C | A’)
Example 12 :
3 2
Given P(C  D)  , P(C 'D)  and events C and D are independent. Find P(C) and P(D).
5 15
Example 13:
There are 60 students in the sixth form of a certain school. Mathematics is studied by 27 of them,
Biology by 20 and 22 students study neither Mathematics nor Biology.
a) Find the probability that a randomly selected student studies both Mathematics
and Biology.
b) Find the probability that a randomly selected Mathematics student studies

Mathematics but does not study Biology.
A student is selected at random,
c) Determine whether the event ‘studying mathematics’ is statistically independent of

the event ‘studying Biology’.
(b) Tree Diagram
84
Example 14:
Weather report states that 20% of 30 days in NOV are rainy days. A survey conducted shows that on a
rainy day, the probability that an accident happens is 0.6, if it is not a rainy day, the probability that an
accident happens is 0.2.
a) Find the probability that an accident happens.

b) If an accident happens, what is the probability that it is a rainy day?
Example 15:
According to a firm’s internal survey, of those employees living more than 2 miles from work, 90%
travel to work by car. Of the remaining employees, only 50% travel to work by car. It is known that
75% of employees live more than 2 miles from work. Determine :
a) the overall proportion of employees who travel to work by car.
b) the probability that an employee who travels to work by car lives more than 2 miles from work.
Example 16:
A mathematics puzzle is given to three students Amin, Ali and Abu. From the past experience, known
that the probabilities Amin, Ali and Abu will get the correct solutions are 0.65, 0.6 and 0.55
respectively. If three of them attempt to solve the puzzle without consulting each other, find the
probability that:
a) the puzzle will be solved correctly by all of them.
b) only one of them will get the correct solution.
Example 17:
Aishah, Siti and Muna pack biscuits in a factory. Aishah packs 55%, Siti 30% and Muna 15% from
the batch allotted to them.The probability that Aishah breaks some biscuits in a packet is 0.7, and
the respective probabilities for Siti and Muna are 0.2 and 0.1. If a broken biscuit is randomly selected,
what is the probability that the biscuit was packed by Aishah?
Example 18:
There are 12 red balls and 8 green balls in a bucket. Two balls are taken out in sequence without
replacement. By using a tree diagram, find the probability that
a) the first ball is red
b) the second one is red if the first is red
c) the second one is red if the first is green
d) the second one is red
e) the first one is red if the second is red

85
(c) Table
Event 1
Event 2
Total k  n( A  B)
B B’
l  n( A  B' )
k l k+l
m  n( A'B)
A’ m q m+q
Total k+m l+q k+l+m+q q  n( A'B' )
Example 19:
Thirty Mathematics professors out of 100 who are examined were found to be overweight (W). Ten
of them had high blood pressure ( H ). Only four of the professors who were not overweight had high
blood pressure. Find the probability that a Mathematics professor will not have high blood pressure if
he is not overweight.
Example 20:
A class comprises 50 male students and 50 female students. Each of the students take up a course,
2
either statistics or mathematics. The result shows that 60 students pass mathematics, of which are
3
3
male students, 40 students pass statistics, of which are female students. One of the students is
4
chosen randomly.
a) Calculate the probability that the student is a male or passes mathematics.
b) If the student is a female, find the probability that she passes statistics.
c) Calculate the probability that the student chosen is a male and passes statistics.
Example 21:
Hotel A and B charge according to types of service required, i.e accommodation only, or
accommodation and breakfast. A group of 300 tourists are distributed to these two hotels. A total of
40 tourists choose hotel A for accommodation and 120 of them choose hotel B for breakfast and
accommodation. There are 150 tourists from the group staying in hotel A. A tourist is chosen
randomly.
a) What is the probability that the tourist stays in hotel A or take the accommodation only?
b) What is the probability that the tourist choose to stay and have breakfast if he stays in hotel
B?
c) What is the probability that the tourist stays in hotel A if he does not take breakfast in the
hotel he stays?
d) What is the probability that the tourist stays in hotel A or stays and takes breakfast in hotel B?
86
d) Permutation and Combination
number of outcomes in A
P( A) 
number of outcomes in S
Example 22:
Four students Peter , Marry , Rosli and Thomas are required to stand in a row. What is the
probability that Peter and Marry will stand side-by-side?
Example 23:
The digits 2 , 3 , 4 and 5 are to be arranged to form 4 digit numbers without
repetitions. What is the probability that such a number is not divisible by 5?
Example 24:
Three red marbles, four yellow marbles and two green marbles are arranged in one row on a
table. Find the probability
(a) all the four yellow marbles must be next to each other
(b) all the four yellow marbles must not be arranged next to each other
(c) the green marbles must be in the first and last position of the row
Example 25:
A box consists of 1 blue marble, 2 yellow marbles, 3 blue balls and 4 yellow balls. A student
takes three items from the box randomly without replacement. Events X and Y are defined as
X : getting 2 marbles
Y : getting 1 blue item
Find: P(X), P(Y), P( X  Y ), P( X  Y ) and P( X | Y ).
87
SM025 MATHEMATICS 2- CHAPTER 9 RANDOM VARIABLES
9.1 Introduction to Random Variables

9.2 Discrete Random Variables
9.3 Continuous Random Variables
Overview

 P X  x  1  
Var X   E X 2  E(X )2  f x dx  1


E  X    xP X  x  EX    xf x  dx
  Var X  
DISCRETE CONTINUOUS
RANDOM m  median RANDOM
VARIABLES VARIABLES
 
E X 2   x 2 P X  x 

    x f x  dx
2 2
F m   P  X  x 
EX

 0 .5
  f x  dx

DISCRETE PDF CONTINUOUS CDF

PDF CDF
 d
F x
dx
88
9.1 Introduction to Random Variables

I. DEFINITION
 A random variable is a variable whose value (a real number) depends on the outcomes of
random experiment
Random Variables
Discrete Random Variables Continuous Random Variables

 Exact values / countable  Intervals
 Example : X  0,1,2,3,4  Example : X  1  x  8
 Number of cars  The time taken by a worker
 Number of workers  The amount of water
 Number of complaints  The height of students
Example 1:
A fair coin is tossed 3 times. Determine the random variable X which represent the number
of ‘tail’ obtained.
Example 2:
A box containing 3 blue marbles and 4 green marbles. Two marbles are drawn without
replacement. Determine the random variable X which represents the number of ‘green
marbles’ obtained.
9.2 Discrete Random Variable

I. Probability Distribution Function (PDF DRV)
 Suppose x1 , x2 , ......xk are the values of a discrete random variable X which are
associated with the corresponding probabilities P( X  x1 ), P ( X  x2 ),....., P ( X  xk ) .

 If X is a discrete random variable then
0  P  X  xi   1
k
 P( X  x )  1
i 1
i
The probability distribution can be presented in the form of table, function and graph.
89
Example 3:
A fair dice is rolled. If X represent the number on the dice, show that X is a discrete
random variables.
Example 4:
12  y
The random variable Y has a probability P(Y  y)  for y  0, 2, 4, 6 .
36
Construct a probability distribution table for Y . Draw a graph for the probability distribution
of Y .
Example 5:
kx2 , for x  0, 1, 2, 3
Given P( X  x) 
k , for x  4, 5, 6
1
with k is a constant . Show that k  . Hence, Find
17
(a) P(0  X  3) (b) P X  2  1
(c) P( even number ) (d) mode
(e) P( X  2)
Example 6:
A bag contains four pieces of red towels and three yellow towels. The towels are to be drawn
at random one by one without replacement from the bag until a piece of red towel is obtained.
If X is the total number of towels drawn from the bag:
(a) obtain the probability distribution of X.
(b) P( X  2)
(c) find P(1  X  3)
90
II. Cumulative Distribution Function ( CDF DRV)
If X is a discrete random variable with probability distribution function P  X  x  for
x = x1 , x2, ..., xn , then the cumulative distribution function of X, denoted by F (x) , is given by
x
F  x   P X  x    P  X  x 
xi
The cumulative distribution function gives the probability that the variables take a value less
than or equal to x and is defined for all real x
The median, m is the value when P X  m  0.5 or F (m)  0.5
Note: In general,
1. P X  a   P X  a   P X  a  1  F a   F a  1
2. P( X  a)  1  P X  a   1  F a 
3. Pa  X  b   P X  b   P X  a   F b   F a 
4. Pa  X  b   P X  b  1  P X  a   F b  1  F a 
5. Pa  X  b   P X  b   P X  a  1  F b   F a  1
Example 7:
The probability distribution function of a discrete random variable X is given in the table
below:
x 0 1 2 3
P X  x 
1 3 3 1
8 8 8 8
(a) Find the cumulative distribution function , F (x) .

(b) Sketch the graph F (x) .
(c) Find the median.
91
Example 8:
The cumulative distribution function F(x) of a discrete random variable X is shown as below:
x 1 2 3 4 5
F  x 0.2 0.32 0.67 0.9 1
Find:
(a) P X  3 (b) P X  2
(c) P2  X  4 (d) the median.
Example 9:
The cumulative distribution function of a discrete random variable X is given in the table
below:
x 1 2 3 4 5
F(x) 0.05 0.3 0.6 0.75 1
Find the probability distribution function of X.
III. Expectation and Variance of Discrete Random Variables.
Expectation / Mean Variance

n
  E ( X )   xi P ( X  xi )  2  Var( X )  E ( X 2 )  [ E ( X )]2
i 1
Standard deviation of X
Eg  X    g x P X  x .
all x
 
E X2   x 2 P( X  x)
  Var(X )
all x
Important properties of expectation

Important properties of variance
1. E (a)  a
1. Vara   0
2. E (aX )  aE( X )
3. E(aX  b)  aE( X )  b 2. VaraX   a 2Var X 
4. E (aX 2  b)  aE( X 2 )  b 3. Var aX  b   a 2Var  X 
*Where a and b are constants.
92
Example 10:
The probability distribution of a discrete random variable X is given as follows.
x 1 2 3 4 5
P X  x  0.1 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.1
Calculate E ( X )
Example 11:
A discrete random variable X has the following probability distribution:
x 1 2 t
P X  x  0.1 0.2 0.7
Find the value of t if E ( X )  4 .
Example 12:
The probability distribution of a discrete random variable X is given in the table below:
x 1 2 3
P X  x  1 2 3
6 6 6
Find:
(a) E (2) (b) E ( X ) (f) E (2  5 X 2 )

(c) E (5 X ) (d) E(5 X  2)
(e) E (5 X 2 ) (f) E (5 X 2  2)
Example 13:
The probability distribution of a discrete random variable X is given as follows:
x 1 2 3
P X  x 
2 4 1
7 7 7
Calculate :(a) E ( X ) (b) E( X 2 ) (c) Var (X )
93
Example 14:
The probability distribution function of a discrete random variable X is given as follows:
x 1 2 3 4
P X  x  1 1 1 3
16 2 4 16
Find
(a) Var (X ) (b) Var( X  2)
(c) Var(2 X  3) (d) Var(5  8 X )
Example 15:
A discrete random variable has probability distribution given by
x 0 1 2
P X  x  a b c
If E ( X )  1.3 and Var( X )  0.61 , find the values of a, b and c.
Example 16:
The probability distribution function of a random variable X is
 3
P( X  x)  k   for x  0, 1, 2, 3
 x
where k is a constant. Determine
(a) The value of k. Hence, find P(0  X  3)
(b) E ( X ) , Var (X ) and Var(2 X  3)
(c) Standard deviation of X
Exercises
1. A discrete random variable X has probability distribution function given by
x 2 3 4 5 6
P( X  x) 0.2 k 0.2 2k 3k
(a) Find the value of k, and hence find Var (X ) . ( k  0.1, Var( X )  2.21 )
(b) Find the cumulative distribution of X.
(c) If Y  3 x  2 , find the standard deviation of Y ( 4.46 )
94
9.3 Continuous Random Variables
I. Probability density function (PDF CRV)

Continuous random variables are theoretical representations of continuous variables such as
height, mass or time. A continuous random variable is specified by its probability density
function which is written as f(x). This function is defined over the range  ,   .

If the probability density function f(x)  0 for all x and  f ( x)dx  1, then X is known as
a continuous random variable.

 f ( x)dx  1,
(Integral of f(x) with respect to (w.r.t) x from negative infinity to positive infinity)
y
y = f (x)
P (a x b)
x
0 a b
Note:
1. If X is a continuous random variable with probability density function f(x),

b b
then P(a  X  b)   f ( x)dx . Notice that  f ( x)dx is in fact the area enclosed by
a a
the curve y  f (x) , x-axis, the line x  a and x  b .

2. As P( X  k )  0 , where k is constant, then
P ( a  X  b)  P ( a  X  b )
 P ( a  X  b) .
 P ( a  X  b)
( P(a  X  b) Probability of X from a to b)
95
Example 17:
3 2
x 1 x  2
Given f ( x)  7
0 otherwise
(a) Show that the function is the probability density function
 3
(b) Find P X  
 2
Example 18:
A continuous random variable X has probability density function
f ( x)  kx3 , for 0  x  4 .
Find:
(a) the value of k d) P( X  4)
(b) P(1  X  3)
(c) P( X  2)
Example 19:
The continuous random variable X has probability density function
k ( x  1) , 0  x  2

f ( x)   2k , 2 x3
 0
 , otherwise
(a) Find the value of the constant k.

(b) Sketch the probability density function.
(c) Find P (1.5<X<2.5).
(d) Find P ( X>1.8).
Example 20:
The probability density function of continuous random variable X is given by
 a 0 x2
f ( x)  
a x  3 2 x5
2
(a) Show that a  (b) P(0  X  3)
9
(c) P( X  3  2) (d) find the mode
96
II. Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF CRV)
If X is a continuous random variable with probability density function f (x) for (, ) ,
then the cumulative distribution function of X is given by
x
F ( x)  P X  x    f ( x)dx

(Integral of f(x) with respect to (w.r.t) x from negative infinity to x)

Notice that the link with the formula for the discrete random variables, P(x) is replaced by
f (x) and Σ by  .
Notes:
1. F(x) is in fact given by the area under the curve y  f (x) from   up to x as
indicated by the shaded region.
y = f (x)
F (x)
0 x x
2. F ()  0 and F ()  1

3. P( X  a)  P( X  a)  F (a)
4. P(a  X  b)  P(a  X  b)
 P(a  X  b)
 P(a  X  b)
 F (b)  F (a)
97
Median
m
If the median is m, then P(X  m) =  f ( x)dx  0.5 , which means F (m)  0.5 .
a
y
y = f (x)
a m x
b
Example 21:
X is a continuous random variable with probability density function
1
f ( x)  x ,where 0  x  4 .
8
(a) Find the cumulative distribution function F (x) .
(b) Sketch the graph y  F (x) .
(c) Calculate P(2  X  3) .
(d) Find the median F (x) .
Example 22:
The probability density function of a continuous random variable X is defined as
 3
 ( x  2) 2 , 2 x0
16
 3
 ( x  2) 2
f ( x)   16 , 0 x2

 0 , otherwise


(a) Obtain the cumulative distribution function , F (x) .
(b) Sketch the graphs f and F.
(c) Find P( X  1) .
(d) Find the median of F (x) .
98
Example 23:
A continuous random variable X has the following probability density function
 x 2
 33 , 2 x3
 1
 , 3 x 5
f ( x)   3
 1
 2 x , 5 x6
 3
 0 , otherwise
Find:
(a) F (x)
(b) P(2  X  3.5)
(c) P( X  5.5)
Obtain the Probability density function from the cumulative distribution function.
Since the cumulative distribution function is the integral of the probability density function,
it follows that the probability density function of a continuous random variable is the
derivative of the cumulative distribution. That is,
f (x) =
d
F (x)
dx
( f (x) is the derivative of F(x))
Example 24:
The continuous random variable X has a cumulative distribution function given by
0 , x0
 x3
F(x) =  , 0  x  3
 27
 1 , x3
(a) Find the probability density function, f (x) .

(b) Sketch the function y  f (x) .
99
Example 25:
The cumulative distribution function, F x  of a continuous random variable X is defined as
follows :
 0, x  2
1
 2  x ,  2  x  0
12
 x
F ( x)   a  , 0 x4
 6
 b x , 4 x6
 12
 1, 6 x
(a) Find the values of the constants a and b.

(b) Find the probability density function, f (x)
(c) Calculate P(3  X  5).
III. Expectation and Variance of Continuous Random Variables.
Expectation Variance

E( X )   xf ( x) dx  2  Var( X )  E ( X 2 )  [ E ( X )]2

Standard deviation of X

Eg (X )    g x  f x dx   Var(X )
 
E X2 

  x
2
f ( x)dx
Important properties of expectation

Important properties of variance
1. E (a)  a
1. Vara   0
2. E (aX )  aE( X )
2. VaraX   a 2Var X 
3. E(aX  b)  aE( X )  b
3. Var aX  b   a 2Var  X 
4. E (aX  b)  aE( X )  b
2 2
* where a and b are constants
100
Example 26:
A continuous random variable X has the following probability density function
2
 ( x  1) , 2  x  5
f ( x)   7

0 , otherwise
Find:
(a) E( X ) (b) E ( X  1)
(c) E (10  X ) (d) E ( X 2 )
(e) E [ (X  2) 2 ]
Example 27:
The probability density function of a continuous random variable X is defined as follows:
 x
 , 0  x 1
3
 1
 1 x  3
f x   
,
3
1
 ( 4  x ), 3 x  4
3
 0, otherwise
Find E ( X ) , E ( X 2 ) and Var (X ) , Var(1  2 X )
Example 28:
X is a continuous random variable with probability density function defined as follows:
4 1
 3 (1  x), 0  x  2

4 1
f ( x)   x ,  x 1
3 2
0 , otherwise


Calculate Var(X) and Var(4 X  1)
101
Exercises
1. A probability density function for a continuous random variable Y is given by
 k ( y  1) 0 y2
f ( y)  
 0 otherwise
(a) Determine the value of k.
 1
(b) Find the cumulative distribution function, F ( y ) . Hence, determine P Y   .
 2
(c) Evaluate Var(Y  3)
2. The continuous random variable X has probability density function f (x) is given by
 Ax 0  x 1

f ( x)  A 1 x  3
0
 otherwise
Where A is a constant.
(a) Determine the value of A.
(b) Find the mean of X
 1
(c) Find the median, m of X. Hence, find P X  m  
 2
102
SM025 MATHEMATICS 2- CHAPTER 10 SPECIAL PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION Chapter 10
10.1 Binomial Distribution

10.2 Poisson Distribution
10.3 Normal Distribution
10.4 Distribution Approximation
Introduction to Special Probability Distribution
10.1 Binomial Distribution
A trial with only two possible

Bernoulli
outcomes (success(p)/failure(q))
trial?
Probability Distribution Function

Mean
P X  x n C x p x q n x , x  0,1,2,3,..., n
E ( x)    np
q=1-p
Variance
Binomial
Distribution Var ( x)   2  npq
X ~ B(n, p) Binomial Probability Table
P X  r    n C x p x q n  x
n
, where
xr Standard
Deviation
3  n  50 & 0.01  p  0.5   npq
In general,
P( X  r )  P( X  r )  P( X  r  1)
P( X  r )  1  P( X  r  1)
P( X  r )  1  P( X  r )
103
Example 1: (Calculating probabilities using the Binomial Formula)

40% of the students in a school wear spectacles. From a sample of 10 students chosen at random, find
the probability that
a) Only 3 students wear spectacles
b) More than 7 students wear spectacles
Example 2: (Calculating probabilities using the Binomial Formula)

One box contains oranges and 20% from the oranges are rotten. If a sample of 5 oranges are chosen
randomly, find the probability that
a) All the oranges are rotten,

b) None of the oranges are rotten
c) At least one of the orange is rotten
d) Only one is rotten
e) Only three are rotten
f) Not more than two are rotten
Example 3: (Calculating probabilities using the Binomial Table)

X is a random variable such that X ~ B(10,0.8) . By using the binomial table, find
a) P( X  4)
b) P( X  4)
c) P( X  4)
d) P( X  4)
e) P( X  4)
Example 4: (Finding value using the Binomial Table)

For a random variable X with a binomial distribution X ~ B(10,0.45) . Find the value of a where
a) P( X  a )
b) P( X  a )
c) P( X  a)
Example 5: (Expected value and variance formula)
51
A binomial random variable X, that is X ~ B(n, p) has a mean 3 and variance . Find the values of n
20
and p. Hence, find P( X  3) .
104
Exercise
1. The probability that a football player scores a goal when a penalty is given is 0.4. Find the
number of penalties which must be given so that the probability of scoring at least one goal is
more than 0.9940.
( Answer: n = 11)
10.2 Poisson Distribution
Probability Distribution
Function
e   x
P X  x   x  0,1,2,3,..., n Mean
**
x!
E (x)    
Related to
x : Number of occuremces
TIME/SPACE/  : Mean number of occurences in the
VOLUME interval
e is approximat ely 2.71828 Variance
Poisson
Distribution Var(x)   2  
X ~ Po ( )
Poisson Probability Table

Standard

 e  x Deviation
P X  r     
xr x!
Tips :
P( X  r )  P( X  r )  P( X  r  1)
P( X  r )  1  P( X  r  1)
P( X  r )  1  P( X  r )
Example 6: (Using the Poisson formula)
If X ~ Po 3.5 . By using Poisson formula, find
a) P X  2 
b) P X  2 
c) P X  2 
105
Example 7: (Using the Poisson table)
X is a random variable such that X ~ Po 5.7  . By using the Poisson table, find
a) P( X  3)
b) P( X  3)
c) P X  3
d) P X  3
e) P X  3
f) P2  X  5
g) P2  X  5
h) P2  X  5
Example 8: (Calculating probabilities using Poisson formula & table)
The number of telephone calls made to a switchboard daily has a Poisson distribution with mean of
eight calls in every five minutes. Find the probability that in the next five minutes
a) No calls is made
b) Five calls are made
c) At least three calls are made
d) Less than four calls are made
e) Between three and five calls are made, inclusive.
Example 9: (Calculating probabilities with difference mean)
The number of breakdowns in a particular machine occur at rate of 2.5 per month. Assuming that the
number of breakdowns is following Poisson distribution, find the probability that,
a) More than 3 breakdowns occur in a particular month

b) Less than 10 breakdowns occur in a 3 months period
c) Exactly 3 breakdowns occur in 2 months
Example 10: (Calculating probabilities with difference mean)
Cars arrive at petrol station at an average rate of 30 per hour. Assuming that the number of cars arriving
at the petrol station follows a Poisson distribution, find the probability that
a) No cars arrive during a particular 5 minutes interval

b) More than 3 cars arrive in a 5 minutes interval
c) More than 5 cars arrive in a 15 minute interval
d) In a period of half an hour, 10 cars arrive
e) Less than 3 cars arrive during a 10 minutes interval
106
Exercises
1. An auto salesperson sells an average of one car per day. Let X be the number of cars sold by
by this salesperson on any given day.
a) Find the probability that on a given day the number of cars sold is exactly 1.
b) Find the mean and variance of the probability distribution.
(Answer: a) 0.3679 b)    2  1 )
2. Number of accidents at a particular location of a highway occurs at the rate of 1.6

per week. Find the probability
a) there will be two accidents in a week.

b) there are more than 10 accidents in a five weeks period.
(Answer : a) 0.2584 b) 0.1841)
10.3 Normal Distribution
Normal Distribution Standard Normal Distribution
X ~ N ( , 2 ) Standardizing X ~ Z (0,1)
Mean, E ( X )   X 
Mean, E ( X )    0
Variance, Var( X )   2 Z Variance, Var( X )   2  1

Refer Standard Normal Table if P(Z  z) or

P(Z  z) to determine probabilities like
P( Z  z ), P( z1  Z  z 2 ), P(| Z | z ) and P(| Z | z ) .
107
For Normal Distribution Only

 P(Z  0)  P(Z  0)
=
 P(Z  a)  P(Z  a)
 P(a  Z  b)  P(Z  a)  P(Z  b)
P( Z  a)  1  P( Z  a)
  1  P( Z  a)
Example 11: (Finding the probabilities between two z scores)

Find the following probabilities:
a) P( Z  0.5)
b) P(Z  1.86)
c) P(0  Z  2.2)
d) P(1.96  Z  0)
e) P( Z  1)
f) P( Z  1)
g) P(2.05  Z  0.45)
Example 12:
Find the values of a for the followings:
a) P(Z  a)  0.3594
b) P(Z  a)  0.0985
c) P(0.3  Z  a)  0.0269
d) P(0.5  Z  a)  0.5321
e) P(a  Z  a)  0.7062
108
Example 13: ( Standardizing a normal distribution)

The weight in kg, X, for all students in KMJ was found to follow a normal distribution where the mean
weight of the student is 60kg and the standard deviation is 5kg.
a) Determine the Z values of 2 students with the weight of 50kg and 70kg respectively.
b) Determine the weight of 2 students with the Z values of −2 and 2 respectively.
c) What is the probability that the student weights between 50kg and 70kg.
X 
Recall : Z
Normal Distribution  Standard Normal
Distribution
Standardize
X ~ N ( , 2 ) X ~ Z(0,1)
Example 14: (Calculating the probabilities of a normal random variable)
The masses of chickens sold at a market are normally distributed with mean 1.5 kg and standard
deviation 400 g.
a) Find the probability that a chicken, chosen at random, has a mass of more than 1.2 kg.
b) Find the mass exceeded by 10% of the chickens.
c) In one day 200 chickens are sold. Estimate how many chickens weight less than 1.6 kg.
Example 15: (Determine the mean of a normal random variable)
A random variable has a normal distribution with standard deviation 10. Find the mean if
the probability that it will take on a value more than 77.5 is 0.1736.
10.4 Distibution Approximation

** Use the normal distribution to approximate the binomial distribution
X ~ B(n, p) X ~ N ( ,  2 )
n>50 Correction
of X ~ N (np, npq)
p close to 0.5 Continuity
Discrete Continuous
109
Correction of Continuity
4 Steps in Binomial Approximation
Example 16: (Using the normal approximation to the Binomial distribution)
Let X ~ B(200,0.3) . Use the Binomial approximation to find

Discrete
Continuous
a) P( X  50) X ~ N (np, npq)
b) P36  X  54 
c) P66  X  76 
d) P X  60 
e) P52  X  59 
f) P X  70 
110
A factory manufactures 50000 computer components in a day. 5% of the computer

components is defective. In a sample of 400 component that is selected randomly,
find the probability of getting
a) between 14 and 25 defective components inclusive

b) more than 33 defective components
10% of tiles produced in a factory are broken before they are packed. If a sample of
500 tiles is selected, find the probability of acquiring
a) less than 40 broken tiles

b) at most 40 broken tiles
c) at least 40 broken tiles
d) between 50 and 56 broken tiles
e) between 50 and 56 broken tiles inclusive
f) exactly 50 broken tiles
Exercise
An egg is classified as grade A if it weights at least 100 grams. Suppose eggs lay at a particular
farm has the probability of 0.4 being classified as grade A eggs.
a) If 15 eggs are selected at random from the farm, calculate the probability
that more than 20% of them are not grade A eggs.
b) A retailer bought 500 eggs from the farm.
(i) Approximate the percentage that the retailer would have bought from
220 to 230 grade A eggs.
(ii) If the probability not more than m of the eggs bought are of grade A
is 0.9956, determine the value m.
(Answer : a) 0.9981 b) (i) 0.03478 (ii) m≈228)
Be positive & be yourself

~THE END~
111

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NAME: PRACTICUM:

JOHOR MATRICULATION COLLEGE

Knowledge of what is possible is the beginning of happiness.

MISS JADE 2018/2019

1.1 Integration of Functions

1.1 INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONS

Anti derivative Derivative

 2x is the derivative , not only of x 2 , but also of x 2 plus any constant.

II. BASIC RULES OF INTEGRATION

Example 1: Evaluate the following.

Example 2: Evaluate the following.

Example 3: Evaluate the following.

Differentiation Integration Integration

Example 4: Evaluate the following.

Example 5: Evaluate the following.

1.2: INTEGRATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Example 6: Evaluate the following.

a)  sin 2 x dx c)  cos 3x  3sin x  dx

II. The Use of Double Angle Formula

Example 7: Evaluate the following.

 sin x dx  6 sin 2 x cos 2 x dx

 cos 2 x dx  sin 3x cos 3x dx

 2 sin x  2 cos x dx

III. The Use of Compound Angle Formula:

sin( A  B)  sin A cos B  cos A sin B

cos( A  B)  cos A cos B  sin A sin B

Example 8: Evaluate the following.

a)  sin x cos 2 x  sin 2 x cos x  dx

 sin 3x  cos 2 x  dx  sin 5 x cos 2 x  cos 5x sin 2 x  dx

 sin (3x)dx  sin x sin 2 x  2 cos x  dx

1.3 Techniques of Integration

I. Substitution Method of Integration

Steps of substitution method of integration:

Choose Substitute and Integrate Replace u

Example 9: Use suitable substitution to evaluate the following.

Exercises 3: Use suitable substitution to evaluate the following

II. Integration by Parts

The integration-by-parts formula is

Rules for choosing u and dv

Steps of integration by parts:

Choose Differentiate Replace u, v and dv Evaluate the remaining integral

Example 10: Evaluate the following by using integration by parts.

 ln x  dx. (PSPM 2008/2009)

Exercises 4: Use integration by parts to evaluate the following.

Alternative for Integration by

III. Method of Partial Fractions

The integrand is a proper Decompose into Integrate the sum of partial

Example 11: Use partial fractions to evaluate the following.

Exercises 5: Evaluate the following.

1.4 Definite Integrals

 Properties of definite integrals

 f ( x)dx  F ( x)  F (b)  F (a ).

I. Properties of Definite Integrals

  f ( x)  g ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   g ( x)dx

a a  3sin xdx  3 sin xdx  3 cos x02

 f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx

Exercises 6: Evaluate the following.

II. Area of a Region

The area of the region between y1 = f (x) and y2 = g(x) from x = a to x = b,

The area of the region between x1 = f (y) and x2 = g(y) from y = a to y = b,

III. Volume of a Solid of Revolution

generated by revolving R about the x-axis through 2π radians is

R( x)  outer radius, r ( x)  inner radius.