Ministry of Urban Development and Construction

Urban Planning, Sanitation and Beautification Bureau

Solid Waste Management Manual: With Respect to Urban Plans, Sanitary

Landfill Sites and Solid Waste Management Planning
April, 2012 i
Addis Ababa
 MINISTRY OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT
AND CONSTRUCTION

Urban Planning, Sanitation and

Beautification Bureau

Solid Waste Management Manual: With Respect to

Urban Plans, Sanitary Landfill Sites and Solid Waste
Management Planning

April 2012
Addis Ababa
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................ III
LIST OF FIGURES....................................................................................................... III
LIST OF BOX ............................................................................................................. III
LIST OF ANNEXES ..................................................................................................... III
ACRONYMS.............................................................................................................. IV
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................1
1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................1
1.1 BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................ 1
1.2 BASIC DEFINITIONS ........................................................................................................ 2
1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY .......................................................................................... 6
1.4 BASIC PRINCIPLES ........................................................................................................ 7
1.5 PURPOSE OF THE MANUAL ............................................................................................ 7
1.6 SCOPE OF THE MANUAL ................................................................................................. 8
1.7 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................ 8
1.8 HOW TO USE THE MANUAL ............................................................................................. 8
1.9 STRUCTURE OF THE MANUAL .......................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER TWO ......................................................................................................... 10
2.0 THE POLICY AND LEGISLATVE FRAMEWORK FOR SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ... 10
CHAPTER THREE ....................................................................................................... 16
3.0 BASIC ASPECTS OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM ................................... 16
3.1. SOLID WASTE STORAGE............................................................................................... 16
3.2 METHODS OF SOLID WASTE COLLECTION ........................................................................ 18
3.3 WASTE GENERATION RATE, DENSITY, NATURE AND TRANSPORT CONDITIONS....................... 20
3.4 SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES ............................................................................. 22
3.5 OTHER ISSUES OF CONSIDERATION ................................................................................. 24
CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................ 27
4.0 PHASES IN ASSESSMENT OF SOLID WASTES IN URBAN PLANS ............................. 27

4. 1 PHASE ONE: - PREPARATORY WORK .................................................................... 27

4.2 PHASE TWO: - DATA COLLECTION AND COMPILATION ......................................... 28
4.3 PHASE THREE:- ANALYZING AND INTERPRETATION ............................................... 32
CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................... 35
5.0 SANITARY LANDFILL SITE SELECTION CRITERIA, METHODS AND CLOSURE ............ 35
5.1 SITE SELECTION CRITERIA .............................................................................................. 35
5.2 METHODS OF SELECTION .............................................................................................. 40
5.3 LAND AREA (VOLUME) REQUIRED FOR SANITARY LANDFILLS............................................... 45
5.4 SITE CLOSURE AND AFTERCARE ....................................................................................... 45

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 5.4.1 Main Points ..................................................................................................... 45
5.4.2 General Principles ............................................................................................ 46
CHAPTER SIX ............................................................................................................ 51
6.0 INTEGRATED SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLANNING........................................ 51
6.1 BACKGROUND............................................................................................................. 51
6.2 OBJECTIVES OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMETNT PLAN ........................................................ 52
6.3 METHODOLOGY TO DEVELOP ISWM PLAN...................................................................... 54
6.4 RELEVANCE OF STRATEGIC PLANNING PROCESS IN ISWM .................................................. 56
6.5 EXPERIENCES AND EXAMPLES ........................................................................................ 57
CHAPTER SEVEN ....................................................................................................... 63
7. 0 RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................................ 63
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 80

ii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Comparison of various methods of service collection

Table 3.2 Typical density range of municipal solid wastes
Table 5.1 Technical selection criteria for solid waste disposal sites
Table 5.2 Weight given to criteria and compatibility
Table 5.3 Priority setting for various sites based on criteria
Table 5.4 Site selection criteria, compatibility, weight and point for each site
Table 7.1 Summarized recommendations of solid waste management components of five
levels of towns
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 5.1 Low cost sanitary landfill site of Adama

Figure 6.1 Detailed Steps in Strategic Planning for ISWM

LIST OF BOX

Box 5.1 Factors that should be considered for selection of sanitary landfills

LIST OF ANNEXES

Annex 1 Criteria for the selection of sanitary landfill site

Annex 1.1 Technical and legal criteria for selection of sanitary landfill sites
Annex 1.2 Economic and financial criteria for selection of sanitary landfill sites
Annex 1.3 Political and social criteria for selection of sanitary landfill sites

iii
 ACRONYMS

CBO Community based organizations

EPA Environmental Protection Authority (of Ethiopia)
ISWM Integrated Solid Waste Management
MSWM Municipal solid waste management
NGOs Non-governmental organizations
SWM Solid waste management
UNEP Unite Nations Environmental Program

iv
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Almost all human activities create waste in some form or another. Most individual items
of waste, particularly wastes from homes and offices, are not themselves a direct threat
for the public health. It is the way these wastes are or not handled, stored, collected, and
disposed that can pose risks to public health. It is the control of these risks that is
addressed in most public health laws and regulations.

In lower-income countries, as well as poorer parts of middle-income nations such as

Ethiopia, an estimated of 30 to 50% solid waste produced in urban areas is left
uncollected. Some viral and other infectious diseases are associated with waste and also
serve as habitat formation for breeding insects and mosquitoes. In tropical climates, some
flying insects are directly associated with the transmission of endemic diseases.
Uncollected waste also blocks drainage channels and increases the health problems
related to pool stagnant water. In addition, accumulated wastes provide the ever-present
hazard of physical injury to people coming into its close proximity, particularly children.

In general, clean and healthy living conditions in cities and towns cannot be
achieved without reliable and regular waste collection and adequate disposal
systems.

The major solid waste management processes start at solid waste production, storage and
followed by solid waste collection, transportation and transferring. Then after street
cleaning, recovery of recyclable materials, solid waste treatment, solid waste final
disposal, and finally collects feedback to monitor and evaluate the solid waste
management processes.

1
In large number of urban areas of the country, solid waste management services are either
absent or insufficient. Solid Waste Management in Ethiopia is generally in a poor state.
For example, the collection services are often inefficient and don’t cover all areas. In
general, the unauthorized and most of the authorized dump sites are poorly managed
causing significant environmental impacts.

Over the last few years, many micro and small enterprises have been set up to carry out
waste pre-collection service, receiving payment either from the respective beneficiaries
or municipalities to collect waste and transport to the municipal waste containers, and
helps to fill the created gaps in collecting and transporting wastes. These enterprises
represent a good starting point for building private sector participation and realizing the
associated benefits.

There are some positive aspects of the existing system in Addis Ababa, such as
informal recycling, composting initiatives and in particular the introduction and
expansion of private sector enterprises that carry out pre-collection service from
households. These enterprises play an important role in improving waste collection and
reducing unemployment at local and regional level.

1.2 Basic definitions

Agricultural Wastes - include garden wastes, field wastes, leaves, branches, and weeds.
In many cases, they also include dirt and manures in the more rural areas where
households keep animals or raise vegetable or flower gardens adjacent to the house.

Bio-Medical Waste (BMW) - also known as Medical or Clinical Waste and normally
refers to waste products produced from healthcare premises such as hospitals,
dispensaries etc. It is also known as Health Care Waste; (UNEP, 2009).

2
Construction Waste - waste produced in the course of construction of houses, office
building, dams, industrial plants, schools and other structures. The materials usually
include used lumber, miscellaneous metal parts, packaging materials, cans, boxes, wire,
excess sheet metal and other materials. Construction and demolition wastes are usually
grouped together (George Tchobanoglous et.al, 1993).

Commercial Solid waste – waste that originates in wholesale, retail or services,

establishment such as offices, building, storey, market, hotels and warehouses.

Demolition Wastes- wastes produced from the demolition of building, roads, sidewalks,
and other structures. These wastes usually include large broken pieces of concrete, pipe,
radiators, duct works, electrical wire, broken-up plaster walls, lighting fixtures, bricks
and glasses (George Tchobanoglous et.al, 1993).

Electronic Waste (E-Waste) - a waste type consisting of any broken or unwanted

electrical or electronic appliance. It is a point of concern, considering that many
components of such equipment are considered toxic, and are not biodegradable (UNEP,
2009).

Hazardous waste -is waste that poses substantial or potential threats to public health or
the environment. These wastes may be found in different physical states such as gaseous,
liquids, or solids. Furthermore, a hazardous waste is a special type of waste because it
cannot be disposed of by common means like other by-products of our everyday lives.

Household Solid Wastes – These are wastes that are mostly generated at home.
Typically, this includes food wastes, packaging (bottles and cans), newspaper and other
papers, and miscellaneous items that have been used up or broken and are thrown out as
waste (e.g., ashes, fruit garbage, old shoes, worn out clothes, broken cooking pot, used
paper, baskets, bags…etc ).

3
Integrated Solid waste Management– the management of solid waste based on a
consideration of source reduction, recycling, waste transformation and disposal arranged
in a hierarchical order. The purposeful systematic control of the functional elements of
generation; waste handling, separation and processing at the source; collection;
separation and processing and transformation of solid waste; transfer and transport; and
disposal associated with the management of solid wastes from the point of generation to
final disposal (George Tchobanoglous et.al, 1993).

Industrial Wastes –wastes generally discarded from industrial operation or derived from
manufacturing process (George Tchobanoglous et.al, 1993).

Institutional Wastes - solid wastes generated by schools, hospitals, government

administrative buildings and the like.

Landfills- are the physical facilities used for the disposal of residual solid wastes in the
surface soils of the earth. In the past, the term sanitary landfill was used to denote a
landfill in which the waste placed in the landfill was covered at the end of each day’s
operation.

Trench landfills- are only appropriate in regions where the soils are deep
and have a high clay content. The clay greatly reduces the rate at which
leachate seeps through the soil. Also, the water table must lie well below
the zone of fill. To make a trench landfill, a trench is dug and solid waste
is spread in it and then compacted by heavy machinery. Then it is sealed
each day with a layer of dirt that was excavated previously, when the
trench was dug. The process is repeated until the trench is filled (Joseph
M. Moran, et. al, 1986).

Area landfills- are made from natural valleys or canyons as well as
abandoned pits and quarries. In that method, the site is first lined with a
layer of clay that is 2 meters thick if the natural soils on the site will
not retain leachate. Then the waste are placed in layers on top of the

4
 bottom liner, compacted, and covered with soil each day until the site is
filled (ibid.).

Mounded landfill- is often necessary to prevent groundwater
contamination. Alternating layers of compacted wastes and dirt are
mounded over a clay base on the surface to form a hill. After the mounded
landfill is completed, the hill is contoured and vegetated to control erosion
(ibid.).

Leachate- liquid that has percolated through solid waste or another medium. Leachate
from landfills usually contains extracted, dissolved and suspended materials, some of
which may be harmful (George Tchobanoglous et.al, 1993).

Municipal solid waste- refers to solid wastes from houses, streets and public places,
shops and offices which are very often the responsibility of municipal or other
governmental authorities.

Resource recovery - means the obtaining of some economic benefit from material that
someone has regarded as waste. It is a general term used to describe the extraction of
economically usable materials or energy from waste. The concept may involve recycling
or converting into different and sometimes unrelated uses.

Sanitary landfill- an engineered method of disposing of solid wastes on land in a manner

that protects human health and the environment. Waste is spread in thin layers, compacted
to the smallest practical volume, and covered with soil or other suitable material at the end
of each working day (George Tchobanoglous et.al, 1993).

Solid waste- includes any garbage, refuse, sludge from a waste treatment plant, water
supply treatment plant, or air pollution control facility, and other discarded material
including solid, semi-solid, or contained gaseous material resulting from industrial,
commercial, mining, and agriculture operations and from community activities (cited in
Joseph Salvato, P.E. 1984).

5
Solid waste management may be defined as the discipline associated with the control of
generation, storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing and disposal of solid
wastes in a manner that is in accord with the best principles of public health, economics,
engineering, conservation, aesthetics, and other environmental considerations, and that is
also responsive to public attitudes'' (George Tchobanoglous et.al, 1993).

Transfer- The act of transferring wastes from the collection vehicle to larger transport
vehicles (George Tchobanoglous et.al, 1993).

Transfer Station- A place or facility where wastes are transferred from smaller collection
vehicles (e.g. compactor trucks) into larger transport vehicles (e.g. over-the-road and off-
road tractor trailers, railroad gondola cars, or barges) for movement to disposal areas,
usually landfills. In some transfer operations, compaction or separation may be done at the
station (George Tchobanoglous et.al, 1993).

1.3 Justification of the study

The rationale behind the preparation of this manual is to improve the technical capacities
of the public sector both in their management of solid wastes on one hand and in urban
planning preparation and implementation spheres on the other, involving the
municipalities, private sectors, civil societies to deal aspects of solid waste management
in an integrated and sustainable way. Besides, there are no adequate and consolidated
working manuals for solid waste management planning and implementation that

necessitated for the preparation of this manual.

6
1.4 Basic Principles

For the realization of integrated solid waste management, the following basic principles
need to be considered:-
• Solid waste management process must be participatory. Such participation
would directly result in reduction of solid waste generation, cleaner streets,
appropriate preparation and storage of waste for collection and cheaper
operation;
• Solid waste should be considered as a wealth;
• The need for integrated development of solid waste at Municipal levels,
private entrepreneurs, non-government organizations, community based
organization and government bodies;
• Development of programs in solid waste management must be based on local
resources;
• All public, private and community stakeholders should play a key role in
solid waste management activities;
• Solid waste should be reduced at its source;
• The overall management and administration should monitor and evaluate the
solid waste activities from its generation up to the solid waste final disposal;
• The solid waste management should consider long term vision; and
• Integrated solid waste management should be flexible to accommodate
unforeseen problems.

1.5 Purpose of the Manual

This Solid Waste Management Manual (hereafter referred to as the Manual) is intended
to serve as a day-to-day planning and implementation guideline for professionals either
in the government or private sectors in the urban planning sphere (particularly urban
environment). It is also intended to create awareness of various officials and
stakeholders in solid waste management. It will also help to serve local hygienic

7
practitioners, regional planners and other institutions that have stake in urban
environment protection to undertake a separate study on any form of solid waste
management.

1.6 Scope of the Manual

The scope of the manual is intended to be served in towns/cities of Ethiopia while large
cities particularly Addis Ababa, Dire Dawa and cities in similar category can prepare
varying manuals in a view of their specific context. The manual covers background
study, overview of basic aspects of solid waste management system, steps to undertake
solid waste management studies during urban plan preparation, standards related to
sanitary landfill and solid waste management planning.

1.7 Methodology

The preparation of this manual is mainly based on reviews of secondary sources

including relevant published and unpublished research documents, policies, regulations,
guidelines and case study papers. Primary data particularly interviews has also been
conducted with relevant officials in Addis Ababa. A series of discussion has also been
made in the Urban Planning Coordinating Bureau of the Ministry of Urban Development
and Construction (MUDC) to enrich the manual.

1.8 How to use the Manual

This manual is prepared in a user friendly manner in such a way that it could be used by
various professionals and practitioners in view of the specific circumstances and
situations in such a way that local variations should be accommodated in a flexible way.

1.9 Structure of the Manual

This manual is organized in to seven chapters. The first and second chapters deal with
introduction, and policy and legislative frameworks respectively. Chapter three reviews

8
overview of basic aspects of solid waste management while chapter four discusses
consideration of solid wastes in urban planning. The fifth chapter highlights selection
criteria for sanitary landfills and the sixth chapter focuses on integrated solid waste
management planning. The final chapter indicates recommendations.

9
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 THE POLICY AND LEGISLATVE FRAMEWORK FOR SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT

Even though there are various policy and legislative aspects that are in one way or
another related to solid waste, an attempt has been made to focus on the environment
policy of Ethiopia and solid waste management proclamation (No. 513/2007).

A/ Environmental policy of Ethiopia

The following policy issues which are related to solid wastes are indicated in item No
3.’ of the environmental policy, i.e. “human settlements, urban environment and
environmental health”.

• To ensure that improved environmental sanitation be placed highest on the federal

and regional agendas for achieving sustainable urban development;

• To promote the construction by individual families of their own houses and create
conducive conditions for communities and individual families to make
improvements to their immediate habitats as well as to provide human and
domestic waste disposal facilities;

• To recognize the importance of and help bring about behavioral change through
education and public awareness of environmental sanitation problems in trying to
achieve demand-driven community led programmes of improved urban
environments as well as the sustainable use and maintenance of sanitation
facilities;

• To bring about a sound partnership between the government and communities in

the development of an integrated sanitation delivery system, and to foster the
supplementary role of NGOs;

10
 • To give priority to waste collection services and to its safe disposal;

• To create conducive conditions for families, housing groups and communities to

construct latrines and for private entrepreneurs to undertake latrine emptying as
well as waste collection and disposal services;

• To undertake studies which identify suitable sanitary landfill sites in the major
cities and towns of Ethiopia;

• To the extent possible to recycle liquid and solid wastes from homesteads and
establishments for the production of energy, fertilizer and for other uses.

On the other hand, in item 3.8 of the environmental policy i.e. “Control of Hazardous
Materials and Pollution from Industrial Waste”, the following policy issues have been
formulated:-

a. To adhere to the precautionary principle of minimizing and where possible

preventing discharges of substances, biological materials or their fragments from
industrial plants and personal or communal appliances or any other external
sources that could be harmful, and to disallow the discharge when they are likely
to be hazardous;
b. To adopt the "polluter pays" principle while endorsing the precautionary principle
since pollution is likely to occur, and ensure that polluting enterprises and
municipalities and Wereda councils provide their own appropriate pollution
control facilities;
c. To establish clear linkages between the control of pollution and other policy areas
including water resources, agriculture, human settlements, health and disaster
prevention and preparedness;
d. To provide adequate regulation of agricultural (crop and livestock) chemicals and
micro-organisms;

11
 e. To ensure that pollution control is commensurate with the potency, longevity and
potential to increase or reproduce of the pollutant;
f. To establish safe limits for the location of sanitary landfill sites in the vicinity of
wells, boreholes and dams, and issue regulations to enforce them;
g. To review and develop guidelines for waste disposal, public and industrial
hygiene and techniques to enable the cost-effective implementation of defined
standards of control, and to issue regulations to enforce them;
h. To formulate and implement a country-wide strategy and guidelines on the
management of wastes from the medical, agriculture and other sectors that may
use potentially hazardous biological organisms, their fragments or chemicals, and
to issue the necessary regulations to enforce them;
i. To establish a system for monitoring compliance with land, air and water
pollution control standards and regulations, the handling and storage of hazardous
and dangerous materials, mining operations, public and industrial hygiene, waste
disposal, and water quality;
j. To maintain an up-to-date register of toxic, hazardous and radioactive substances,
and to make the information available on request;
k. To maintain regular environmental audits to ensure the adoption of
environmentally sound practices in all public and private development activities
including industrial and mining operations;
l. To enforce the exhaustive labeling and detailing of the contents usage and expiry
date of foods, drugs, cosmetics, other chemicals, and when any of the contents are
poisonous or dangerous in any other way, the fixing of strikingly visible labels to
that effect;
m. To promote waste minimization processes, including the efficient recycling of
materials wherever possible;
n. To create by law an effective system of control, distribution, utilization and
disposal after use or expiry of chemicals, biological organisms or fragments of
organisms that could be hazardous but are required for use;

12
 o. To prohibit from importation to and from transit through Ethiopia hazardous
materials, organisms or fragments of organisms as agreed by African states in
Bamako;
p. To hold as legally liable an employer who deploys employees in using or handling
hazardous materials without adequately training them on how to deal with the
hazard and without adequate equipment to protect each one of them for physical
harm or disease that is caused by working conditions whether the harm or disease
starts in the place of work or away from it;
q. To foster better understanding of the dangerous effects of chemicals and organisms
and their fragments through the provision of information in a form understandable
to users, and provide or enforce the provision of information on the appropriate
methods and technologies for the treatment and disposal of wastes

B/ Solid Waste Management Proclamation No. 513/2007

The rationale behind the formulation of the proclamation is:

• To promote community participation in order to prevent the adverse effect

and to enhance the benefits resulting from solid waste;
• The solid waste management action plans designed by and implemented at,
the lowest administration unit of urban administration can ensure
community participation.

The objective of the proclamation is to enhance at all levels capacities to prevent the
possible adverse impacts while creating economically and socially beneficial assets
out of solid waste.

Among other issues, the proclamation sets out the following:-

Article 4:- General Obligation of Urban Administrations-

13
 1) Urban Administration shall create enabling conditions to promote
investment on the provision of solid waste management service.
2) Any person shall obtain a permit from the concerned body of an urban
administration prior to his engagement in the collection, transportation, use
or disposal of solid waste.

Article 5:- Solid Waste Management Planning-

1) Urban Administrations shall ensure the participation of the lowest
administrative levels and their respective local communities in the designing
and implementing their respective solid waste management plans.
2) Each region of urban administration shall set its own schedule and, based
on that, prepare its solid waste management plan and report of
implementation.
3) The plan and report referred to under sub–article (2) of this article shall be
consolidated based on the solid waste management plan and implementation
report of the lowest administrative units.
4) Urban administrative may transfer the following responsibilities to their
lowest administrative units:
a) The formulation and implementation of action plan on solid waste
management;
b) Ensuring the installation of marked waste bins by street and other public
places;
c) Ensuring the collection of solid waste from waste bins with sufficient
frequency to prevent overflow;
d) Planning and carrying out public awareness raising activities; and,
e) Ensuring that measures are taken to prevent pollution arising from
mishandling of solid wastes.

Article 11:- Management of Household Solid Wastes

14
1) The head of each household shall ensure that recyclable solid wastes are segregated
from those that are destined for final disposal and are taken to the collection site
designated for such waste.
2) Urban Administration shall in the residential areas designated pursuant to sub-article
(4) of this Article, ensure that adequate household solid waste collection facilities are
in place.
3) It is prohibited to dispose of litter on streets, waterways, parks, bus stop, train
station, sport fields, water bodies in urban areas or in other public spaces while
litter bins are available.
4) Each Urban Administration shall delineate residential areas wherein the provision of
this Article shall have compulsory application.

Article 14:- Construction of Solid Waste Disposal Sites-

1) Each Urban Administration shall in conformity with the relevant federal
environmental standard, ensure that solid waste disposal sites are constructed and
properly used.
2) Urban Administration shall, ensure that a solid waste disposal site that was under
construction or was constructed prior to the coming into force of this proclamation
is subjected to environmental auditing as per the relevant law.
3) Urban Administration shall ensure that any new solid waste disposal site being
constructed or an existing solid waste disposal site undergoing any modification
has had an environmental impact assessment according to the relevant law.

15
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 BASIC ASPECTS OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

3.1. Solid Waste Storage

Solid waste storage facilities may be classified as primary (or individual) and secondary
(or communal) storage facilities. As far as possible, the storage facilities must be animal-
proof, insect-proof, washable and robust enough to meet the exigencies of normal use.
The storage volume required for household wastes is a function of the number of
premises served, rate of waste generation, family size and frequency of collection. On the
other hand, the storage capacities required for commercial and institutional premises will
be determined by the size of the premises, nature and waste generation (UNCHCS, n.d).

3.1.1 Primary Solid Waste Storage Facilities

A variety of facilities are used for primary storage of solid wastes. Temporary containers,
such as cardboard boxes and plastic carrier bags, are used in unserviced or poorly
serviced areas. Standardized use of purpose-made plastic refuse bags is often
inappropriate for developing countries as they require careful organization to distribute
and their attractiveness for alternative uses and susceptibility for tearing. Reusable heavy
duty plastic bags, with an average useful life of six months have been successfully used
in Zimbabwe while after this period the bags are removed for recycling into new bags
(UNCHS, n.d). Many of the primary storage waste facilities commonly used do not
protect against breeding of flies, and the use of container lids is essential to protect and
interrupt the breeding process. Plastic and galvanized-iron bins with lids are commonly
used in middle income and high income areas, but they are relatively valuable and, hence,
susceptible to theft. Containers made from used car and truck tires, with capacities
ranging from 30 to 80 liters, when fitted with a suitable lid, offer a useful fly-proof,
washable, robust and low cost alternative (ibid).

16
Depending on the method of waste collection, the standardization of primary-storage
facilities could maximize labour and transport productivity. This is especially true for
waste collection methods that rely on the direct handling of primary refuse-storage
equipments by municipal workers. No such advantage is derived in the case where
municipal workers only handle secondary-storage facilities, such as communal bins.
Standardization of primary refuse storage facilities does, however, pose a considerable
problem with regard to their organization, maintenance and distribution. Thus,
standardization of primary storage might, only be suitable when waste generation rates
are high, usually greater than 25 liters of daily capacity. Consequently, standardization
might only be relevant to high income areas of developing countries.

Collections of materials at source are termed ‘kerbside collection systems’. This method
involves the householder putting out recyclable materials for collection separate from the
normal refuse. In the separation at source scheme, the householder is either required to
place recyclable materials into one container for sorting by the collectors (including
informal sectors), or the recyclable materials are placed in separate containers.

3.1.2 Secondary Solid Waste Storage Facilities

Secondary waste storage facilities may be either stationary or portable units. The
stationary units are commonly uncovered, and the waste is often scattered around the
facility where insects, rodents and animals are attracted to it. Wastes from stationary units
have to be removed by raking out on to the ground and collecting in baskets before being
carried to the vehicle. This is often demeaning, unhealthy and time consuming task which
limits productivity of both labor and vehicles. In portable storage facilities, the vehicle
deposits an empty container and collects a full one. Vehicle productivity in general is
maximized in portable units since time taken to set down an empty container and load a
full one is very small (typically one minute), and with appropriate tipping gear fitted to
the vehicle, the tipping operation also requires minimal time to complete. Hence, the
overall round-trip time is essentially composed of travel time for shuttling back and forth

17
to the disposal site. The requirement of labor is also minimal as compared to the
stationery containers.

Generally, in uncovered containers the wastes are susceptible to scavengers that lead to
the scatter of wastes with concomitant health problems. Flies play a mechanical
transmission of faces and thus of faecal-oral diseases in uncovered piles of rotting refuse.
The mosquito Aedes aegypti will breed under these situations where piles of refuse
contain mosquito breeding sites and may transmit dengue, yellow fever, and other
arboviral infections (S.Gairncross and R.Feachem, 1993, cited in Prime Consultants,
2008).

Various types of solid wastes have certain maximum limits of source storage after which
they may lead to adverse impacts even though there are variations in accordance with the
local climate, storage mechanism and other local conditions.

3.2 Methods of Solid Waste Collection

The four methods of solid waste collection are stated in the following way (UNCHS,
n.d).

A) Communal collection
Under the communal collection system, householders discharge their wastes at
predetermined locations having some form of communal storage facility, and refuse
collection vehicles collect the wastes at frequent intervals. The frequency with which
communal storage facilities should be distributed is often dependent on the extent to
which a community is willing to cooperate in its proper use. Accordingly, the containers
should be spaced so that the distance between any two containers does not exceed 200
meters (UNCHS, no date). In some studies, the recommended distance between two
communal containers set is about 150 meters. The comparison of the four methods of
collection is tabulated in table 3.1.

18
 Table 3.1: Comparison of various methods of service collection

Communal Block Kerbside Door to

Description collection collection collection door
collection
Householder cooperation in carrying refuse Yes Yes Yes No
bins
Householder cooperation in emptying Yes Optional No No
refuse bins
Need for scheduled service No Optional Yes No
Susceptibility to scavenging Very high None High None

Average crew size 1-2 (portable) 1-3 1-3 3-7

2-4 (stationary)
Complaints regards trespassing No No No Yes
Level of service Poor Fair Good Good
Collection cost Low Medium High Very high
Source: - UNCHS (Habitat) (no date), Refuse Collection Vehicles for Developing Countries.

B) Block collection
Under block collection system, a collection vehicle travels a predetermined route at
intervals that suit the capacity and schedules of the municipality, usually every two to
three days, and stops at selected locations. Consequently, the householders bring their
refuse containers upon hearing the bell, and hand them over to the sanitation crew.

C) Kerbside (entrance) collection

Under this system, the crew collects containers of refuse which are deposited at the
Kerbside at fixed intervals, usually on two specific days in the week. In effect, this
system requires a very regular and well organized collection service, so that householders
know when to leave out their wastes. Kerbside collection could be mainly applicable in
high-income areas of the developing world as it incurs a relatively high collection cost.

D) Door-to-door collection
In door-to-door collection system, the collection crew enters each premise, takes out the
container and sets it back after emptying the waste into collection vehicles. The lack of
householder involvement in the collection process is, however, offset by increased labor

19
costs in entering all premises. The door-to-door collection method only proves productive
when collection is infrequent, typically once a week (UNCHS, no date).

3.3 Waste Generation Rate, Density, Nature and Transport Conditions

A) Waste Generation
The amount of solid wastes generated is usually directly related with the wealth of a
society. The more affluent the country or community is, the greater will be the rate at
which it generates wastes. Country wide average rates of waste generation in most
industrialized countries lie between 0.8 and 1.4 kg per capita per day. In developing
countries the average generation rate is within the range of 0.3 to 0.5 kg per capita per
day (ibid.). Low income areas in urban centers in developing countries frequently
generate the smallest quantities of waste; at times, as little as half the average of the city.

B) Waste Density
Likewise, the density of wastes varies considerably, depending on the relative affluence
of the community and the way in which waste is handled and stored.

Industrialized country refuse contains a considerable quantity of packing materials which

occupy large volumes but are light in weight. Consequently, refuses in industrialized
countries are characteristically low in density, typically ranging between 100 and 150 kg
per cu m. The waste in developing countries is naturally dense, typically ranging between
300 and 550 kg per cu m (see Table 3.2).

20
Table 3.2: Typical density range of municipal solid wastes
Country waste density (kg/ cu m)
Industrialized countries:
UK 150
USA 100
Middle income countries:
Egypt 330
Nigeria 250
Singapore 175
Tunisia 175
Low income countries:
Bangladesh 600
Burma 400
India 400-570
Indonesia 400
Nepal 600
Pakistan 500
Sri Lanka 400
Thailand 250
United Republic of Tanzania 330
Source: Cited from various sources in UNCHS, no date

Where waste densities are low, as in the case with industrialized country refuse, in order
that vehicle productivity can be maximized through the transporting of maximum
payloads, it is necessary to compact the refuse in order to increase its density.
Compaction trucks are typically designed to compact light refuse (e.g., 100 kg/cu m
density to about 400 kg/cu m), but the naturally occurring density of developing country
refuse is usually around 400 kg/cu m. Consequently, it requires no compaction and, hence
the choice of different equipment is indispensable (UNCHS, n.d).

C) Nature of Waste
Up to one third of municipal wastes in developing countries could consist of abrasive
materials such as sand, stones, dust and ash. Abrasive materials in waste water wear out
sliding parts and exposed hydraulic systems of refuse collection vehicles. Vehicle choice
in such cases should be biased against vehicles containing components, likely to be
affected by abrasive materials.

21
Developing country wastes also contain a high proportion (40 to 60%) of putrescible
matter, such as vegetable and other foods, which in hot and humid climate areas, it
decomposes and yielding acidic compounds. These acids produced can cause serious
problems of corrosion in collection vehicles, and vehicle design and operation must take
account of this.

The type of waste in any city or even within different districts of the city can vary
considerably depending on the affluence of the inhabitants and the amount of office or
other commercial wastes in the district. An area with a large number of offices will have
less dense and abrasive wastes than an area with housing and trade establishments.

D) Transport Conditions
Many sources of waste might only be reached by roads or alleys which may be
inaccessible to certain methods of transport because of their width, slope, congestion or
surface. This is especially critical in unplanned settlements such as slums or low income
areas and thus largely affects the selection of equipment. Road conditions, traffic
density, and overall haul distance will have a determining influence on vehicle choice.
Besides to motorized vehicles, non-motorized vehicles should be considered which are
mainly used to transfer wastes to communal containers or to disposal sites (in small
towns) that are found near the towns. The non-motorized vehicles are also
recommendable in narrow and filthy roads, dense settlement areas and in inaccessible
parts of large towns. In large towns or cities, the non-motorized vehicles should be used
only to transfer wastes to communal containers.

3.4 Solid Waste Disposal Techniques

Three approaches, namely, sanitary landfills, incinerators and various reuse techniques
can be employed to dispose and handle solid wastes. However, almost all the towns of
the country use open dumping sites with various negative impacts on the environment
including human beings.

22
i) Sanitary Landfills

Before discussing sanitary landfill sites, it is helpful to discuss about open dump sites as
large number of Ethiopian towns/cities currently depend on such types of open dump
sites. The open dump of solid wastes is very common in developing countries. Open
dump sites for solid wastes are unsatisfactory in health, environmental and aesthetic
grounds. In open dump sites, solid wastes are generally spread over large areas which are
sources of food and harborage for rats, flies and vermin, and also be a source of odor and
smoke nuisance, a fire hazard, and a cause of water pollution.

Sanitary landfill is a method of disposing of solid wastes in a manner that protects the
environment including human health in that the wastes are spreading and sealing in thin
successive layers of earth and the wastes are compacted. It should, however, be noted that
there are various types of sanitary landfills (including area landfills, trench landfills, and
mounded landfills) that employ various technical approaches. Most of the problems
encountered in open dump sites will not occur in sanitary landfill sites. Sanitary landfill
sites are usually designed to serve for a period of 20 to 40 years. Projects related to
sanitary landfills should undertake environmental impact assessment so as to mitigate the
various environmental impacts that could occur during the construction and operational
periods.

Although sanitary landfills are better than open dump sites in many respects they do have
the following drawbacks (C.J.Barrow, 1995, cited in Prime Consultants, 2008).

1. Nuisance during operation periods and health problems (smell, noise, rodents, flies,
etc.), which largely depend on the speed and care of burial.
2. Risk that hazardous compounds will escape into groundwater, streams or the air: base
and capping layers of clay may crack and allow leaching or gas escape.
3. Generation of methane may pose an explosion risk and it is a greenhouse gas. This
limits land use close to or on abandoned pits, but may sometimes provide a source of
energy if it can be tapped in a cost effective way.
4. Birds attracted to tips may endanger flights from nearby airports.

23
5. Decomposition may cause ‘hot-spots’ which restrict vegetation.
6. Non-degradable materials that do not rot may also pose a problem.

ii) Incineration

Municipal incinerators can be used to deal with refuse, industrial waste and human
bodies. Typically municipal incinerators operate at roughly 800 to 1000 oc, which renders
most domestic and agricultural materials chemically harmless and free of organisms; it
also reduces the rubbish to much less bulky, easier to handle ash. Incineration is more
advantageous than open dump sites from health perspective, as the high temperatures
destroy pathogens and their vectors.

iii) Reuse and Recycling Mechanisms

Some of the reusing and recycling mechanisms are described below.

1. Resource recovery- is a broad term that is used for the retrieval of valuable materials
or energy from a waste stream.
2. Reclamation- is the separating out of materials such as rubber, glass, paper and scrap
metal from refuse and the act of reprocessing them for reuse.
3. Composting- is an age-old process, wherein the organic fraction of wastes is heaped
into piles and allowed to decompose in that after about six months humus like
substance remains and makes an excellent soil conditioner.
4. Hydropulping- is a method that is used to recycle paper products.

3.5 Other Issues of Consideration

a) Institutional Aspects

Institutional aspects of MSWM concern the institutional structures and arrangements for
solid waste management as well as organizational procedures and the capacity of
responsible institutions which include the following:

24

Distribution of functions, responsibilities and authority between local, regional
and central government institutions (i.e. decentralization), and among local
governments in a metropolitan area,

Organizational structure of the institutions responsible for MSWM, including the
coordination between MSWM and other sectors and/or urban management
functions,

Procedures and methods employed for planning and management,

Capacities of institutions responsible for MSWM and the capabilities of their
staff, and

Private sector involvement and participation of communities and user groups.

An institutional issue including the current and intended legislation and the extent to
which it is enforced also affects the solid waste management system. The policy
environment pertaining to the involvement of the private sector including the micro and
small scale enterprises also affects the system. Besides, the capacity of the institution that
handles the overall solid waste management system has an impact in the overall
efficiency of the solid waste management system. According to the (ECA 1996, cited in
Prime Consultants, 2008), the inability of municipalities in Africa to manage an efficient
solid waste management system is partly attributed to the relegation of waste handling
and disposal to the lowest levels of responsibility.

Towns should have an appropriate institutional arrangement that handles solid waste
management in accordance with the amount of generated solid wastes and other related
factors.

b) Number of population, income of the dwellers and revenue of the

municipality/town

The number of population, income of the dwellers and revenue of towns/cities also affect
the amount of generated wastes which is in one way or another closely associated with
the aforementioned factors. Urban areas with higher number of population generate
higher amount of solid wastes as compared with lower number of population having
comparable income. Income is also an important factor where the consumption of

25
dwellers with higher income is relatively higher than the lower income group with
corresponding generation of relatively higher amount of solid wastes.

Revenue of municipalities has also an important bearing on the solid waste management
of urban areas where cities/towns with relatively higher revenue can put in place
improved solid waste management systems as compared to municipalities with limited
amount of revenue.

c) Awareness and Attitude

Public awareness and attitudes to waste can affect the whole solid waste management
system. The components of the solid waste management in one way or another depend on
public awareness and participation. Hence, public awareness and attitude is one of the
crucial issues which determine the success or failure of solid waste management system.

In order to change solid waste management significantly, the behavior and attitudes of
individuals and groups in the society will have to change. In this regard, the attitudinal
change of the government, the private sector, individuals and lobby groups and NGOs
has of paramount importance.

26
CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 PHASES IN ASSESSMENT OF SOLID WASTES IN URBAN PLANS

The phases indicated below are general and hence, the incorporation of solid waste in
the urban planning process should be aligned with the planning process.
4. 1 PHASE ONE: - PREPARATORY WORK

Purpose:- To undertake preparatory works so as to facilitate the data collection and

analysis tasks.
Outputs: -
• Checklists,
• Questionnaires, and
• Background assessment,

TASK ONE: - IDENTIFICATION OF DATA AND POSSIBLE SOURCES

Activity 1:- Identify data required for solid waste management

Identify the issues of integrated solid waste management; considering the

entire cycle including waste generation, composition, collection,
transporting to final disposal, recycling, composting and other related
aspects.

Activity 2:- Identify possible sources of data

Primary data can be obtained from the following:

• Field observation, recording and measuring solid waste;

• Discussions with various stakeholders;
• Discussions with officials including Health, Environmental Protection
and municipal officials.

Secondary data can be obtained from the following:

• CSA census and sample survey results;

27
 • CSA Statistical Abstract and Regional and Zonal environmental
profiles;
• Federal and Regional Environmental authorities;
• Cities and town administrations; and
• Unpublished reports of the Ministry of Health and Regional Health
Offices;

Activity 3:- Prepare data collection formats

• Determine the methods/instruments of data collection;

• Prepare checklists and tables; and,
• Design relevant questionnaires.

4.2 PHASE TWO: - DATA COLLECTION AND COMPILATION

Purpose: - To obtain a reliable data on solid waste management system.

Outputs:- Various data related to solid waste management which is ready for analysis.

TASK ONE: - COLLECT DATA ON THE GENERAL SITUATION OF SWM

Activity 1:- Collect data on background information

• Population size;
• Average household size;
• Occupation;
• Income of households;
• Age and sex characteristics;
• Education; and
• Climatic variations.

Activity 2:- Collect data on institutional and legal framework pertaining to solid waste
management

• Administration and organizational structure of the municipality;

• Direct or indirect responsibility of the management;

28
 • The relevant legal frameworks, policies, regulations, and strategies;
• Level of outsourcing of solid waste services to private sector.

Activity 3:- Collect data on organizational and human resource development aspects

• Organizational structure of solid waste management;

• Number of employees by sex, age and education;
• Terms of employment and salary;
• Employee and work crew incentives;
• Training requirements/gaps;
• Safety mechanisms;
• Reports and record keeping.

Activity 4:- Collect data on equipments available for Solid Waste management

• Equipments operational at hand;

• Equipments by type and age;
• Year of services of equipments.

Activity 5:- Collect data on financial aspect and cost recovery of SWM

• Financial autonomy and organizational set up;

• Budget allocation;
• Charging mechanism (household, industries, etc).

TASK TWO: COLLECT DATA ON GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS, GENERATION

AND STORAGE OF SOLID WASTE
Activity 1:- Identify and Collect data on various source of solid waste (Residential,
industrial, commercial, institutional, construction, municipal service,
processing plant, agriculture, etc.)

Activity 2:- Identify and collect data on various types of solid waste and sort out organic
and inorganic wastes.

29
 • Food waste, construction and demolish materials, plastics, leather, glasses,
paper, cardboard, steel, concrete dirt, street cleaning, tree trimming,
industrial process waste, spoiled food waste, biomedical waste,
electoronic waste and agricultural waste.

Activity 3:- Collect data on solid waste characteristics

Activity 4:- Collect data on solid waste generation rate

Activity 5:- Collect data on the types and capacities of secondary waste storage materials
(Various types of communal containers)

Activity 6:-Collect information on proper handling and usage of communal bins

• The suitability of the bins to all users ( e.g. children and women; )
• Improper usage of the bins, such as dumping hot ashes and the like into
the bins;
• The level of problems in the surrounding of the bins;
• The standard size of the bins; and
• The frequency of collection of solid wastes.

TASK THREE: - COLLECT DATA ON METHODS OF COLLECTION AND

TRANSPORTATION
Activity 1:- Collect data on how solid waste is transported

• The amount of wastes transported from various sources;

• The number of vehicles or other means of transport used for transporting solid
wastes; and,
• The quantity and types of solid wastes.

Activity 2:- Collect data on the types of motorized vehicles based on their load capacity

• Farm tractor and trailer ;

30
 • Lift dump trucks;
• Side loader trucks;
• Three wheel autorikshaw;
• Compactor truck;
• etc.

Activity 3:- Collect data on the number of non- motorized vehicles based on their load
capacity
• Human hand cart;
• Animal drawn cart;
• Human pedal cart.

Activity 4:- Collect data on short -range transfer stations

• Non-containerzid transfer station;

• Containerized transfer station;
• Compaction transfer station.

Activity 5:- Collect data on long- range transfer stations

• Road transfer station;

• Rail transfer station;
• etc.

TASK FOUR:-COLLECT DATA ON RECOVERY OF RECYCLABLE MATERIALS

Activity 1:- Collect data on Recovery of recyclable materials using 4R practices:-

• Reduce – Aimed at diminishing the amount of disposable packing and

container, through a change in consumption habit;
• Reuse - The re-use of materials or products without changing its shape or
original nature. Different types of solid wastes can be re-used such as
bottles, newspapers, magazines, books and other products;
 Recycle- The transformation of materials into raw material for production
process. One of the most important incentives for recycling is the saving
of energy and natural resources.
31
 • Recover- Principally related to appropriate waste incineration process that
produce energy and consequently conserve fossil fuel,

Activity 2:- Collect information on the principal benefits of materials that can be
reused/recycled (such as plastic, paper, metal, and glass). Its benefits
among others include the following:-
• Saving non-renewable raw materials;
• Saving energy in production process;
• Prolong the useful life of sanitary landfill sites; and,
• Generation of income and employment.

Activity 3:- Collect data on the available option for segregation of recyclable materials at
the source of generation.

TASK FIVE:- COLLECT DATA ON LEVEL OF INTEGRATION OF

DIFFERENT STAKEHOLDERS

Activity 1:- Collect data on the current functional integration of SWM at federal,
regional, zonal, city/town and sub-city levels.
Activity 2:- Collect data on roles and responsibilities of various organizations in relation
to ISWM

TASK SIX: - COLLECT DATA ON SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL

Activity 1:- Identify criteria for the selection of landfill sites (for instance, area/size,
accessibility, topography, groundwater level, availability of soil cover, etc)
(for details see item 5.1).
Activity 2:- Identify possible sites for sanitary landfill.
Activity 3:- Undertake discussion with relevant stakeholders.
Activity 4:- Collect information on the criteria indicated in activity 1.

4.3 PHASE THREE:- ANALYZING AND INTERPRETATION

Purpose:

32
 • To draw a realistic and critical analysis of the situation at hand.
Outputs:-
• An edited final report; and
• Tools to solve identified problems.

TASK ONE: - ANALYZE DATA ON THE GENERAL SITUATION OF SWM

Activity 1:- Analyze the collected data on background information (Population size;
occupation, income, age and sex characteristics, education, etc.);
Activity 2:- Analyze the collected data on institutional and legal framework of solid
waste management;
Activity 3:- Analyze the collected data on organizational and human resource
development;
Activity 4:- Analyze the collected data on equipments; and,
Activity 5:- Analyze the collected data on financial aspect and cost recovery.

TASK TWO: ANALYZE THE DATA ON THE GENERAL CHARACTERSTICS,

GENERATION AND STORAGE OF SOLID WASTE

Activity 1:-Analyze the collected data on sources and types of solid waste.
Activity 2:- Analyze the collected data on solid waste characteristics.
Activity 3:- Analyze the collected data on solid waste generation rate.
Activity 4:- Analyze the collected data on the types and capacities of secondary waste
storage materials.
Activity 5:- Analyze the information on proper handling and usage of communal bins.

TASK THREE:- ANALYZE THE DATA ON METHODS OF COLLECTION

AND TRANSPORTATION

Activity 1:- Analyze the collected data on how solid waste is transported?
Activity 2:- Analyze the collected data on the types of motorized vehicles based on their
load capacity
Activity 3:- Analyze the collected data on the number of non- motorized vehicles based
on their load capacity

33
Activity 4:- Analyze the collected data on the short and long -range transfer stations

TASK FOUR:-ANALYZE THE DATA ON RECOVERY OF RECYCLABLE

MATERIALS

Activity 1:- Analyze the collected data on Recovery of recyclable materials using 4R
practices.
Activity 2:- Analyze the collected data on the principal benefits of materials that can be
recycled/reused.
Activity 3:- Analyze the collected data on the options available for segregation of
recyclable materials at the source of generation.

TASK FIVE: - ANALYZE THE DATA ON LEVEL OF INTEGRATION OF

DIFFERENT STAKEHOLDERS

Activity 1:- Analyze the collected data on the current functional integration of ISWM at
various levels.
Activity 2:- Analyze the collected data on the roles and responsibilities of the
organizations in relation to ISWM.

TASK SIX:- ANALYZE THE DATA ON SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL SITE

Activity 1:- Analyze the collected data on various variables for the selection of sanitary
landfill sites.
Activity 2:- Analyze the opinions and suggestions of various stakeholders.
Activity 3:- Make decisions.

34
CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 SANITARY LANDFILL SITE SELECTION CRITERIA,

METHODS AND CLOSURE

5.1 Site Selection Criteria

Sanitary landfill is a technique for the final disposal of solid waste in the ground that
causes no nuisance or danger to public health or safety; neither does it harm the
environment during its operations or after its closure. This technique uses engineering
principles to confine the waste to as small areas as possible, covering it daily with layers
of earth and compacted to reduce its volume. In addition, it anticipates the problems that
could be caused by the liquids and gases produced by the decomposition of organic
matter.

The preliminary identification of available sites for sanitary landfills should be carried
out as follows (Ministry for the Environment and Territory, et al. (2008):

 Preliminary calculation of the total area needed for the sanitary landfill;
 Perimeter delimitation of rural and industrial zones and conservation areas
existing in the municipality;
 Survey of the available sites within the delimited perimeters, where there are no
zoning or land use restrictions and sites have dimensions compatible with the
preliminary calculation, giving priority to land owned by the municipality;
 Determination of ownership of surveyed sites;
 Study/review of documents relating to the sites.

35
The factors that have been identified for selecting landfill sites are indicated in box 5.1 and
table 5.1.
Box 5.1:- Factors that should be considered for selection of sanitary landfills

1. Adequate land area and volume to provide sanitary landfill capacity to meet
projected needs for at least 10 years, so that costly investments in access roads,
drainage, fencing, and weighing stations are justifiable.
2. Preferably, a site accessible within 30 minutes travel time (a function of road and
traffic conditions) is to be sought, even if it means buying land, because of the
need to avoid adversely affecting the productivity of collection vehicles. At
distances greater than 30 minutes travel, for collection operations to be economic,
investment in either large capacity collection vehicles (5 tons per load or greater)
or transfer stations with large capacity vehicles (20 tones or greater) would be
necessary.
3. If transfer stations are necessary, preferably the landfill site would be accessible
within 2 hours of travel time by transfer truck one-way from the transfer station.
For longer distances, transfer by rail or barge directly to the landfill site needs to
be considered. However, sitting of rail or barge transfer sites within the refuse
collection area may be difficult. Double handling by truck transfer followed by
rail or barge transfer should be avoided.
4. The seasonally high table level (i.e., 10-year high) of the groundwater is below
the proposed base of any excavation or site preparation to enable landfill cell
development.
5. Soils above the groundwater's seasonable high table level are relatively
impermeable (preferably, less than 104 cm/s permeability when undisturbed).
6. No environmentally significant wetlands of important biodiversity or reproductive
value are present within the potential area of the landfill cell development, unless
they have adequate capacity to absorb/assimilate the pollution loadings
anticipated.
7. None of the areas within the landfill boundaries is part of the 10-year
groundwater recharge area for existing or pending water supply development

36
8. There should be no private or public drinking, irrigation or livestock water
supply wells down-gradient of the landfill boundaries if at risk from
contamination, unless alterative water supply sources are readily and
economically available, and the owner(s) gives written consent to the potential
risk of well abandonment.
9. No known environmentally rare or endangered species breeding areas or
protected living areas are present within the site boundaries.
10. No significant protected forests are within 0.5 km of the landfill cell development
area. No major lines of electrical transmission or other infrastructure (e.g., gas,
sewer, water lines) are crossing the landfill cell development area, unless the
landfill operation would clearly cause no concern or rerouting is economically
feasible.
11. There are no underlying limestone, carbonate, or other porous rock formations
that would be ineffective as barriers to leachate and gas migration, where the
formations are more than 1.5 m in thickness and present as the uppermost
geological unit.
12. There are no underground mines that could be adversely affected by surface
activities of landfilling, or mining resources which could be rendered less
accessible by land filling, unless the owner(s) gives explicit consent.
13. No residential development is adjacent to the perimeter of the site boundary.
14. Landscaping and protective berms can be incorporated into the design to
minimize visibility of operations from residential neighborhoods.
15. There is no significant seismic risk within the region of the landfill which could
cause destruction of berms, drains, or other civil works, or require unnecessarily
costly engineering measures.
16. No fault lines or significantly fractured geological structure that would allow
unpredictable movement of gas or leachate are within 0.5 km of the perimeter of
the proposed landfill cell development.
17. The site is not within 3 km of a turbojet airport and 1.6 km of an airport for piston
engine aircraft. For sites located more than 3 km and less than 8 km from the
nearest turbojet airport (or more than 1.6 km and less than 8 km from the nearest

37
 piston-aircraft airport), no consideration is to be given unless the aviation
authority has provided written permission stating that it considers the location as
not threatening to air safety.
18. The site is not within a floodplain subject to 10-year floods. If it is within areas
subject to a 100-year flood, it must be amenable to an economic design which
would eliminate the potential for washout.
19. The site is not within 1 km of socio politically sensitive sites where public
acceptance might be unlikely (e.g., memorial sites, churches, schools).
20. The area is accessible by a competent paved public road which can accommodate
the additional truck traffic without significant effect on traffic flow rates. From
the public road into the site, the access road to be constructed should be less than
10 km for large landfills serving metropolitan areas and less than 1 km for small
landfills serving secondary cities.

Source: - Philip Rushbrook, Michael Pugh (1999).

38
Table 5.1 Technical selection criteria for solid waste disposal sites

Area exclusion criteria applicable worldwide

Aspect Criteria
Transport More than 2 km from a suitable main road,
More than an economical travel distance from point of origin of waste.

Natural Flood plains or other areas liable to flooding

conditions Extreme morphology (steep slopes liable to landslips)

Land use Designated groundwater recharge.

Incompatible future land use designations or adjacent to the site
Within a military exclusion zone.

Public Within 200 m of existing residential development.

acceptability

Safety Within 5 km of an airport runway in the direction of approach and

take-off;
Area of former military activity;
Within a microwave transmitter exclusion zone;
Within a safe buffer distance (say 100 m) from an existing or planned
quarry;
Areas known to contain collapsing soils;

Area exclusion criteria subject to local interpretation

Aspect Criteria
Natural N3. High or seasonally high water table
conditions N4. Karstic or geologically faulted areas, or areas containing mine
workings, where leachate may migrate rapidly from the site to a potable
aquifer
N5. Wetlands (swamps or marshes) or other areas of ecological significance
Public P2. Within an acceptable distance (desirable minimum distance 200 m) from
acceptability historical, religious or other important cultural site or heritage.

Sources: - Philip Rushbrook, Michael Pugh (1999).

Note: See also annexes 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3 and the various criteria should be considered in
view of the local contexts in a flexible manner.

39
5.2 Methods of Selection

The method of selection should start by giving weight to priority criteria. A suggestion
for the selection criteria order of priority in choosing a sanitary landfill site are selection
of say six items i.e. compatibility with environmental legislation, compatibility with
political and social conditions, compatibility with the main economic conditions,
compatibility with the main technical conditions, compatibility with other economic
conditions and compatibility with other technical conditions (See table 5.2) (Ministry for
the Environment and Territory, et al., 2008).

Table 5.2 Weight given to criteria and compatibility

Ser.no Weight given to criteria and compatibility Weight

Priority of criteria
1- Compatibility with environmental legislation 10
2- Compatibility with political and social conditions 6
3 Compatibility with the main economic conditions 4
4 Compatibility with the main technical conditions 3
5 Compatibility with other economic conditions 2
6 Compatibility with other technical conditions 1
Compatibility Weight
Total 100 %
Partial or total with work 50 %
No compatibility 0%
Source: Ministry for the Environment and Territory, et al. (2008).

The site chosen for the sanitary landfill should be the one that is compatible with the highest
number of criteria, taking into account the relative priority of each one. When the natural
attributes of the selected site are not totally compatible with certain criterion, its deficiencies
should be remedied by the application of modern engineering solutions.

An example is presented below how to determine the best site amongst three pre-selected
candidate with its characteristics. The site with more points will be considered the best.

40
After the weighting process is applied, the candidate sites have the following points as
indicated in table 5.3.

Table 5.3 Priority setting for various sites based on the criteria
Ser. Site Characteristics
No Criteria (Example) Priority Compatibility
Site 1 Site 2 Site 3
1 Distance from bodies of water 1 T T T
2 Distance from residential centers 1 T T P
3 Distance from airports 1 T T T
4 Water table depth 1 P P T
5 Access through low demographic density areas 2 P P P
6 Acceptance by local community 2 N P T
7 Land purchase costs 3 P P T
8 Existence of infrastructure 3 T T P
9 Minimum useful life 4 P T T
10 Land use 4 T T T
11 Natural impermeability of soil 4 P P P
12 Favorable topography for drainage 4 P P T
13 Easy access for heavy vehicles 4 T P P
14 Coverage material availability 4 N P T
15 Drainage system maintenance 5 P P T
16 Proximity to collection centre 6 T P P
Source: Ministry for the Environment and Territory, et al. (2008).

Note:
• T = Total compatibility; P = Partial compatibility; N = No compatibility
• These criteria are further elaborated in annexes 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3

The site selection criteria and the points of each site are indicated in table 5.4. As can be
seen, site 3, in spite of being located relatively close to a residential centre, is the one
with the most overall advantage.

41
 Table 5.4 Site selection criteria, compatibility weight and point for each site

Points for each site

No Priority Compatibility Points for
Criteria (Example) weight weight each site
Site Site Site Site Site Site
1 2 3 1 2 3
1 Distance from bodies of water 10 100% 100% 100% 10 10 10

2 Distance from residential centers 10 100% 100% 50% 10 10 5.0

3 Distance from airports 10 100% 100% 100% 10 10 10

4 Water table depth 10 50% 50% 100% 5.0 5.0 10

5 Access through low demographic 6 50% 50% 50% 3.0 3.0 3.0
density areas
6 Acceptance by local community 6 0% 50% 100% 0.0 3.0 6.0
7 Land purchase costs 4 50% 50% 100% 2.0 2.0 4.0
8 Existence of infrastructure 4 100% 100% 50% 4.0 4.0 2.0
9 Minimum useful life 3 50% 100% 100% 1.5 3.0 3.0
10 Land use 3 100% 100% 100% 3.0 3.0 3.0
11 Natural impermeability of soil 3 50% 50% 50% 1.5 1.5 1.5
12 Favorable topography for drainage 3 50% 100% 100% 1.5 1.5 3.0

13 Easy access for heavy vehicles 3 100% 50% 50% 3.0 1.5 1.5
14 Coverage material availability 3 0% 50% 100% 0.0 1.5 3.0
15 Drainage system maintenance 2 50% 50% 100% 1.0 1.0 2.0
16 Proximity to collection centre 1 100% 50% 50% 1.0 0.5 0.5

Total Points 56.5 60.5 67.5

Source: Ministry for the Environment and Territory, et al. (2008).

After choosing the sanitary landfill site, the municipality should not immediately proceed with the
purchase or compulsory purchase of the land (or pay compensation) as the project first needs
approval from the relevant environmental body, through a licensing process that is based on deeper
environmental studies. Examples of sanitary landfill design are indicated in figure 5.1.

42
 Fig- 5.1 Low cost Sanitary Landfill site of Adama

A) Site plan of the Sanitary landfill

Site Plan

43
 B. Design of various components of Sanitary landfill of Adama

Canal Design
Gas passage system

Cost effective dry waste storage system

44
 5.3 Land Area (Volume) Required for Sanitary Landfills

The amount of refuse that will be produced by communities served by the disposal area must be
estimated in order to determine the amount of land that is needed. Land area for sanitary landfill
should provide for 20 to 40 years period.

The space needed for refuse disposal is a function of population served, per capita refuse
contribution, resource recovery, density and depth of the refuse in place, total amount of earth
cover used, and time in use, adjusted for commercial and industrial wastes (Joseph A. Salvato,
1984).

Q=peck
d

in which,
Q= space or volume needed in acre-ft per year;
p= population served;
e= ratio earth to compacted fill; use 1.25 if one part earth is used to four parts fill. Use 1.20 if one
part is used to five parts of fill; use 1.0 if no earth is used;
c= pounds collected per day;
k=0.266=365 days/yr*27 ft3/yd3
43.560 ft3/acre-ft
d= density of compacted fill: a density of 800 to 1000 lb/ yd3 is readily achieved with proper
operation; 600 or less is poor; 1200 or more is very good.

5.4 Site closure and aftercare

5.4.1 Main Points

In a better landfill, the cessation of landfilling with wastes is followed by a transitional

period during which the highest levels of waste are covered with an increased thickness

45
of soil (final cover), and sometimes other surface capping systems may be installed in
preparation for the site's after-use.

On large sites, areas can be progressively completed and released for after-use. This not
only accelerates the return of land to productive use, but also helps reduce the production
of leachate by restricting rainfall infiltration in those areas of the site which has had final
cover material applied.

The intention of a final cover system is to (George T. et al, 1993):-

• Control infiltration of rainfall into the waste;
• Control erosion of its surface (by wind and water runoff);
• Provide durable surface drainage systems over the landfill;
• Control the migration of gas and leachate generated within the landfilled wastes;
• Support the planned after-use of the site; and,
• Maintain all the above while the landfilled wastes continue to decompose and settle
control.

If the landfill has been designed as a "containment" site, leachate will continue to be
produced at the rate that groundwater and rainwater infiltration takes place. There will be
a need to operate and maintain the leachate removal and treatment systems for as long as
the leachate poses an unacceptable threat to the local ground and surface water
environments.

5.4.2 General Principles

Restoration plans need to consider the following matters (George T. et al, 1993):

• The type of final cover (cap) for the completed landfill,

• The interception of leachate from the site to avoid polluting surface and
groundwater,
• The types of surface and groundwater monitoring which can be achieved,

46
 • The new works and maintenance required to continue to keep surface water away
from the deposited waste,
• The methods to prevent soil erosion from the final cover,
• The options available to maintain, or install, landfill gas and leachate collection
(and treatment) systems,
• The requirements necessary to maintain the long-term integrity of the final cover,
to control settlement and provide re-vegetation,
• The means to restrict access to the site after closure and capping and the site's
potential after-uses.

a) Capping design

A primary aim of the cap (in most climatic zones) is to isolate the wastes from the
environment, and restrict the infiltration of rainwater and other surface water into the
wastes below the cap. The best caps for this purpose are those constructed of natural soil
materials (such as clay) which have a permeability of below 1 x 10' cm/s. The landfilled
waste is usually domed or contoured to give a slope upon which the cap materials are
placed. This further encourages the runoff of surface water. A well-laid clay cap,
protected from soil erosion by planting grasses and from desiccation by an adequate
thickness of cover soils, will prevent most of surface water entering the waste. In some
countries, complex and expensive multilayer final caps have been designed, primarily to
prevent the cap being disrupted by erosion, the drying of the clay, plant roots, or
burrowing animals. However, there is considerable debate over whether the extra benefit
from complex designs is great enough to be worth this extra effort. The cap should be
about 1 m thick, although as little as 0.3 m has been used successfully where materials
are scarce. If the site's after-use is planned to be grassland, then a light topsoil dressing over
the cap would be suitable to promote the rapid growth of grass. If arable crop uses are
contemplated, a total soil depth of up to-1 m over any clay capping may be needed to
prevent plowing from disturbing the integrity of the cap. Whatever the final intended use
of the site, the capping system should be protected from erosion by the early
establishment of a grass or similar indigenous vegetation. Where clay is not available,

47
any soil material could be used. However, the more permeable its properties, the higher
the percentage of rainwater that will infiltrate.

b) After-uses

Near urban areas, there may be strong competing pressures to return landfills to an
apparently normal land profile. Potential after-uses include (UNEP 1994, cited in George
T. et al, 1993.) the following:-

• Agriculture arable land, grazing, exercise pasture;

• Forestation woodland, tree screens, nature reserves;
• Amenity open space, buffer zones, airport runways;
• Recreation parks, playing fields, sports complexes, tracks, and golf courses;
• Habitation caravan sites, gardens, play areas, squatter (peri-urban)
settlements; and,
• Industry open-storage areas, parking, fabrication areas.

Among the important constraints affecting the use of a former landfill are those that arise
from:-

• Low load-bearing capacity

• Extensive settling (especially uneven settling)
• The presence of combustible and potentially explosive gases
• The corrosive character of the decomposition products to concrete and
steel, and the varied biochemical internal landfill environment in general.

These constraints continue long after the fill has been completed. The duration of this
aftercare period is a function of climate (rainfall, temperature), the nature of the buried
wastes, and design and operational features of the landfill. For example, it may last 10,
20, or 30 years in a country located in a humid, tropical setting, and longer than 100 years
in an arid environment.

48
c) Aftercare

A decision has to be made about the continued monitoring and maintenance of gas and
leachate control systems that will be possible after a landfill has been closed and its final
cap has been installed. For a landfill to be maintained as sanitary, a regular program to
check the site is needed.

The main aspects to be monitored include the following (UNEP, 1994, cited in George T.
et al, 1993.):
• Erosion control (including maintenance of surface drainage systems);
• Observation of settlement and possible deformations;
• Groundwater monitoring;
• Both up-gradient wells and down-gradient wells;
• Measurement of groundwater level and groundwater quality;
• Leachate and gas control a meteorological data; and,
• Observation of the condition of vegetation and presence of vermin and odors.

d) Site closure

The most important part of a landfill closure and restoration plan, where groundwater
protection measures are in place, is to construct a low permeability cover, or cap, over the
waste when the final elevations are reached. A cap constructed from a material such as
clay is the most beneficial, but other materials can be used, and their permeability
modified, if nothing else is available.

The following procedures are typically proposed to close and restore a landfill (George T.
et al, 1993.):
1. Cover all waste. All waste should be sufficiently covered, and any unstable areas
of the landfill should be well marked with barriers.
2. Permit sufficient time for settling of any recently deposited wastes. Although the
rate of settling varies, most settlement will occur within the first few years of

49
 landfilling. Accordingly, sufficient time should be allowed for the area to settle.
As necessary, the area should be re-graded, taking into account further expected
settlement. After maximum settlement has occurred, the area should be re-graded
to provide proper drainage. Depressions and cracks should be filled using on-site
or imported material. Bulldozers and/or graders are normally used for spreading
and grading.
3. Apply final cover. This cover may include a surface layer of topsoil, which was
stripped and stockpiled prior to commencing the landfill operation.
4. Grade final slopes to around 5% (I in 20). Factors that influence the final grade
are climate, vegetation, and soil characteristics. In a relatively dry climate, with
suitable vegetative cover, slopes may safely exceed 5%. In areas with high
rainfal1, it is necessary to use extensive erosion and drainage control for slopes
above 5%.
5. Install a permanent system of surface drainage channels (and cascade structures,
where necessary) on the landfill. Since settlement will continue for several years
thereafter, these drainage structures must be designed to be flexible so as to
accommodate differential settlement within the waste)
6. Check sediment and erosion control and modify according to any change in
slopes.
7. Disassemble temporary structures (e.g., site buildings) and waste receiving areas
not required for the after-use of the site.
8. Seed the final cover with the appropriate mixture of grasses. Climate and final site
use are major factors in determining the type of grass and vegetation to be used.
9. Outline a timetable to ensure that the following features are inspected at
appropriate regular intervals:
* Settlement, cover soil integrity, and need for grading;
* Sedimentation and erosion control facilities;
* Leachate and gas control;
* Vandalism and squatting prevention measures;
* Vegetation;
* Fencing; and,
* Monitoring systems.
50
CHAPTER SIX
6.0 INTEGRATED SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLANNING

6.1 Background

According to various sources cited in the UNEP (2009), the need for ISWMP arises due to
the following factors:
• There is a growing realization of the negative impacts that wastes have had on the
local environment (air, water, land, human health etc.);
• Complexity, costs and coordination of waste management has necessitated
multi-stakeholder involvement in every stage of the waste stream;
• Local Governments are now looking at waste as a business opportunity, (a) to
extract valuable resources contained within it that can still be used and (b) to safely
process and dispose wastes with a minimum impact on the environment;
• Industrialization and economic growth has produced more amounts of waste,
including hazardous and toxic wastes;
• Due to changing lifestyles and consumption patterns, the quantity of waste
generated has increased with quality and composition of waste becoming more
varied and changing; and,
• Cities are facing an increasing growth in population, and shares in GDP growth,
resulting in – among other things – increasing quantities of waste being generated.

Some of the major features of ISWM can be listed as follows:

• Holistic approach to all waste streams thus maximizing synergetic benefits in

collection, recycling, treatment & disposal;
• Maximize the opportunities for resource recovery at all stages – from generation to
final disposal;
• Accommodate aspirations of all stakeholders – from waste generators to waste
management and service providers;

51
 • Facilitate life cycle view of products and materials; thus, promoting greater
resource use efficiency;
• Integrate different response functions such as technical, managerial, financial,
policy etc.; and,
• Greater local ownership & responsibilities/participation through a consultative
approach.

6.2 Objectives of Solid Waste Managemetnt Plan

Three objectives of solid waste management plan have been identified by the International
Environmental Technology Center of the UNEP (2004):

1) The first objective of a waste management plan is to give the parties involved in waste
management planning an overview of the existing waste management system. In some
cases the work of drawing this picture can be quite extensive, regardless of whether it is a
revision of existing data or establishing status and collecting data for the first time. The
existing solid waste management system should also give answers to the following
questions:

• Does the present waste management system meet the political objectives for waste
prevention/minimisation, recycling/energy recovery and safe disposal facilities?
• Does the present waste management system address the environmental, health and
safety issues?
• Does the present waste management system represent an adequate administrative
and organisational framework in terms of efficiency?
• What are the initial areas of concern in relation to:

Political objectives,

Improving the environmental and health and safety performance of the present
system, the capacity and the physical performance (collection equipment,

52
 trucks, access to treatment and disposal facilities) of the waste system as a
whole, and in terms of proximity and self-sufficiency, and any sites designated
for emergency events.

Improving the efficiency and the organisational framework of the system?

2) The second objective of the plan is to plan for the future. In many cases it makes sense
to have a short- and a long-term plan. It is recommended that the future plan consider
issues such as:
• The future waste management infrastructure, for example:

Which collection systems are in place?

Which types of waste management installations are in place?

How are responsibilities divided between local authorities (or other competent
authority) and industry?
• Does the present waste management system have sufficient capacity for current and
future requirements (based on known waste prognoses)?
• Are the strategic objectives in line with legislation?
• Have targets been set for all relevant waste streams and/or treatment methods, and
are they measurable?
• Have indicators been identified in order to monitor the development?
• Have instruments been identified and are they sufficient to reach the set
targets/objectives?
• Are they cost-efficient?
• What are the economic consequences of the plan?

3) Thirdly, the waste management plan should also deal with softer issues such as public
education, community participation, financial aspects, health and safety, and regulations.

53
6.3 Methodology to Develop ISWM Plan

The ISWM concept, as per definition, involves the entire life-cycle process from generation
to disposal, of varied waste streams. This issue not only involves different sources of waste
generation but also includes diversities in terms of waste characteristics, involved
stakeholders and the required technological know-how. In order to deal with this complex
issue and to arrive at an optimal solution, a number of difficult choices shall have to be
made. Prediction of waste generation and characterization is crucial for developing a robust
waste management plan. However, these parameters being a function of several factors, the
prediction has to be done following the scenario building approach. A plan for managing
diverse streams needs a flexible approach involving varied organizations and stake-holders
and generating alternatives based on participatory approach.

The scenario based approach; participatory framework, and analysis of alternatives to come
up with a robust alternative, are some of the key principles enshrined in the Strategic
Planning (SP) Process. Hence this process can be adopted as the basis for developing the
ISWM Plan as it focuses more on adaptability to change, flexibility and importance of
strategic thinking and organizational learning. Further, strategic planning is a continuous
process and not a one-time or quantum activity. The process should begin with a situation
analysis, i.e., an assessment of the internal as well as the external environment. During this
process, the existing situation has to be carefully evaluated to find out if the organization is
on the right path towards meeting its goal/vision and the SP process has to be geared
towards achieving targets under each objective.

This should be followed by developing an action plan on how to meet targets which has to
be then monitored to check if targets have been attained or not. In case targets are not
achieved, the process should be repeated till the desired targets are met.

54
 The detailed steps in the preparation of strategic planning for an integrated solid waste
management is depicted in figure 6.1.

Participation
Strategic Planning approach for ISWM
Launch
Workshop

Vision
Working Group
Identify Define goals Meeting
and objectives
Situation analysis

Environmental Status Internal Capacity Workshop

Reports Identification (MSW)
Building Enabling
of External
Information from Framework
Actions
regulatory bodies and Workshop
other stakeholders (C&D)
Preparation of Preliminary Strategic
Action Plan
Other Reports such as Workshop
Monitoring & Surveys (E-Waste)

Workshop
Detailing of Actions into Tasks
Internet Research (BMW)

Prioritization of Actions & Workshop

Responsibility Allocation (E-Waste)

Preparation of Draft Action Plan

Consultation with External

Stakeholders
Consultations
With Stakeholders

Preparation of Final Strategic Action Plan

Figure 6.1: Detailed Steps in Strategic Planning for ISWM

Source: UNEP (2009)

55
6.4 Relevance of Strategic Planning Process in ISWM

Strategic Planning (SP) is a management tool that helps an organization to achieve its
goals. The term strategic is used for the process because it prepares the organization to
respond to circumstances related to the organization’s dynamic environment. Strategic
planning is about:
• The choice that is made out of a number of alternatives that can be done or need to
be done;
• Prioritisation of these choices;
• Timing of the action associated with these choices.

Here, strategic planning helps in providing ways of maximizing opportunities, developing a

far-sighted approach for managing the solid wastes in a region.

Strategy is thus a process of:

• Targeting the key things that needs to be done to move in the desired direction
(priority issues, key influences on these issues, and the most effective ways of
dealing with them); and,
• Engaging everyone concerned to carry them out

The main components of a strategy are assessment including diagnosis (at the start of a
strategy), designing the actions (planning), taking the actions (implementation) and
monitoring and evaluation (during a strategy). These components must continue together and
reinforce one another. The best strategies have been based on participation, building on good
existing plans and processes, with clear attention to an integrated approach. However,
strategies are not panaceas, indeed they break new grounds in the way societies and
governments tackle complex issues related to solid waste management.

56
Strategic planning for waste management should be a participatory process due to the
following reasons (UNEP, 2009):
• Solid waste management is not possible by one or two institutions as it is a shared
responsibility;
• Participation means shared responsibility for the strategy and its joint undertaking;
• Participation by stakeholder groups is critical for decision making. The result will
be a realistic strategy with a broad base of knowledge, understanding and
commitment from the groups involved;
• Participants bring information for the strategy, ensuring that it is based on a
common understanding of purpose, problems and solutions;
• Participation is the most effective way of communicating information on which the
strategy is based, its goals and tasks to be undertaken;
• Participation should be expanded as the strategy develops.

In the present context, strategic planning could assist in (ibid.):

• Developing institutions and organisational arrangements that are better equipped to
cope with uncertainty, rapid change and the need for more integrated decisions;
• Developing institutional and technological skills in solid waste management;
• Developing multi-agency networks: Incorporating the public, private and the informal
sector; and,
• Setting in motion analysis of the main constraints for more integrated management.

6.5 Experiences and Examples

For many of the ISWM Plans around the world the methodology adopted does not use the
Strategic Planning (SP) approach (ibid.). Even if that was adopted, clear justification for
adopting this approach has not been properly explained. Some of the significant lessons
learnt after reviewing the application of the various projects applying Strategic Planning
Process for Solid Waste Management are stated as follows (ibid.):

57

Most of the ISWM Plans are more focused towards Municipal Solid Waste
Management.

Though many of the Strategic Plans had defined a vision and mission, the
implementation was complicated due to the individual objectives and actions
getting mixed together with the planned objectives.

The targets with respect to time that were set by the plans, needed to be updated in
order to achieve all the goals with some of the plans still being implemented.

Reduce, Reuse and Recycle Waste Management methods were a common feature
among most of the ISWM Plans.

Therefore, UNEP has encouraged the use of Strategic Planning for the development of the
ISWM plans for the cities of Pune, Wuxi and Lesotho. These plans were developed:

To overcome the pitfalls in ISWM planning,

To make use of the Strategic Planning approach for the ISWM plans for a city

To standardize a methodology for ISWM planning around the world, and,

To cover all the Solid Waste streams as well as all the aspects of ISWM.

Example One: ISWM Plan for Pune, India

For development of the ISWM Plan, a participatory format was used.
• The process included consultation with stakeholders.
• Above and over this, the proper plan was developed through a continuous dialogue
with a working group represented by all key stakeholders including regulatory,
technical and financial organizations, key personnel representing the non-
governmental organizations and professionals.
• The planning process was facilitated at every stage by involving stakeholder
consultations.

The Strategic planning process incorporated Vision-Mission-Goals-Objectives-

Targets-Strategies/Tactics-Actions-Tasks. The ISWM plan was divided into stages. The
first report was the Situation Analysis report followed by the actual Strategic Action Plan

58
for Pune City. The process of developing the ISWM for Pune has been involved data
collection, situation analysis, gap analysis, ISWM action plan and monitoring mechanisms
which act in a cyclic way and a series of consultation had been made through stakeholder
workshops, working groups, technology providers and websites.
• The process of developing the ISWM plan for Pune started with streamlining the
information to be captured and analysed, and the development of data formats.
• The Data Collection Formats were evolved based on discussions with the various
agencies as well as the “Guidelines for Data Collection and Analysis” compiled by
IETC-UNEP as the base document, and understanding the national and local legal
requirements. This document was then submitted and approved by the project
proponents.
• The available data from the various sources was captured and analyzed to assess the
prevailing solid waste management systems in terms of their efficacy and
effectiveness, including compliance with applicable legislations.
• Understanding the overall ‘situation’ both in terms of environmental concerns and
its institutional mechanism forms the first step of the SP process.
• In the Pune ISWM plan, the Situation Analysis Report provided an understanding
of the existing state of affairs. Based on the past data available, the future
developmental activities and available trends of development, scenarios were
developed for the future.
• The scenario building approach was further used for the identification of gaps. The
gaps thus identified were elaborated in terms of infrastructure; institutional
capacities, arrangements of human resources; financial constraints; etc. leading to a
detailed Gap Analysis Report.
• Finally the ISWM Action plan was formulated in line with the vision, mission,
goals and objectives. The Action plan was structured in the form of schemes which
were specifically designed for overcoming the gaps highlighted in the situation
analysis report.
Source: UNEP, 2009

59
Example Two: ISWM Plan for Wuxi New District, China8uxi New District, China

Wuxi New District and UNEP have agreed to launch the project on "Development and
Implementation of an Integrated Waste Management Plan for Wuxi New District". It aims
at developing and implementing an Integrated Waste Management Plan (IWMP) to address
the issue of solid waste being generated both from industrial as well as domestic sources.

The project is divided into three phases. In the first phase (completed), the current status of
waste management in WND was studied in order to assess the gaps and identify areas for
improvement. The second phase (currently ongoing) will develop an Integrated Waste
Management Plan (IWMP) to address the issue of solid wastes from both municipal and
industrial sources. The third phase will develop a comprehensive implementation
programme for the IWMP covering capacity building, policy instruments, technological
specifications, acquisition and installation.

The project is based on the concept of integrated waste management so that the waste
constituents are recycled and reused to the maximum possible extent and the development
of the city can take place in harmony with the environment. The project consists of the
following main elements:
A. Baseline data collection: source identification, quantification and characterization of different
types of waste (including industrial, municipal, commercial, and agricultural and special
wastes such as medical waste) including projections for future waste generation;
B. Assessment of present waste management system: assess the efficacy and effectiveness of the
existing waste management system covering all aspects (waste collection, segregation,
transportation, treatment and disposal);
C. Identifying issues of concern: identify and prioritize issues of concern so that they could be
addressed in a systematic and effective way in the project, covering all areas such economic,
technical, environmental and social;
D. Development of an Integrated Waste Management Plan (IWMP): Based on the results of the
earlier three elements, an Integrated Waste Management Plan is developed to address the
issues identified and tackle the problem of solid waste in a comprehensive manner.

60
Source: UNEP, 2009
Example Three: ISWM Plan for Maseru, Lesotho
Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan (ISWMP) has been developed for the City of
Maseru, capital of the Kingdom of Lesotho. This project was undertaken with a
Memorandum of Understanding concluded between the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) and the University Of Cape Town (UCT) Environmental & Process
Systems Engineering Research Group.
The draft plan was developed on the basis of past experiences, independent observation,
interrogation of available information (including the baseline study of waste generation in
Maseru), and interaction with relevant stakeholders. The result is a concise, easy to read
action plan of 15-20 pages with key deliverables and timelines. The action plan is
supported by a number of technical support pages providing details on each proposed
action. The ISWMP will be supported by a technical background report on
Environmentally Sound Technologies (ESTs) which provides further guidance on
achieving the deliverables.
This Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan for Maseru is based on the following
principles:
1. Upholding the right of every citizen to a clean and healthy environment (Immediate
need);
2. Protection of the common (public) goods for current and future generations (long-
term requirement);
3. The importance of addressing economic and social value addition to waste
management in terms of job creation & income generation;
4. All citizens contributing to the growing problem and the potential to be a part of the
solution;
5. Primary focus on the promotion and implementation of the 3R principles
(Reduction→ Reuse → Recycle);
6. Awareness and education with a focus on resource reduction & waste-to-resource
conversion;
7. Building upon existing local capacities and experiences;

61
 8. Strengthening public-private partnership including community-based waste
management process;
9. Putting the necessary policy and institutional framework in place; and,
10. Developing a built-in adaptive mechanism for the continuous monitoring and
improvement of the system.

Vision/Mission: The City of Maseru should take ownership of and drive this ISWMP by
taking into consideration the following points:

Public Health & Environment;

Delivery of Basic Services;

Efficiency & Economic Growth (private sector participation); and,

Resource exchange (private sector participation).

All actions and activities proposed within this plan will be initiated and developed along a
waste management hierarchy describing the order of preference of the different waste
management options, starting with prevention and ending with disposal.
Source: UNEP, 2009

62
CHAPTER SEVEN
7. 0 RECOMMENDATIONS

An attempt has been made to forward recommendations on five levels of towns/cities of the
country i.e.
• Level one- with number of population greater than 500,001;
• Level two- with number of population between 100,001 and 500,000;
• Level three- with number of population between 50,001 and 100,000;
• Level four- with number of population between 20,001 and 50,000; and,
• Level five- with number of population between 2001 and 20,000.

The rationale behind the categorization of the towns/cities is in order to put forward similar
approaches or mechanisms to towns with similar levels. This is not reached from the point
of view of scientific assessment and rather it is based on general observations and
experiences, and hence, the recommendations should be considered in a flexible manner
from the realities of specific towns and cities.
a) Level one:- Towns with number of population having greater than
500,001

Parameters

Storage

 Communal containers (storages) of 8 m3 capacity or above if applicable,

 One container may serve for 6,000 inhabitants,
 Each container would be 75 % full,
 The emptying frequency would be :-

63
  The distance between containers varies from 150 to 200 meters depending on
the density of population, and presence or absence of alternative collection
mechanisms,
 At household level various types of temporary storage materials with a
capacity ranging from 10 to 90 liter made up of either from card box,
plastic or steel materials are required,

Sorting

 Promote waste segregation and waste minimization at source (household and

other generators of solid waste), transfer stations and disposal sites,
 Promote waste segregation (sorting) at transfer stations and at controlled
dump sites,
 Materials to be sorted are organic, recyclable, vegetable, grass, leaves,
wood, bone, paper, rubber/plastic, textile, metals, glasses/ceramic, etc
 Options for sorting recyclables materials may include existing public
sanitation workers and private haulers,
 The long-term success of any recycling program depends on public
participation,
 Designing an efficient recycling program requires a systematic processing and
then marketing which are interrelated to each other.

Collection
 Communal collection to collect the solid wastes from communal
containers,
 Block collection,
 kerbside collection,
 Door-to-door.
The solid wastes collected from streets, institutions and micro and small enterprises
can be largely collected through communal collection.

64

Transportation

 For street wastes wheelbarrows can be employed that should be

stored either in communal containers or side loader trucks.
 Lift dump trucks that are compatible with the communal containers
should be put in place;
 Side-loader trucks for block collection system should be employed;
 In localities where density of solid wastes are low, compactor
vehicles can be considered;
 Horse-drawn carts are not recommended.

Transfer Station
 It would be useful for sorting out materials such as organic,
recyclable, vegetable, paper, rubber/plastic, textile, metals,
glasses….etc, which is a strategy for removal of waste from the
central area,
 Widen job opportunity to the informal sectors by encouraging to
work at the station through different incentives,
 It should be located at a considerable distance from the collection
area.
 It is essential to evaluate waste production processes and
identification of potentially recyclable materials.
 Identification and recycling of products that can be re-introduced into
the manufacturing process or industry activity at the site
 Investigation of external markets for recycling by other industrial
processing operations located in the neighborhood or region of the
facility (e.g., waste exchange)

Disposal mechanisms

 Very large size sanitary landfill sites that could serve for at least 20 to
40 years;

65
  The private sectors could involve in:-
 power generation,
 composting, recycling and reuse,
 Construction of landfill sites.

Institutional Aspects

 Solid waste management should be carried out by an institution above a

department with organizational structure up to the lowest level of
administration. The total numbers of workers required should be determined based
on the work load of the institution. The tasks among others should include the
following:
 Promote research, information management system and technological
development,
 Promote networking, information sharing and cooperation with a
number of stakeholders and collaborators,
 Promote cost recovery and prioritize in public finance,
 Encourage involvement of private investors on solid waste activities.
 Sanitary landfill sites can be managed by a separate entity.

b) Level two:- Towns with number of population between 100,001 and

500,000

Parameters

Storage
 Communal containers of usually 8 cu m capacity storage is necessary,
 One container may serve for 6,000 inhabitants,
 Each container would be 75 % full,
 The emptying frequency would be :-

 The distance between containers various from 150 to 200 meters ,

66
  At household level various types of temporary storage materials with a
capacity ranging from 10 to 90 liter made of either from paper, plastic or
steel are required,

Sorting

 Promote waste segregation (sorting) at source, at transfer stations and

sanitary landfill sites,
 Materials to be sorted are such as organic, recyclable, vegetable, grass,
leaves, wood, bone, paper, rubber/plastic, textile, metals, glasses/ceramic, etc
 Options for sorting recyclables materials may include existing public
sanitation workers and private haulers,
 The long-term success of any recycling program depends on public
participation,
 Designing an efficient recycling program requires a systematic processing and
then marketing which are interrelated. to each other,
 Assess markets and market development strategies for recyclables materials.

Collection

 Communal collection to collect solid wastes from communal containers;

 If possible block collection of solid wastes in the central and main roads
where communal containers are not appropriate;
 Door-to-door collection
 Kerbside Collection

Transportation
 For street wastes wheelbarrows can be employed to store either in
communal containers or to dump on side loader trucks;
 Lift dump trucks that are compatible with the communal containers should be
put in place;
 If conditions allow side-loader trucks for block collection system should be
employed;
 Horse-drawn carts are not recommended.

67

Disposal mechanisms
 Sanitary landfill sites of large size that could serve for at least 20 years;
 Recycling and reuse could be operational;
 Composting;
 Incineration can be operational if the capacity allows to work with joint
venture, that requires high cost and technology

Transfer Stations

 Transfer Stations is a strategy for removal of waste from the central

area that would be useful for sorting out materials such as organic,
recyclable, vegetable, paper, rubber/plastic, textile, metals, glasses,;
 It should be located at a considerable distance from the collection area
and the urban center;
 It is essential to evaluate waste production processes and identification of
potentially recyclable materials;
 Investigation of external markets for recycling by other industrial
processing operations located in the neighborhood or region of the facility
(e.g., waste exchange);
 The designing of transfer stations may be based on economically viable radius
of transport for each collection equipment.

Institutional Aspects

 Solid waste management alone should be handled at a department level with

organizational structure up to the lowest level of administration. The tasks
among others should include:
 Promote research, information management system and technological
development,
 Promote networking, information sharing and cooperation with a number
of stakeholders and collaborators,
 Promote cost recovery and prioritize in public finance,
 Encourage involvement of private investors on solid waste activities,

68
c) Level Three:- Towns with number of population between 50,001 and
100,000
Parameters

Storage

 Communal containers of 8 cu m or less can be used in some of the towns in this

category where significant amount of wastes are generated and the capacity of
the towns is adequate enough to do so.
 Containers such as cardboard boxes and plastic carrier bags can be used at
household level.

Sorting
 Promote waste segregation at source and waste minimization at transfer stations
and at sanitary landfill sites or controlled dump sites.
 Materials to be sorted are organic, recyclable, vegetable, grass, leaves, wood,
bone, paper, rubber/plastic, textile, metals, glasses/ceramic, etc.

Collection
 Block collection mainly for solid wastes that have been generated in central
areas of towns and street wastes and where major economic activities are
located;
 Door-to-door collection;
 Communal collection; and,
 For street wastes wheelbarrows can be employed that should be disposed of
either in nearby communal containers or to solid wastes that transport wastes
through block collection.

Transportation
 A combination of lift dump trucks, tractors, and horse drawn carts can be
used as appropriate;
 Wheelbarrows should be employed to collect street wastes.
 Animal-drawn carts and hand-pull carts can also be employed in peripheral
areas where there is limited traffic

69

Disposal mechanisms
 Sanitary landfill sites of medium size or controlled open dump sites that
could serve for at least 15 years.
 Composting
 Recycling and reuse.

Transfer Stations
 Transfer stations can be considered in relatively large towns of this category
in order to maximize transportation and to undertake sorting.

Institutional Aspects
 Can be handled at a department level together with other environmental
components including urban greenery, and liquid waste management.

d) Level Four:- Towns with number of population between 20,001 and 50,000
Parameters

Storage
 In localities where high amount of solid waste is generated a suitable communal
container that can be easily handled by two persons may be employed.

Sorting

 Should be particularly encouraged at household level.

Collection
 Block collection from residential and other establishments;
 Door-to-door.
 Wheelbarrows should collect wastes from major streets and from inaccessible
areas.

Transportation
 Tractors;
 Animal-drawn carts;
 Wheelbarrows;
 Tricycles;

70
  Hand pull carts; and

Disposal mechanisms
 Protected open dump sites or sanitary landfill sites may be employed
 Recycling and reuse

Transfer Stations
 Its applicability should be limited to towns where there is low density with
scattered settlement.

Institutional Aspects
 A team/unit should be organized to oversee environmental issues
independently or together with other services of the municipality or it can
also be managed by focal person (solid and liquid waste, urban greenery and
with other environmental issues.)
e) Level Five:- Towns with number of population between 2,001 and
20,000
Parameters

Storage
 Containers such as cardboard boxes and plastic bags may be used at
household or establishment level;
 Specific communal storage is not required.

Sorting
 Should be particularly encouraged at household level.

Collection
 Door to door or block collection;
 Wheelbarrows or tricycles can collect wastes from major streets and from
inaccessible areas.

Transportation
 Animal-drawn carts;
 Wheelbarrows;
 Tricycles; and

71
  Hand pull carts.

Disposal Sites
 Protected open dump sites are required.

Transfer Stations
 Not required.

Institutional Aspects
 A team/unit should be organized to oversee environmental issues (solid and
liquid waste, urban greenery and other environmental issues).
The major issues that have been indicated as recommendations are tabulated in table 7.1.

72
 Table 7.1: Summarized recommendations of various solid waste management components of five levels of towns/cities
So . Level/status of towns Remarks
Parameters Level one Level two Level Three Level Four Level Five
>500,001 100,001-500,000 50,001-100,000 20,001-50,000 2,001-20,000
1 Storage
Communal
Communal
Communal
In localities where
Specific The storage facilities:
containers of containers of containers of 8 high amount of solid communal
8 cu m usually 8 m cu m can be used waste is generated a storage
Should not be placed
capacity or cu capacity. in some of the suitable communal facilities are near avenues and
above if towns in this container that can be not required pedestrian ways;
applicable easily handled by
Should be placed at a
two persons may be reasonable distance from
employed; the generators;

Should be placed in such
a way that they can be
easily picked up by
collection vehicles

Should not be placed in
wet and swampy areas so
as to protect rusting.

2 Sorting
Required
Required
Required
Particularly at
Particularly at
Sorting of wastes should

household level is household be undertaken in all
required. level is levels of the towns/cities
required. at household level,
transfer stations, and
disposal sites as long as
it is appropriate.

Segregation at source
should be encouraged so
as to facilitate and
enhance recycling, reuse
and composting
particularly in level one
and level two urban
centers.

73
So . Level/status of towns Remarks
Parameters Level one Level two Level Three Level Four Level Five
>500,001 100,001-500,000 50,001-100,000 20,001-50,000 2,001-20,000

Door-to-door
Door-to-door
Door-to-door
Door-to-door
Door to door
MSE’s should be
collection collection collection collection collection by involved in all levels of
3 Collection
Communal
Communal
Block
Block collection; the use of the towns at various
collection to collection to collection
Wheelbarrows horse-drawn scales.
collect the collect the
Communal should collect wastes carts or
solid wastes solid wastes collection from major streets human
from the from the
For street and from handcart from
communal communal wastes inaccessible areas. residential
containers containers wheelbarrows and other

Block
If possible can be establishment
collection block employed. s.

kerbside collection of
collection solid wastes

For street in the central
wastes and main
wheelbarrow roads where
s can be communal
employed. containers
are not
appropriate.

4 Transportation
Lift dump
Lift dump
A
Tractors;
Animal-drawn The means of transportation
trucks that trucks and combination
Animal-drawn carts; carts; employed should be
are compactors of lift dump
Wheelbarrows;
Wheelbarrows; compatible and appropriate
compatible that are trucks,
Hand pulls carts; and
Tractors and with the capacity of the
with the compatible tractors, and
Tricycles.
Hand pull carts containers and the distance of
communal with the animal drawn the disposal site. In this
containers communal carts can be regard, wheelbarrows and
should be put containers used as animal-drawn carts has
in place; should be put appropriate; operational radius of 1 and 3

Side-loader in place;
Wheelbarrow km a capacity of 200 kg and
trucks for
If conditions s should be 2 cu m respectively;
block allow side- employed to
collection loader trucks collect street

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So . Level/status of towns Remarks
Parameters Level one Level two Level Three Level Four Level Five
>500,001 100,001-500,000 50,001-100,000 20,001-50,000 2,001-20,000
system for block wastes and
should be collection
Hand pulls
employed. system should carts.

Compactor be employed;
vehicles or
Hand pull carts
trucks can be and animal-
used in drawn carts can
localities be used in local
where collector roads
density of in outskirts of
waste are towns/cities.
relatively
low (they can
also be
adjusted to
4m3
containers)

5 Disposal
Sanitary
Sanitary
Sanitary
Protected open dump
Protected

landfill sites landfill sites landfill sites sites or sanitary open dump

Recycling
Recycling of medium landfill site may be sites
and reuse, and reuse size employed
Recycling,

Composting ;
Composting
Composting
Recycling and reuse reuse and
and,
Incineration
Recycling and composting at

Incineration (optional) reuse small scale
level.
6 Transfer
Transfer
Must be
Should be
Limited
Not required
Stations Stations must be required considered applicability.
put in place. particularly in
relatively
large towns of
this category
7 Institutional
Solid waste
Solid waste
Solid waste
A team/unit should be
A team/unit The institutions should have
aspect management management management organized to oversee should oversee adequate manpower and

75
So . Level/status of towns Remarks
Parameters Level one Level two Level Three Level Four Level Five
>500,001 100,001-500,000 50,001-100,000 20,001-50,000 2,001-20,000
should be alone should be can be handled environmental issues the equipments to carry out the
carried out by handled at a at a department independently or environmental day to day activities as per
an institution department level together together with other issues (solid the extent of tasks at their
above level with with other services of the waste, liquid disposal.
department organizational environmental municipality or it can waste, urban
level with structure up to components. also be managed by greenery and
organizational the lowest level focal person (solid and other
structure up to of liquid waste, urban environmental
the lowest level administration greenery and other issues
of environmental issues)
administration

Sanitary
landfill sites
can be
managed
separately.

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Annex 1: Criteria for the selection of sanitary landfill site

Annex 1.1 Technical and legal criteria for selection of sanitary landfill sites
Ser. no Criteria Observations
1 Land use The site should be outside the limits of any environmental
conservation areas and in a zone where designated land use is
compatible with the operation of a sanitary landfill.
2 Distance to bodies of The site should be not less than 200 metres from major bodies of
water water such as rivers, lakes, lagoons and oceans and should be
not less than 50 metres from any other body of water.
3 Distance to urban The site should be not less than 300 metres from urban
residential centres residential centres with 200 or more inhabitants.
4 Distance to The site should not be located in the proximity of airports or
airports aerodromes and should comply with current legislation in this
respect
5 Water table depth The minimum distances recommended are the following:
 in a sanitary landfill with plastic membrane
waterproofed bottom, the distance between
the water table and the membrane should not
be less than 1.5 metres;
 In a smaller landfill the bottom of which is
waterproofed by a layer of compacted clay
with a permeability coefficient of less than 10-
6cm/s, the distance between the water table
and the waterproofing layer should not be less
than 3 metres.
6 Minimum It is recommended that the site is compatible with a useful life
useful life for the new sanitary landfill of at least 8 years.
7 Natural soil It is recommendable that the soil of the selected site has good
impermeability natural impermeability in order to reduce the possibility of
aquifer contamination. The soil of the selected site should be
clayey.
8 Topography The rainwater drainage basin should be small in order to avoid
favorable to drainage significant amounts of rainwater entering the landfill.
9 Easy access for heavy Roads leading to the site should not have pronounced inclines or
vehicles curves and should be well surfaced in order to minimize wear
and tear on collection vehicles and enable them to have easy
access even at times of intense rain.
10 Availability of It is preferable that the site has, or is close to, deposits of
material for covering material appropriate for covering, in order to keep the cost of
waste covering low.
Source: Ministry for the Environment and Territory, et al. (2008).

77
Annex 1.2 Economic and financial criteria for selection of sanitary landfill sites

Ser. no Criteria Observations

1 Proximity to The distance that collection vehicles have to cover on existing
collection area roads and streets between the collection area and the sanitary
landfill should be as short as possible in order to minimize
wear and tear on trucks and waste transport costs.
2 Land purchase If the land is not owned by the municipality, and therefore has
costs to be purchased, it is preferable that it is located in a rural area
where purchase prices are lower than in other areas where the
landfill could be sited (industrial areas for example).
3 Construction It is important that the selected site has access to service
and infrastructures in order to limit expenditure on water
infrastructure provision, collection and treatment of local effluents, rain
investment water drainage, electricity supply, and communications
costs facilities.

4 Drainage The selected site should have a gentle incline to avoid soil
system erosion and limit expenditure on cleaning and maintaining
maintenance drainage system components.
costs
Source: Ministry for the Environment and Territory, et al. (2008).

78
Annex 1.3 Political and social criteria for selection of sanitary landfill sites

Ser. no Criteria Observations

1 Access to the The passage of vehicles transporting waste along residential
site streets constitutes an inconvenience for the inhabitants of
through low those streets and it is therefore recommended that truck routes
demographic to the sanitary landfill pass through areas of low demographic
density areas density and preferably on roads designed to handle heavy
vehicles.

2 Local It is recommended that a site is not chosen if there have been

community previous problems between the municipality and the local
acceptance community, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) or the
media in the area as any past disharmony with the public
authorities is likely to cause negative reactions to the
proposed landfill.
Source: Ministry for the Environment and Territory, et al. (2008).

79
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