AP Physics 1 Kinematics

Kinematics Study of Motion

Distance Total distance traveled from start to finish.
Displacement Straight line distance between the start point and ending point of the problem.
Speed A scalar quantity (no direction specified) that shows the rate that distance is covered.
Instantaneous The speed at an instant in time. Right now. Your speedometer reading when you glance at it.
Average The total distance divided by the total time for the entire trip.
Constant If the same speed is maintained over the entire trip
Velocity A vector quantity consisting of magnitude and direction. Displacement x divided by time interval.
Acceleration Change in velocity over a time interval. Acceleration happens when you speed up, slow down or change
direction.
Kinematic Equations
You can only use the constant velocity equation when there is no acceleration. If acceleration is present (question
contains terms such as: starts from rest, final velocity of, accelerates, comes to rest, etc.), then you must use the
Kinematic equations in the highlighted boarder boxes below.

Constant Speed or Constant Velocity Average Velocity Acceleration

x x − xo v − vo
v= v= a=
t t t

Velocity
Rearrange the acceleration equation from above. Useful for
v = vo + at determining v, when a and t are given.

Position
1 Key equation to determine position when a is involved. Used
x = xo + vot + at 2 extensively in free-falling problems where a = g
2

When no time is given

2
v 2 = vo − 2a ( x − xo ) When v, a, and/or x are known, but no information is given about t,
then this can be used to solve for the unknown variable.

xo initial position, x final position, vo initial velocity, v final velocity, a acceleration, t time

Acceleration and Velocity

If velocity and acceleration have the same sign: object is speeding up.
If velocity and acceleration have opposite signs: object is slowing down.

Falling Objects
2 2
Acceleration: If object fired downward, g = + 9.8 m/s . If object fired upward g = - 9.8 m/s

Projectile Motion
Motion in two dimensions happens simultaneously.
• In the x direction the velocity is constant, with no acceleration occurring.
• In the y direction the acceleration due to gravity slows upward motion and increases downward motion.
• At the highest point in the trajectory of a projectile only the vertical velocity component vy of the velocity is
zero, but the vertical component of the acceleration is g and is directed downward.
 KINEMATICS GRAPHS
I. Uniform Motion: Constant velocity
Position-Time Graph
Object is at rest.
Object is moving to the left (negative direction).
Object is at rest.
Velocity-Time Graph
Object is at rest.
Object is moving in the negative direction at constant
speed. Look at the slope of x-t graph.
Object is at rest.
Acceleration-Time Graph
Acceleration is zero in all parts of motion since object
is either at rest or moving at constant speed.

I. Uniform Accelerated Motion

This set of graphs could represent an object
thrown up (free fall)

Position-Time Graph
Object first moves in the positive direction and
comes back to the initial position.
Velocity-Time Graph
Object starts with a positive velocity, slowing down.
Object changes direction.
Object moves in the negative direction speeding up.
Acceleration-Time Graph
Acceleration is constant and negative for all parts of
motion.
 GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS

PROJECTILE MOTION
Projectile fired horizontally and Projectile fired at an angle and object
free-falling object thrown up in free-fall

A ball rolled off a horizontal table will take the Compare velocities at equal positions on the way up and down.
same amount of time to hit the ground as another tup = tdown for objects returning to ground level
dropped from the same height.
2y 2v0 sin θ
t= t=
g g
Horizontal component of velocity graphs

Vertical component of velocity graphs

EXERCISES:

1. A person initially at point P in the illustration stays there a moment and then moves along the axis to Q and stays there
a moment. She then runs quickly to R, stays there a moment, and then strolls slowly back to .Which of the position vs.
time graphs below correctly represents this motion? (2)

2. A person standing at the edge of a cliff throws one ball straight up and another ball straight down at the same initial
speed. Neglecting air resistance, the ball to hit the ground below the cliff with the greater speed is the one initially thrown
(A) upward.
(B) downward.
(C) neither—they both hit at the same speed.

3. A train car moves along a long straight track. The graph shows the position as a function of time for this train. The
graph shows that the train:
(A) speeds up all the time.
(B)slows down all the time.
(C) speeds up part of the time and slows down part of the time.
(D) moves at a constant velocity.

4. You are throwing a ball straight up in the air. At the highest point, the ball’s
(A) velocity and acceleration are zero.
(B) velocity is nonzero but its acceleration is zero.
(C) acceleration is nonzero, but its velocity is zero.
(D) velocity and acceleration are both nonzero.

5. The graph shows position as a function of time for two trains running on parallel tracks. Which is true:

(A) At time tB,both trains have the same velocity.

(B) Both trains speed up all the time.
(C) Both trains have the same velocity at some time before tB.
(D) Somewhere on the graph, both trains have the same acceleration.

6. A cart on a roller coaster rolls down the track shown below. As the cart rolls beyond the point shown, what happens to
its speed and acceleration in the direction of motion? Ignore any effects of friction.

(A) Both decrease.

(B) The speed decreases, but the acceleration increases.
(C) Both remain constant.
(D) The speed increases, but acceleration decreases.
(D) Both increase
7. Consider the situation depicted here. A gun is aimed directly at a dangerous criminal hanging from the gutter of a
building. The target is well within the gun’s range, but the instant the gun is fired and the bullet moves with a speed vo, the
criminal lets go and drops to the ground. What happens? The bullet

(A) hits the criminal regardless of the valueof vo.

(B) hits the criminal only if vo is large enough.
(C) misses the criminal.

8. A battleship simultaneously fires two shells at enemy ships. If the shells follow the parabolic trajectories shown, which
ship gets hit first?
(A) Ship A
(B) both at the same time
(C) Ship B
(D) need more information

9. A car starts from some point P, drives 10 km to a point Q, and then returns to P. The car completes the trip in 10 min.
Select the correct values for the car’s average velocity and average speed.

average velocity (m/s) average speed (m/s)

(A) 0 0
(B) 0 120 km/h
(C) 120 km/h 0
(D) 120 km/h 120 km/h

10. Two metal balls are the same size but one weighs twice as much as the other. The balls are dropped from the roof
of a single story building at the same instant of time. The time it takes the balls to reach the ground below will be:
(A) about half as long for the heavier ball as for the lighter one
(B) about half as long for the lighter ball as for the heavier one
(C) about the same for both balls
(D) considerably less for the heavier ball, but not necessarily half as long

11. The two metal balls of the previous problem roll off a horizontal table with the same speed. In this situation:
(A) both balls hit the floor at approximately the same horizontal distance from the base of the table
(B) the heavier ball hits the floor at about half the horizontal distance from the base of the table than does the lighter ball
(C) the lighter ball hits the floor at about half the horizontal distance from the base of the table than does the heavier ball
(D) the heavier ball hits the floor considerably closer to the base of the table than the lighter ball, but not necessarily at
half the horizontal distance

12. An arrow is aimed horizontally, directly at the center of a target 20 m away. The arrow hits 0.050 m below the center
of the target. Neglecting air resistance, what was the initial speed of the arrow?
(A) 20 m/s
(B) 40 m/s
(C) 100 m/s
(D) 200 m/s

13. The graph shows the velocity versus time for an object moving in a
straight line. At what time after t = 0 does the object again pass through its
initial position?
(A) 1 s
(B) Between 1 and 2 s
(C) 2 s
(D) Between 2 and 3 s
Questions 14 and 15

The diagram above represents a the motion of an object moving along a horizontal surface. The diagram shows positions
as separated by equal time intervals. The first position occurred just as the object started to move and the last one just as
it came to rest.

13. Which of the following graphs best represents the object’s velocity as a function of time?

14. Which of the following graphs best represents the object’s acceleration as a function of time?

Questions 15-17 The graph below represents the motion of an object moving in one dimension.

15. What was the object’s average acceleration between t = 0 s and t = 6.0 s?
2 2 2 2
(A) 3.0 m/s (B) 1.5 m/s (C) 0.83 m/s (D) 0.67 m/s

16. How far did the object travel between t = 0 s and t = 6.0 s?
(A) 20.0 m (B) 35.0 m (C) 40.0 m (D) 55.0 m

17. What was the average speed of the object for the first 6.0 s?
(A) 3.3 m/s (B) 3.0 m/s (C) 1.8 m/s (D) 1.3 m/s

18. The graph above shows the velocity v as a function of time t for an object moving in a
straight line. Which of the following graphs shows the corresponding displacement x as a
function of time t for the same time interval? D
AP Physics 1 INTERACTIONS: FORCES
Force A result of interactions between systems. Could be contact force or field force.
st
Newton’s 1 Law Law of inertia: objects at rest stay at rest, objects moving at constant velocity in a straight line
keep moving at constant velocity in a straight line. ∑ F = 0
Newton’s 2 Law
nd
∑ F = ma
rd
Newton’s 3 Law For every action force there is an equal & opposite reaction force. Forces come in action -
reaction pairs. Force of A on B = Force of B on A
ΣF Key to all problems. Σ Fx Σ F in x direction. Σ Fy Σ F in y direction.
ΣF || Σ F parallel to a slope (direction of motion). ΣF ⊥ Σ F perpendicular to slope.
∑ F = ma Sum of forces is the Net Force. You may need to solve for a using the kinematic equations, then
solve for force, or given force you solve for a and then use it in the kinematic equations to find v, x, or t.
Strategy on NL problems:
1. Draw a near, labeled FBD.
2. Set direction of motion. What would the object do if it could? Considered this as the positive direction.
3. Using the forces listed below write the Σ F equations relevant to the problem. In what direction is the
problem moving? What matters, the x or the y direction? The parallel or the perpendicular direction? Any
force vectors in the FBD pointing in the direction of motion are positive while any vectors the other way are
negative.
4. Substitute known equation, (forces like FG become mg).
5. Substitute for Σ F. Ask yourself what the sum of force should be based on the chart below. Is the object
standing still, moving at constant velocity, or accelerating. Substitute zero or ma for Σ F.
1 v=0 Δv = 0 a=0 ΣF = 0
2 v = +/- a constant value Δv = 0 a=0 ΣF = 0
3 v increasing or decreasing Δ v = +/- a constant value a = +/- a constant value ΣF = m a
6. Plug in and solve. (All values including 9.8 are entered as positives. The negative signs are decided when
setting up the sum of forces equation. You decide its sign based on the way it points relative to the object's
direction of motion.)

FG Gravitational force, a.k.a. weight. FG = mg Units: Newtons

FT Tension is an interaction with an object and a rope, string, etc. This force has no equation. You either solve for it,
or it cancels, or it’s given.
FN Normal force is a contact force, always perpendicular to the surface. (On a tilted surface use Σ F & Σ F )
| | ⊥

Ffr Friction force. F fr = µ FN Static friction: not moving or motion is impending. Kinetic friction: object moving and
always opposes motion.

Normal Force: Gravity pulls the object down the slope and into the slope. If we only consider the motion into the slope
(perpendicular), the object has no perpendicular velocity. So the ΣF = 0. Then the surface must push upward,
⊥

equal and opposite to the perpendicular gravity component.

FN = FG cosθ Where θ is the angle between Fg and Fg . It is angle of the surface
⊥

measured from the horizontal. Substituting mg for Fg we get: FN = mg cosθ

θ
FG Flat surfaces θ = 0 ,
o
FN = Fg or FN = mg
θ
Friction: Motion is always parallel to a surface, so friction always acts parallel.
Static Friction: Friction that will prevent an object from moving. As long as the object is standing still the force of friction
must be equal to the push, pull, component of gravity or other force that attempts to move the object. (If there is no
force attempting to cause motion, then there can be no friction).
Kinetic Friction: Friction for moving objects. Once an object begins to move the friction is called kinetic. Kinetic
friction is not as strong as static friction, and it opposes motion.
Coefficient of friction: µ a value of the adherence or strength of friction. µ k for kinetic friction and µ s for static friction.
Ffr = µ FN so Ffr = µmg cosθ in the case of a ramp.

Parallel Component: Motion on a slope is parallel to the slope.

Fg sin θ is not a force by itself and should not be part of the FBD. It describes the motion
of the object parallel to the slope, if no other forces are acting on it. What if we sum the
forces in the direction of motion (which is parallel to the slope)? Then Fg sin θ is down the
slope and positive, (direction of motion is positive). Any force opposing the natural
downward motion is a retarding force and is negative. So uphill is negative.
The net force in the F! (parallel) direction.

ΣFP = Fg sin θ − Fretarding

What do you use for force retarding? It could be friction Ffr, a rope holding up the slope FT, someone pushing up the
slope FP, or a combination of forces. Substitute the appropriate F and solve.

Friction on the slope: Friction is the retarding force in the scenarios discussed above.
1. No friction.
(What will the object do? Accelerate Σ F = ma) N2L
ΣFP = Fg sin θ − Fretarding
θ ΣFP = Fg sin θ − 0
Fg
Fg ma = mg sin θ
θ a = g sin θ
2. v = 0 or v is constant.
(No acceleration Σ F = 0) N1L
ΣFP = Fg sin θ − Fretarding
θ 0 = Fg sin θ − Ffr
Fg Fg µ mg cosθ = mg sin θ
θ µ cosθ = sin θ
µ = tan θ
3. Accelerating with friction present.
(Accelerates so Σ F = ma) N2L
ΣFP = Fg sin θ − Fretarding
θ ΣFP = Fg sin θ − Ffr
Fg Fg ma = mg sin θ − µ mg cosθ
θ a = g sin θ − µ g cosθ
a = g (sin θ − µ cosθ )
 Combination of Forces Problems
Set direction of motion as positive. If you are not sure what the direction of motion will be take a guess. If the
problem returns negative values for the final result, you were wrong, the problem went the opposite of your prediction.

Modified Atwood’s
FN
Atwood’s
Direction
of Motion -Ffr
A +FT -FT
mA +FT
+ -FT
A B

A B
FgA -FgA +FgB
B mB

+FgB If B is the heavier object it is used to set the direction of

motion. Add forces in direction of motion. Tension is the
Add forces in direction of motion. Tension is the same for same for both blocks, it cancels out. Then substitute and
both blocks, it cancels out. Then substitute and solve. solve.
∑ F = FT − FfrA + FgB − FT = mtotal a ∑ F = FT − FgA + FgB − FT = mtotal a
mB g − µ m A g m g − mA g
a= a= B
m A + mB mA + mB
Friction on horizontal surfaces
1. Friction is the only force in the horizontal direction.
FN
ΣF = Ffr
-Ffr
ΣF = µ Fg
mA
ma = µ mg
a = µg
Fg
2. When friction and the forward force are equal. Object can be standing still or moving at constant velocity.
+FN
ΣF = FP − Ffr
0 = FP − F fr -Ffr
mA +FP
FP = Ffr
FP = µmg -Fg

3. When friction is not strong enough to prevent the object from accelerating anyway.
+FN
ΣF = FP − Ffr
-Ffr
ma = FP − µmg mA +FP
F − µ mg
a= P
m -Fg
AP PHYSICS CIRCULAR MOTION AND GRAVITATION
Frequency: How often a repeating event happens. Measured in revolutions per second or Hz.
Period: The time for one revolution. T = 1 Time is in the numerator. It is the inverse of frequency.
f
Speed: Speed is constant in uniform circular motion.

Velocity: The instantaneous velocity at a point on the curve is tangent to the curve.

Tangential Velocity: The equation for speed and tangential velocity is the same: v =
2π r
T
Acceleration: Centripetal Acceleration. Due to inertia objects would follow the tangential velocity. But, they don’t.
The direction is being changed toward the center of the circle. They are being accelerated toward the

center. ac =
v 2 Centripetal means center seeking.
r
Force: If an object is changing direction it must be doing so because a force is exerted. The force is referred to as
centripetal force but it is NOT a special type of force.

v 2 NEVER label a force as F in a FBD!

Fc = mac Fc = m c
r
The Centripetal force is just the net force Σ F in circular motion problems. Fc can be any force that keeps an object in
circular motion. Fc = Fg Fc = FN Fc = FT Fc = Ffr Fc = FB etc.
It can also be two or more of these added together. The direction of the acceleration is toward the center of the circular
path. So any force directed toward the center is positive and any force directed outward is negative.
mM E mM E M
Gravitational force Fg = G and Fg = mg combined are mg = G simplified is g = G E
2
r2 r r2
r is not a radius, but is the distance between attracting objects measured from center to center.
Apparent Weight: When an elevator, jet airplane, rocket, etc. accelerates upward the passenger wants to stay put due to
inertia and is pulled down by gravity. The elevator pushes up and you feel heavier. Always draw an FBD and write the net
force equation with the direction of motion. Solve for the normal force which will be the reading of the scale. If elevator is
accelerating up you get: FN = mg + ma . If the elevator is going down, you get: FN = mg − ma
If the elevator is falling you will feel weightless. g = a so FN = 0

EXERCISES:
1. A 50.0 N box is at rest on a horizontal surface. The coefficient of static friction between the box and the surface is 0.50,
and the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.30. A horizontal 20.0 N force is then exerted on the box. The magnitude of the
acceleration of the box is most nearly
2
(A) 0 m/s
2
(B) 0.5 m/s
2
(C) 1.0 m/s
2
(D) 4.0 m/s
2. A student suspends an object at the end of a string attached to the ceiling of the classroom. It is set into
motion in a horizontal circle. In order to calculate the speed of the mass, which of the following data sets
would be sufficient?
(A) mass of the object and period of the motion
(B) mass of the object and the radius of the rotation
(C) angle the string makes with the vertical, and length of the string
(D) angle the string makes with the vertical, and the mass of the object
 Questions 3-4
The diagram shows a block sliding along a frictionless ramp.
The eight numbered arrows in the diagram represent directions to be referred to
when answering the questions.

3. The direction of the acceleration of the block, when in position I, is best

represented by which of the arrows in the diagram?
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 4 (D) 5

4. The direction of the acceleration of the block, when in position II, is best represented by which of the arrows in the
diagram?
(A) 1 (B) 3 (C) 5 (D) 7

5. The direction of the acceleration of the block (after leaving the ramp) at position III, is best represented by which of the
arrows in the diagram?
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 5 (D) 6

6. A small metal cylinder rests on a circular turntable, rotating at a constant speed as

illustrated in the diagram below. Which of the following sets of vectors best describes the
velocity, acceleration, and net force acting on the cylinder at the point indicated in the
diagram? D

7. The metal cylinder in Question (6) has a mass of 0.10 kg. The coefficient of static friction between the surface and the
cylinder is 0.12. If the cylinder is 0.20 m from the center of the turntable, what is the maximum speed that the cylinder
can move along its circular path without slipping off the turntable?
(A) 0 < v < 0.5 m/s
(B) 0.5 < v < 1.0 m/s
(C) 1.0 < v < 1.5 m/s
(D) 1.5 < v < 2.0 m/s

8. Two small objects, with masses m and M, are originally a distance r apart, and the magnitude of the gravitational force
on each one is F. The masses are changed to 2m and 2M, and the distance is changed to 4r. What is the magnitude of
the new gravitational force?
(A) F/16 (B) F/4 (C) 16F (D) 4F

9. A block is held at rest against a wall by a force of magnitude F exerted at an angle θ from the
horizontal, as shown in the figure above. Let Fg be the gravitational force exerted by Earth on the
block, FN be the normal force exerted by the wall on the block, and Ff be the frictional force exerted
by the wall on the block. Which of the following statements about the magnitudes of the forces on
the block must be true? Select two answers. (B,C)
FG
( A) F =
sin θ
( B ) F cos θ = FN
(C ) F sin θ = FG ± FF
( D ) F = FG + FN ± FF
Questions 10-12

The stacks of boxes shown in the figure above are inside an elevator that is moving upward. The masses of the boxes are
given in terms of the mass M of the lightest box.

10. How does the magnitude of the force exerted by the top box on the bottom box compare with the magnitude of the
force exerted by the bottom box on the top box for each of the stacks?
(A) The two magnitudes are always equal in each of the stacks
(B) The two magnitudes are always different in each of the stacks
(C) The two magnitudes are equal when the boxes have equal mass and different when the boxes have different masses
(D) The two magnitudes are equal when the elevator is moving at constant speed and different when it is accelerating

11. Assume the elevator is moving at constant speed, and consider the bottom box in the stack that has two boxes of
mass 2M. Let Ffloor be the force exerted by the floor on the box, Fg be the force exerted by gravity on the box, and Fbox be
the force exerted by the top box on the bottom box. Which of the following best represents the forces exerted on the
bottom box?

12. Assume the elevator has upward acceleration a, and consider the stack that has two boxes of mass M. What is the
magnitude of the force exerted on the top box by the bottom box?
(A) Mg
(B) Ma
(C) M(a - g)
(D) M(a + g)
 Questions 13-14
Blocks I and II, each with a mass of 1.0 kg, are hung from the ceiling of an elevator by ropes 1 and 2.

13. The force exerted by rope 1 on block I when the elevator is traveling upward at a constant speed
of 2.0 m/s is:
(A) 2 N (B) 10 N (C) 12 N (D) 20 N

14. The force exerted by rope 1 on block II when the elevator is stationary is:
(A) 2 N (B) 10 N (C) 12 N (D) 20 N

15. A bus is initially traveling north at a constant speed, as shown in the figure above. As the
bus starts to make a left turn without changing speed, a passenger notices that a box on the
floor starts sliding toward the right side of the bus. Which of the following top views of the box,
when correctly labeled, would best represent all of the horizontal forces exerted on the box as it
starts sliding? B

16. If you stood on a planet having a mass four times that of Earth's mass, and a radius two times that of Earth's radius,
you would weigh
(A) the same as you do on Earth. B) two times more than you do on Earth.
C) two times less than you do on Earth. D) four times more than you do on Earth.
23
17. A spacecraft is placed in a circular orbit around a planet with mass 6.4 x10 kg . The spacecraft orbits at a height of
7
4.5 x10 m above the planet’s surface. What additional information is needed to calculate the speed of the spacecraft in
the orbit?
(A) No additional information
(B) The planet’s radius only
(C) The spacecraft’s mass only
(D) Both the planet’s radius and the spacecraft’s mass

18.Two masses, m1 and m2, are connected by a cord and arranged as shown in the diagram
with m1 sliding along on a frictionless surface and m2 hanging from a light frictionless pulley.
What would be the mass of the falling mass, m2, if both the sliding mass, m1, and the tension,
T, in the cord were known?
m1 g − T 1 m1 (T − g ) Tm1
(A) (B) Tg (C) (D)
g 2 (gm1 − T ) ( gm1 − T )
19. Each of the diagrams below represents two weights connected by a massless string which passes over a massless,
frictionless pulley. In which diagram will the magnitude of the acceleration be the largest?

(A) (B) (C) (D)

MULTIPLE CORRECT: Select two answers:

20. Three forces act on an object. If the object is moving to the right in translational equilibrium, which of the following
must be true? Select two answers.
(A) The vector sum of the three forces must equal zero.
(B) All three forces must be parallel.
(C) The magnitudes of the three forces must be equal.
(D) The object must be moving at a constant speed.

21. In which of the following situations would an object be accelerated? Select two answers.
(A) It moves in a straight line at constant speed.
(B) It moves with uniform circular motion.
(C) It travels as a projectile in a gravitational field with negligible air resistance.
(D) It is at rest.

22. A child whirls a ball at the end of a rope, in a uniform circular motion. Which of the following statements is true?
Select two answers.
(A) The speed of the ball is constant
(B) The velocity is of the ball is constant
(C) The magnitude of the ball's acceleration is constant
(D) The net force on the ball is directed radially outwards
AP PHYSICS CONSERVATION LAWS
System: A system is any object or group of objects that can be separated, in our minds, from the surrounding
environment. The environment is everything that is not part of the system.

Work Energy is transferred to the system by work. Think of work as the energy that is added (+W) to the system or
subtracted (-W) from the system.
W = Fd cos θ Force applied over a distance. Force and distance must be parallel. θ is the angle between direction of
motion and applied force.
Work is the Area under the Force Displacement Curve UNITS: J (Joules)

Kinetic Energy 1 2 Energy of motion. Note that doubling mass doubles kinetic energy, but doubling
K= mv
2 velocity quadruples kinetic energy.
Gravitational Potential Energy UG = mgh Depends on position (height) with respect to a reference point.

Elastic Potential Energy 1 2 Energy of a compressed spring with spring constant k.

US = kx
2
Work Energy Theorem
Work put into a system = the change in energy of the system. W = ΔK = ΔUG = ΔU S

Mechanical Energy: The sum of Kinetic and Potential (gravitational) Energies

Conservation of Energy: Energy is conserved: The law of conservation of energy states that energy can be
transferred from one object to another or converted from one form to another, but it cannot be destroyed or created.
A closed system is one in which no energy is transferred in or out. The energy of such a system remains constant.
Basically, conservation of energy means that the total energy at the beginning of the problem must equal the total
energy at the end of the problem

Remember: Energy is directionless. Simply ask yourself:

1. What energy/energies are present initially and add them up on the left.
2. What energy/energies are present finally and add them up on the right.

Can energy be lost? No! Lost energy goes to the environment. A car (system) looses energy due to air resistance, so air
molecules (environment) gain energy and move faster. Another example could be the car in a road with lots of friction.
The energy is transferred to the road. You say that the energy was dissipated as internal energy.

EXERCISES
1. An object is moving to the right with speed vi when a force of magnitude F is exerted on it. In which of the following
situations is the object’s direction of motion changing and kinetic energy decreasing at the instant shown?
 2. A ball is suspended by a lightweight string, as shown in the figure above. The ball is displaced to
position 1 and released. The four labeled positions are evenly spaced along the arc of the ball’s
motion. Between which adjacent pairs of positions is the change in kinetic energy of the ball greatest?
(A) 1 and 2
(B) 2 and 3
(C) 3 and 4
(D) The change is the same for all adjacent pairs.

Questions 3-4: Three identical blocks each take a different path from a height h to the ground. Block A is released from
rest and falls vertically. Block B is released from rest and slides down a frictionless incline. Block C is projected
horizontally with an initial speed v.

3. Which block takes the longest time to reach the ground?

(A) A
(B) B
(C) C
(D) The blocks take the same time to reach the ground.

4. Which block has the greatest speed just before hitting the ground?
(A) A
(B) B
(C) C
(D) The blocks reach the ground with the same speed

5. A child slides from rest down slides A and B shown above. The
slides are the same height, and the coefficient of friction between the
slides and the child is the same. Which of the following compares the
change ΔK in the kinetic energy of the child and the change ΔU in the
potential energy of the child-Earth system for the two slides?
(A) ΔKA = ΔKB ; ΔUA = ΔUB
(B) ΔKA < ΔKB ; ΔUA > ΔUB
(C) ΔKA > ΔKB ; ΔUA = ΔUB
(D) ΔKA > ΔKB ; ΔUA > ΔUB

6. A ball is dropped from rest and falls to the floor. The initial gravitational potential energy of the ball-Earth-floor system
is 10 J. The ball then bounces back up to a height where the gravitational potential energy is 7 J. What was the
mechanical energy of the ball-Earth-floor system the instant the ball left the floor?
(A) 0 J
(B) 3 J
(C) 7 J
(D) 10 J

7. A rocket is continuously firing its engines as it accelerates away from Earth. For the first kilometer of its ascent, the
mass of fuel ejected is small compared to the mass of the rocket. For this distance, which of the following indicates the
changes, if any, in the kinetic energy of the rocket, the gravitational potential energy of the Earth-rocket system, and the
mechanical energy of the Earth-rocket system?
8. Block 1 is attached to a spring and oscillates on a horizontal frictionless surface. When block 1 is at a point of
maximum displacement, block 2 is placed on top of it from directly above without interrupting the oscillation, and the two
blocks stick together. How do the maximum kinetic energy and period of oscillation with both block compare to those of
block 1 alone?

Questions 9-10 A crate is on a horizontal frictionless surface. A force of magnitude F is

exerted on the crate at an angle θ to the horizontal, as shown in the figure
above, causing the crate to slide to the right. The surface exerts a normal
force of magnitude FN on the crate. As the crate slides a distance d, it gains an
amount of kinetic energy ΔK . While F is kept constant, the angle θ is now
o
doubled but is still less than 90 . Assume the crate remains in contact with the
surface.

9. How does the new normal force exerted on the crate compare to FN ?
(A) The new normal force is greater than FN
(B) The new normal force is less than FN
(C) The new normal force is equal to FN
(D) The new normal force is greater or less than FN depending on the value of θ

10. As the crate slides a distance d, how does the new gain in kinetic energy compare to ΔK ?
(A) The new gain is greater than ΔK
(B) The new gain is less than ΔK
(C) The new gain is equal to ΔK.
(D) The new gain is greater or less than ΔK depending on the value of θ

11. A constant net force acts on an object. Which of the following statements is true? Select two answers.
(A) The kinetic energy of the object will increase at a constant rate.
(B) The work done on the object will be done at a constant rate.
(C) The momentum of the object will increase at a constant rate.
(D) The power will be delivered to the object at an increasing rate.

12. A person holds a 4.0 kg block at position A shown above on the left, in contact with an uncompressed vertical spring
with a spring constant of 500 N/m. The person gently lowers the block from rest at position A to rest at position B. Which
of the following describes the change in the energy of the block-spring-Earth system as a result of the block being
lowered?
(A) The energy decreases by approximately 1.5 J
(B) The energy decreases by approximately 2.5 J
(C) The energy increases by approximately 4.0 J
(D) The energy of the system does not change
 13. An ideal spring with a spring constant k has a mass M attached and is hanging at rest
with spring stretched by an amount d. A student now supports the mass and attaches an
additional mass M. The student releases the masses. During its oscillation what will be
the maximum kinetic energy of the system?

14. Starting from rest a person of mass m hanging on at the top of a rope climbs down a
distance d to the ground where they arrive traveling at a speed v. Which of the following would
give the net work done by all of the forces acting during the descent?

Questions 15-16 refer to the following material.

A spring connects a mass, M, to a wall. The mass is set in horizontal oscillation on a

frictionless surface. The following graph indicates the kinetic energy of the mass as a
function of time.

14. What is the total mechanical energy?

A) 1.0 J
B) 2.0 J
C) 3.0 J
D) 4.0 J

15. What is the period of the motion?

A) 0.5 s B) 1.0 s
C) 2.0 s D) 4.0s

Momentum p = mv inertia in motion. Measure of how difficult it is to stop an object. Momentum is a Vector!
Impulse Ft = Δp or Ft = mΔv Impulse = change in momentum UNITS: N.s = kg. m/s
Area under Force vs Time graph gives the Impulse

Conservation of Momentum: Momentum is conserved. Total momentum before a collision must match total
momentum after the collision.

Collisions
Elastic Collision: Collisions in which kinetic energy is conserved. This can only happen when two objects bounce off
each other.
Inelastic Collisions: Collisions in which kinetic energy is lost. Since energy is never really lost, it must go somewhere.
Lost energy is just energy that was lost by the system to the environment, we say that the energy was dissipated.

These equations are not given on the AP exam. Just be sure to have the initial momentum equal to the final momentum.

m1v1i + m2 v2 i = m1v1 f + m2 v2 f Perfectly Elastic Collision: Bounce off completely.

m1v1i + m2 v2i = v f ( m1 + m2 ) Inelastic Collision: The objects stick together, masses add, one velocity
 2
(

EXERCISES:

16. A spacecraft of mass 4000 kg is traveling in a straight line in the positive

direction. Engines can be fired so that the force exerted on the spacecraft is in the
positive or negative direction. The graph above shows data for the force during one
interval. Which of the following is the best estimate of the net change in the speed of
the spacecraft from time t = 0 to time t = 4s?

(A) +0.4 m/s

(B) +0.1 m/s
(C) -0.1 m/s
(D) -0.4 m/s
 17. Two carts, of mass 2m and m, approach each other head-on with the same
speed v, as shown in the figure above. When the carts collide, they hook
together. Assuming positive momentum is to the right, which of the following
best represents the momentum of the cart of mass m as a function of time
before and after the collision?

18. Cart A moves horizontally on a frictionless track. It collides and sticks to identical cart B, which is at rest. The speed of
cart A before the collision is measured to be 3.0 m/s, with an uncertainty of ±0.2 m/s. Students are asked to predict the
speed of the carts after the collision. Given the uncertainty of the measurement for the speed of cart A, which of the
following is the best prediction?
(A) 1.1 to 1.9 m/s
(B) 1.2 to 1.8 m/s
(C) 1.3 to 1.7 m/s
(D) 1.4 to 1.6 m/s

19. Two identical carts are free to move along a straight frictionless track. At time t1, cart X is moving at 2.0 m/s when it
collides with and sticks to cart Y, which is initially at rest. Which of the following graphs best shows the velocity of cart X
before and after the collision?

20. A solid metal ball and a hollow plastic ball of the same external radius are released from rest in a large vacuum
chamber. When each has fallen 1 meter, they both have the same
(A) inertia (B) speed (C) momentum (D) change in potential energy
 21. A student stands on a cart that is free to roll with no friction. On the cart is a rigidly attached
wall. The student throws a heavy ball at the wall. Consider three possible situations.
I. The ball is made of clay, hits the wall and sticks to it.
II. The ball is made of rubber, hits the wall, rebounds, and the student catches it.
III. The ball is made of rubber, hits the wall, rebounds, and the student fails to catch it.

For which, if any, of these cases will the cart and student gain a net motion to the right?
A) I.
B) II.
C) III.
D) None of these.

22. A net force F is applied to a 2.0 kg object that is initially moving at 3.0 m/s. The force
varies as shown in the graph. The speed of the object at the end of the 4.0s time interval
is closest to which of the following?
A) 5.0 m/s
B) 7.0 m/s
C) 10. m/s
D) 14 m/s

23. A mass m has speed v. It then collides with a stationary object of mass 2m. If both objects stick together in a
perfectly inelastic collision, what is the final speed of the newly formed object?
v v
(A) (B)
3 2
2v 3v
(C) (D)
3 2
24. Consider two laboratory carts of different masses but identical kinetic energies . Which of the following statements
must be correct? Select two answers.
(A) The one with the greatest mass has the greatest momentum
(B) The same impulse was required to accelerate each cart from rest
(C) Both can do the same amount of work as they come to a stop
(D) The same amount of force was required to accelerate each cart from rest

25. Two toy cars with different masses originally at rest are pushed apart by a spring between them. Which of the
following statements would be true? Select two answers.
(A) both toy cars will acquire equal but opposite momenta
(B) both toy cars will acquire equal kinetic energies
(C) the more massive toy car will acquire the least speed
(D) the smaller toy car will experience an acceleration of the greatest magnitude

Center of Mass: Objects rotate around a central axis and around a center of mass. It is therefore important to be able
to locate the center of mass. The center of mass is each for shapes like squares, rectangles, circles, spheres, or
equilateral triangles. It is in the middle.

26. A rock in space is to have a force F of 5.0 N applied to it. Of the three points of
application I, II, and III, shown above, which will result in the greatest acceleration of the
center of mass?

(A) I
(B) II
(C) III
(D) The same acceleration for each
AP PHYSICS ROTATIONAL MOTION
Rotation: Since every point on a rotating object experiences a different tangential velocity displacement, velocity, and
acceleration cannot be expressed in terms of meters. A particle on the outside edge of a rotating object covers a greater
distance in the same time interval than a particle closer to the center. The only quantity that both points share in any given
time interval is the angle through which they move, as shown to the right.

In rotation we have to work in radians instead of degrees. This means that for every variable in linear (translational)
motion there is a corresponding variable for rotation. And every equation in linear motion has a rotational counterpart.

Displacement x is replaced by radians θ (radians).

Velocity v is replaced by angular velocity ω (radians per second).

Acceleration a is replaced by angular acceleration α (radians per second squared).

Kinematics Equations
The following three equations form a bridge between linear motion
and rotation:
x = rθ v = rω a = rα

Translation vs. Rotation: Hit an object with a force directed into or out of the center of mass and it will translate
(linear motion). Hit an object with a force perpendicular to a radial line extending from the center of mass and at the very
edge of the object, and the object will rotate. Hit and object with a force between the center of mass and the edge and it
will translate and rotate.
Note: Planets and satellites follow circular motion, as they are not attached. Inner planets move faster as they are closer
to the sun and must have larger tangential velocities. They also travel a shorter circumference. Thus they have shorter
periods.

Translational vs. Rotational Newton’s Second Law

2
F = ma τ = Iα Torque UNITS: N.m Rotational Inertia (I) UNITS: kg.m

Representation of forces (FBD) in rotating objects should be at the point of contact of the
force! Do not use particle model!

Angular momentum: Masses that experience linear motion (translation) have velocity and thus have linear
momentum. Rotating masses have angular velocity and thus have angular momentum. While linear momentum depends
on mass and velocity, angular momentum depends on mass, mass distribution, and angular velocity. Think about it. In
rotating objects the points of mass farther from the center are moving faster and thus have higher instantaneous
momentum values than those closer to the center. Lots of mass, far from the center of mass, means higher angular
momentum than the same mass, near the center of mass.
Example: As an ice skater brings their arms closer to the body they begin to spin faster, since the mass has a shorter
distance to travel.

Angular momentum is conserved. The radius gets smaller so rotational inertia decreases, but angular velocity
2
increases (vice versa as the skater moves arms outward). Li = L f and I ωi = I ω f UNITS: kg m /s

1 2
Rotational Kinetic energy K = Iω UNITS: J
2
Torque: Torque is the result of a force exerted at a distance from a rotational axis, and may cause a rotation about the
axis. Torque is the vector product of the displacement vector r (moment or lever arm) from the rotational axis and the
force F:
τ = Fr⊥ and τ = Fr⊥ sin θ r is always perpendicular to F
F
F Fsinθ
θ
and

r r
o
Strongest when the force is perpendicular to the moment (lever) arm r (since sin 90 equals one).

Static equilibrium implies that the net force and the net torque are zero, and the system is at rest.
Dynamic equilibrium implies that the net force and the net torque are zero, and the system is moving at constant
translational and rotational velocity.

EXERCISES:

1. The diagram above shows a top view of a child of mass M on a circular platform of mass 5M that is
rotating counterclockwise. Assume the platform rotates without friction. Which of the following describes
an action by the child that will result in an increase in the total angular momentum of the child-platform
system?
(A) The child moves toward the center of the platform.
(B) The child moves away from the center of the platform.
(C) The child moves along a circle concentric with the platform (dashed line shown) opposite the
direction of the platform’s rotation.
(D) None of the actions described will change the total angular momentum of the child- platform system.

2. A uniform plank is placed with a pivot at its center. A block is placed

on the plank to the left of the pivot, as shown in the figure above. A
student is asked to place a second block of greater mass on the plank so
it will balance when horizontal.

Which of the following quantities are needed to determine where the second block should be placed? Select two
answers.
(A) The mass of the plank
(B) The mass of each block
(C) The length of the plank
(D) The distance from the pivot to the left block
3. A satellite that is a spinning cylinder has initial rotational inertia I0 and angular velocity ω0. Solar panels unfold from the
satellite and are extended outward. The satellite then has rotational inertia If = aI0 and angular velocity
ωf = bω0, where a and b are constants. Which of the following is true about the constants a and b ?
(A) a = 1 and b = 1
(B) a > 1 and b < 1
(C) a > 1 and b = 1
(D) a < 1 and b < 1

4. A disk is initially rotating counterclockwise around a fixed axis with angular speed ωo. At time t = 0, the
two forces shown in the figure above are exerted on the disk. If counterclockwise is positive, which of the
following could show the angular velocity of the disk as a function of time?

5. A thin rod of length d on a frictionless surface is pivoted about one end,

as shown (top view), and can rotate freely. The rod is at rest when it is
struck by a sphere with linear momentum of magnitude pi perpendicular to
the rod. The sphere rebounds along its original line of motion with
momentum of magnitude pf .

What is the magnitude of the angular momentum of the rod immediately after the collision?
(A) pf - pi
(B) pf + pi
(C) (pf - pi) d
(D) (pf + pi) d

6. A long rod is suspended by a frictionless bearing near its top. A lump of clay is projected from
the right, collides with the block and sticks to it. Which one of the following statements is correct
about the clay and rod system for this collision?
(A) The mechanical energy, linear momentum and angular momentum remain constant.
(B) The linear momentum and the angular momentum remain constant but the mechanical energy
changes.
(C) Only the angular momentum remains constant.
(D) None of the quantities of mechanical energy, linear momentum, or angular momentum remain
constant.
 Questions 7-8: A pair of students measure the torque applied to a wheel supported
by a vertical axle. They also measure resulting angular acceleration. A plot of their
data results in this graph:

7. Which of the following would be the best value for the rotational inertia of wheel?
2
(A) 0.05 kg⋅m
2
(B) 0.06 kg⋅m
2
(C) 0.10 kg⋅m
2
(D) 0.35 kg⋅m

8. Of the following which is the most likely torque supplied by friction?

(A) -0.06 N⋅m
(B) -0.10 N⋅m
(C) +0.06 N⋅m
(D) +0.10 N⋅m

9. Two disks rotating in the same direction about the same axis are shown above. The rotational
inertia for each disk is the same, that is I1 = I2 = I. The initial angular speeds are ω1 and ω2 where
ω2 = 3ω1. If the two disks slide along the axis, collide and stick together, which of the following
statement will be the correct expression for the rotational kinetic energy of the combined disk?

10. An 80 cm long non-uniform stick has two masses, 200 g and 225 g hanging on
its ends. The stick itself has a mass of 200 g. The system is balanced at the point
P exactly half way between the ends of the stick.
Which of the following is the distance of the center of mass of the stick from its left
end?
(A) 25 cm
(B) 30 cm
(C) 35 cm
(D) 45 cm
AP PHYSICS ELECTRICITY
Charge is Conserved: Charges cannot be created or destroyed.
Like charges repel, unlike charges attract
k q1q2
Coulomb’s Law Similar to universal gravitation law Electric force: F= UNITS of charge C (Coulombs)
r2
r is not a radius, it is the separation between the charges.

Current: The flow of electricity. Current I is considered positive (due to old convention). We now know that the
electrons flow, but think of current as positive.
Δq
I= UNITS: A (Amps)
t
Electromotive Force: emf. Not really a force. In an open circuit the rating of a battery is equal to the emf. When a circuit
is closed the potential difference across the battery is slightly less than the emf because of the internal resistance of the
battery. The symbol ε might show up to indicate the potential difference or voltage of an ideal battery.

Potential Difference: Also called voltage. It is the energy per unit charge provided by the battery. UNITS: V (volts)

Resistance: When water flows down a stream it runs into resistance, such as rocks and sand, etc. When current flows in
a length of wire, internal properties of the wire slows the current. Resistance is like friction countering the forward progress
of the electrons.
ρL
Resistance is a function of resistivity, ρ , wire length L , and cross sectional area A. R= UNITS: Ω (ohms)
A
Ohm’s Law: The current is directly proportional to the potential difference and inversely proportional to the resistance
V
I=
R
If an element in a circuit is ‘ohmic’ (follows Ohm’s Law) the graph of potential difference versus current is a straight line
whose slope is the resistance.

Electric Power: P = VI UNITS: W (watts) The brightness of lightbulbs depends on power.

Ammeter: Measures current or flow of electrons through a wire. Should always be placed in series.
Voltmeter: Measures potential difference across an element (resistor, lightbulb). Should always be placed in parallel.

Series Circuit
Current stays the same I total = I1 = I 2 = I 3
Voltage adds up Vbattery = V1 + V2 + V3
Equivalent Resistance RS = R1 + R2 + R3

Parallel Circuit
Current adds up I total = I1 + I 2 + I 3
Voltage stays the same Vbattery = V1 = V2 = V3
1 1 1 1
Equivalent Resistance = + +
RP R1 R2 R3
KIRCHHOFF’S RULES
RULE 1. Conservation of Charge
The sum of the currents entering a junction is equal to the sum of the currents leaving that junction.
ΣI in = ΣI out
RULE 2. Conservation of Energy
The sum of the potential differences around any closed current loop is equal to the sum of all the IR drops around that
loop.
ΣV = ΣIR
EXERCISES:

1. Two small identical objects are given the same amount of charge, Q. They are
placed a distance d apart and experience a force F. A student proposes to remove a
small amount of charge q from one and add it to the other in order to reduce the force
to one half of its original value but wants to maintain the original separation.
Which of the following is true?

2. When two charged, massive objects are placed a distance r apart, the gravitational force between them has magnitude
F. When the distance between the objects is increased to 2r, the magnitude of the gravitational force between them
becomes F/4 . Did the electrostatic force between the objects also decrease to one fourth its initial magnitude as a result
of the change in position, and why?
(A) No, because the gravitational constant is much smaller than the electrostatic constant.
(B) No, because the gravitational force is only attractive, and the electrostatic force can also be repulsive.
2
(C) Yes, because both forces have the same 1/r dependence.
(D)Yes, because the gravitational force always equals the electrostatic force at any given distance.

3. A circuit is designed with two resistors R1 = 200 Ω and R2 = 400 Ω, and a battery with
internal resistance = 10 Ω, as shown above. What is the relationship between the three labeled
currents?
(A) I1 + I2 – I
(B) I > I1 > I2
(C) I2 > I1 > I
(D) I1 = I2 = I

4. The current through the 3 Ω resistor in the circuit shown above is most nearly
(A) 1.1 A
(B) 2.7 A
(C) 3.0 A
(D) 4.0 A

5. When the circuit shown above is set up, the potential difference across the battery is 3.0 V. By
how much will the magnitude of the potential difference across R2 change when R3 is removed
and its branch is left open?
(A) The magnitude of the potential difference across R2 does not change.
(B) The magnitude of the potential difference across R2 decreases by 0.5 V.
(C) The magnitude of the potential difference across R2 increases by 0.5 V.
(D) The magnitude of the potential difference across R2 increases by 1.0 V.
 6. Three identical bulbs are connected in a circuit as shown above. The internal resistance
of the battery is negligible. Consider that bulb #3 burns out.
Which of the following statements is correct?
(A) The potential difference for bulb #1 will decrease and the current through bulb #2 will
remain unchanged.
(B) The potential difference for bulb #1 will increase and the current through bulb #2 will decrease.
(C) The potential difference for bulb #1 will decrease and the current through bulb #2 will increase.
(D) The potential difference for bulb #1 and the current through bulb #2 will both remain unchanged.

Questions 7-8: A circuit is designed with two resistors R1, R2 and a battery that provides a potential difference V but has
an internal resistance r.
7. What is the relationship between the three labeled currents?
A) I3 > I1 + I2
B) I3 = I1 + I2
C) I3 < I1 + I2
D) I3 = I1 = I2

8. What of the following is a correct relationship for the above circuit?

A) V = I3r =I2R2 =I1R1
B) V = I1R1 +I2R2 +I3r
C) V = I3r +I1R1
D) V = I1R1 +I2R2

9. What is the potential drop across the 3Ω resistor in the circuit shown?

(A) 0.5 V
(B) 0.9 V
(C) 1.0 V
(D) 1.5 V
AP PHYSICS SHM
The diagram to the right shows a block attached to a Hookean spring on a
frictionless surface. The block experiences no net force when it is at
position B. When the block is to the left of point B the spring pushes it to the
right. When the block is to the right of point B, the spring pulls it to the left.
The mass is pulled to the left from point B to point A and released. The
block then oscillates between positions A and C. Consider point B to be
zero position and right of B positive.

Force and acceleration are equal:

max at endpoints and zero at equilibrium

Position starts at equilibrium

A-B in the positive direction
B-C in the positive direction
C-B in the negative direction
B-A in the negative direction

Velocity is the slope of the position-time

graph

EXAMPLE:
1. Below is a graph of position vs. time for a 100.0 gram block undergoing horizontal oscillations at the end of a spring.

a. What is the period of oscillation?

10s
=.833s
12 oscillations

b. What is the frequency? What is the angular frequency?

1 1
f = = = 1.2 Hz and ω = 2π f = 2π (1.2) = 7.54 rad/s
T 0.833
c. What is the amplitude of the oscillation?
From graph = 4.0 cm = .040 m

d. What is the force constant for the spring?

m 4π 2m 4π 2 (0.100)
T = 2π k= = = 5.68 N/m
k T2 (0.833)2
e. How much elastic potential energy is stored in the spring at the maximum amplitude?
1 1
U S = kx 2 = (5.68)(0.04)2 = 4.54 x10−3 J
2 2
f. What is the maximum speed of the mass?
K = US
2U S 2(4.54 x10−3 )
v= = = 0.30 m/s
m 0.100
g. Write the position equation for the oscillating block.
x = A cos(2π ft ) = 0.04cos(7.54 t )

h. Sketch the velocity/time graph. Place the maximum value on the graph.

i. Sketch the acceleration/time graph and write the acceleration/time equation for the oscillating block. Calculate the
acceleration. Place the maximum value on the graph.
F = −kx = ma
−kx −5.68(0.04)
a= = = 2.27 m/s2
m 0.100

Questions 1-2

A sphere of mass m1, which is attached to a spring, is displaced downward from its equilibrium position as shown
above left and released from rest. A sphere of mass m2, which is suspended from a string of length L, is displaced to the
right as shown above right and released from rest so that it swings as a simple pendulum with small amplitude. Assume
that both spheres undergo simple harmonic motion

1. Which of the following is true for both spheres?

(A) The maximum kinetic energy is attained as the sphere passes through its equilibrium position
(B) The maximum kinetic energy is attained as the sphere reaches its point of release.
(C) The minimum gravitational potential energy is attained as the sphere passes through its equilibrium position.
(D) The maximum gravitational potential energy is attained when the sphere reaches its point of release.

2. If both spheres have the same period of oscillation, which of the following is an expression for the spring constant
(A) L / m1g
(B) g / m2L
(C) m2g / L
(D) m1g / L
Questions 4-6: A block on a horizontal frictionless plane is attached to a spring, as shown above. The block oscillates
along the x axis with simple harmonic motion of amplitude A.

4. Which of the following statements about the block is correct? Select two correct answers.
(A) At x = 0, its velocity is zero.
(B) At x = A, its acceleration is at a maximum.
(C) At x = 0, its velocity is at a maximum.
(D) At x = A, its acceleration is zero.

5. Complete the following statements about energy as shown by the graph: Use x = -A, x = +A and/or x= 0
(A) The potential energy of the spring is at a minimum at x= 0

(B) The potential energy of the spring is at a maximum at x = -A, x = +A

(C) The kinetic energy of the block is at a minimum at x = -A, x = +A

(D) The kinetic energy of the block is at a maximum at x= 0

6. Write the appropriate values on the vertical lines: (-A, 0, +A) that correspond to the motion of the spring/mass system.

7. Students watching a large mass swing on a long cable decide to determine the length of the cable assuming it acts as a
simple pendulum. They make several measurements of the time the mass goes through ten complete cycles. They
measure the time for these ten cycles to be 88 ± 1 s. Because this is an experiment they realize they must take g = 9.8
2
m/s in this case.
Given the uncertainty of the data which of the following would be the best indication of the length of the cable?

(A) 18 to 19 m
(B) 19.1 to 19.3 m
(C) 19 to 20 m
(D) 20 to 21m
Questions 8-10 refer to the following material.
A student is observing an object of unknown mass that is oscillating horizontally at the end of an ideal spring. The student
measures the object’s period of oscillation with a stopwatch.

8. The student wishes to determine the spring constant of the spring using the measurements of the period of oscillation.
Which of the following pieces of equipment would provide another measured quantity that is sufficient information to
complete the determination of the spring constant?
(A) Meterstick
(B) Motion sensor
(C) Balance
(D) Photogate

Using a number of measurements, the student determines the following;

9. The total energy of the object-spring system is most nearly

(A) 0.98 J
(B) 3.8 J
(C) 7.6 J
(D) 12.8 J

10. While the object is continuously oscillating, the student determines the maximum speed of the object during two
oscillations. The first speed is 3.5 m/s and the second speed is 2.7 m/s. Which of the following could account for the
decrease in the object’s maximum kinetic energy?
(A) Energy was transferred from the object to the spring, which increased the maximum potential energy of the spring.
(B) Energy was transferred from the spring to the object, which decreased the maximum potential energy of the spring.
(C) As energy was transferred back and forth between the object and the spring, a greater average share of the energy
became potential energy of the spring.
(D) The object-spring system lost energy to its surroundings
AP PHYSICS WAVES AND SOUND
Energy: Waves transport energy.

Vibration / oscillation: Something must be vibrating / oscillating in order to create a wave.

Medium: Waves must travel in a medium with one important exception.

Electromagnetic waves are the only type of wave that do not require a medium at all.
Frequency: f Number of vibrations, oscillations, cycles, revolutions, etc. that take place each second.

Period: T =1 f Time for one complete vibration / oscillation.

Wavelength: λ The length on a single wave. Measure to the same point on the next wave (ie. crest to crest).
Velocity: v = f λ Wave velocity depends on the elasticity of the medium. Sound travels faster in metal
than in water and faster in water than in air.
Amplitude: A Maximum displacement from the equilibrium position (midline on the graph).
Transverse Wave: Particles vibrate in a direction perpendicular to the wave direction & velocity.

Longitudinal Wave: Particles vibrate in a direction parallel to wave direction & velocity.

Sinusoidal: When a vibrations displacement is graphed against time a sinusoidal function is plotted. It is the
graphical representation for any wave phenomenon, and looks like a transverse wave. However,
any wave, even longitudinal waves, follows the same sinusoidal pattern.
Wavelength

Amplitude

Pulse: A single wave.

Continuous Wave: A series of equal pulses equally spaced moving together.

Standing wave: When a continuous wave strikes a barrier and reflects back on itself it will create an interference
pattern (see interference below). If the phase (see phase below) of the reflected wave is exactly
opposite to the incoming wave they will superimpose creating a standing wave.

Node: A point on a standing wave that does not move at all.

Antinode: A point on a standing wave that has the maximum displacement.

Amplitude

Wavelength
Speed depends on the mediums elasticity. When a wave travels from one medium to a different medium the
speed and wavelength change. However the frequency remains the same.

Interference: When two or more wave meet, the amplitudes add (principle of superposition).
In phase: Waves are in phase when they have the same wavelength and the crests are aligned.
Out phase: Waves are out of phase when they the crest on one wave aligns with the trough of another.
Constructive Interference: If the waves are in phase you add
them to construct a larger amplitude.
Destructive Interference: If the waves are out phase you
add them to destroy the amplitude. The waves shown have
the same amplitude and wavelength, but any kind of wave can
interfere, so different amplitudes and wavelengths can result in
many unique new wave functions.
Sound: o
The speed of sound in air at 25 C is 343 m/s (often rounded to 340 m/s). The speed of sound changes with
temperature since the density and elasticity of air change as temperatures fluctuate.
Pitch: Frequency Loudness: Amplitude
Sound waves can originate from vibrating strings or in tubes. This is the basis for musical instruments.

There are two types of tubes: those open at both ends and those closed at one end.
1
Strings: Only multiples of ½ wavelengths can fit on a vibrating string that is held fixed at each end. L= λ
2
nd rd
Fundamental 2 Harmonic 3 Harmonic

wavelength node

Open Tubes: Same as strings, multiples of ½ waves. But the waves look a little different, since the ends aren’t fixed.
1
L= λ
2
1
Closed Tubes: Closed tubes hold multiples of ¼ waves: L= λ (only ODD harmonics possible)
4

1/2 wavelength 1/4 wavelength

2/2 wavelength 1/2 wavelength

Adjustments to the velocity equation. The simplest case is the minimum number of wavelengths. Below are the
fundamental, strings or open tubes that have a ½ wavelength, and closed tube holding ¼ wavelength.
Normal wave velocity v= fλ
Strings: v = f 2L If ½ wavelength fits on the string, then λ = 2 × String Length = 2L .
Open tubes: v = f 2L If ½ wavelength fits in the tube, then λ = 2 × Tube Length = 2 L .
Closed tubes: v = f 4L If ¼ wavelength fits in the tube, then λ = 4 × Tube Length = 4 L .

To adjust for more than ½ wavelengths in strings & open tubes, and ¼ wavelengths in closed tubes you divide L by the
2L
number of nodes. Example: This tube contains two nodes. v= f
n
EXERCISES:

1. A student wants to determine the speed of sound at an elevation of one mile. To do this the student performs an
experiment to determine the resonance frequencies of a tube that is closed at one end. The student takes measurements
every day for a week and gets different results on different days. Which of the following experiments would help the
student determine the reason for the different results?
(A) Repeating the experiment on several 10°C days and several 20°C days
(B) Repeating the experiment using a longer tube
(C) Repeating the experiment using a wider range of frequencies of sound
(D) Repeating the original experiment for an additional week
 2. A transverse wave is traveling on a string. The graph above shows position
as a function of time for a point on the string. If the frequency of the wave is
doubled, what is the new average speed of the point?
(A) 0 m/s
(B) 2.4 m/s
(C) 4.8 m/s
(D) 9.6 m/s

3. Alan and Beverly are on opposite sides of a large room when Alan says something to Beverly. Beverly does not hear
him, so Alan repeats the message louder and Beverly now hears it. Which of the following could be different about the
second sound wave compared to the first that allows Beverly to hear it?
(A) The second wave travels to Beverly more quickly, so less energy is dissipated by the time the wave reaches her.
(B) The second wave reflects more off the walls of the room.
(C) The air molecules disturbed by the second wave undergo a greater displacement from their equilibrium positions.
(D)The air molecules disturbed by the second wave are, on average, more closely spaced.

4. Two wave pulses are propagating along a straight line toward each other as shown above. Which of the following is
the resultant when the centers of the pulses align?

5. Two strings differing only in length are attached to the same oscillator, as shown
in the figure above. Both are fixed at the other end and are under the same
tension. The oscillator creates a transverse wave and is adjusted to the lowest
frequency that creates a standing wave on the shorter string.

Which of the following explains why there will not be a standing wave on the longer string?
(A) The waves travel at slightly different speeds on the two strings.
(B) An oscillator frequency that results in a standing wave on a string of one length cannot result in a standing wave
on a string with a different length.
(C) The amplitude of the wave does not match the boundary conditions for strings of different length at the same
time.
(D) The wavelength associated with the given frequency does not match the boundary conditions set by the length of
the longer string.

6. The figure above shows a representation of a wave traveling in a uniform medium at a particular instant. Correct
statements about the wave include which of the following? Select two answers.
(A) It is a longitudinal wave.
(B) Distance a is the wavelength.
(C)The number of dots per unit length is the frequency.
(D)The largest distance between two successive dots is the amplitude.
 7. A geologist is using a sensor to record waves in a layer of rock and is viewing them
on a monitor screen. At one moment the monitor shows the signal above. If the signal is
created by just two traveling waves, what can be concluded from the signal about the
waves when they reach the sensor? Select two answers.
(A) The waves have different frequencies.
(B) The waves have different amplitudes.
(C) The waves are traveling in opposite directions.
(D) The waves are traveling at different speeds.

8. Referring to the diagram above, the top picture shows the position of two wave pulses that are approaching each other.
The waves move forward one of the tick marks on the line each second, so one second later they are only two marks
apart as shown in the second picture. Of the following which picture best illustrates the situation after two further seconds
have passed?
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN FRQs

KINEMATICS 1. A world-class runner can complete a 100 m dash in about 10 s. Past studies have shown that runners in
such a race accelerate uniformly for a time tu and then run at constant speed for the remainder of the race. A world-class
runner is visiting your physics class. You are to develop a procedure that will allow you to determine the uniform
acceleration au and an approximate value of tu for the runner in a 100 m dash. By necessity your experiment will be done
on a straight track and include your whole class of eleven students.

a. By checking the line next to each appropriate item in the list below, select the equipment, other than the runner and the
track that your class will need to do the experiment.
_____ Stopwatches _____Tape measures _____Rulers _____Masking tape
_____Metersticks _____Starter’s pistol _____String _____Chalk

b. Outline the procedure that you would use to determine au and tu , including a labeled diagram of the experimental
setup. Use symbols to identify carefully what measurements you would make and include in your procedure how you
would use each piece of the equipment you checked in part (a).

c. Outline the process of data analysis, including how you will identify the portion of the race that has uniform acceleration,
and how you would calculate the uniform acceleration.
KINEMATICS 2. A student wishing to determine experimentally the acceleration
g due to gravity has an apparatus that holds a small steel sphere above a
recording plate, as shown above. When the sphere is released, a timer
automatically begins recording the time of fall. The timer automatically stops
when the sphere strikes the recording plate.

The student measures the time of fall for different values of the distance D shown above and records the data in the table
below. These data points are also plotted on the graph.

a. On the grid, sketch the smooth curve that best

represents the student’s data.

The student can use these data for distance D and

time t to produce a second graph from which the
acceleration g due to gravity can be determined.

b. If only the variables D and t are used, what quantities should the student graph in order to produce a linear relationship
between the two quantities?
c. Plot the data points for the quantities you have identified in part (b), and sketch the best straight-line fit to the points.
Label your axes and show the scale that you have chosen for the graph.
d. Using the slope of your graph in part (c), calculate the acceleration g due to gravity in this experiment.
e. State one way in which the student could improve the accuracy of the results if the experiment were to be performed
again. Explain why this would improve the accuracy.
ENERGY. In an experiment, students are to calculate the
spring constant k of a vertical spring in a small jumping toy that
initially rests on a table. When the spring in the toy is
compressed a distance x from its uncompressed length L0 and
the toy is released, the top of the toy rises to a maximum height
h above the point of maximum compression.

The students repeat the experiment several times, measuring h with objects of various masses taped to the top of the toy
so that the combined mass of the toy and added objects is m.
The bottom of the toy and the spring each have negligible mass compared to the top of the toy and the objects taped.

a. Derive an expression for the height h in terms of m, x, k, and fundamental constants.

With the spring compressed a distance x = 0.020 m in each trial, the students obtained the following data for different
values of m.
 b. i. What quantities should be graphed so that the slope
of a best-fit straight line through the data points can be
used to calculate the spring constant k
ii. Fill in one or both of the blank columns in the table with
calculated values of your quantities, including units.
c. Plot your data and draw a best-fit straight line. Label the axes and indicate the scale.
d. Using your best-fit line, calculate the numerical value of the spring constant. (524 N/m)
e. Describe a procedure for measuring the height h in the experiment, given that the toy is only momentarily at that
maximum height.

SPRINGS
A spring that can be assumed to be ideal hangs from a stand, as shown above.
a. You wish to determine experimentally the spring constant k of the spring by two
different methods.
i. What additional, commonly available equipment would you need for each method?
ii. What measurements would you make in each method?
iii. How would k be determined from these measurements?

b. What quantities were graphed to make a straight-line graph for each method?

CIRCULAR MOTION 1
To study circular motion, two students use the hand-held device shown, which
consists of a rod on which a spring scale is attached.
A polished glass tube attached at the top serves as a guide for a light cord
attached the spring scale.
A rubber stopper is attached to the other end of the cord. One student swings the
teal around at constant speed in a horizontal circle with a constant radius. Assume
friction and air resistance al negligible.
a. Explain how the students, by using a stopwatch and the information given
above, can determine the speed of the stopper as it is revolving.
b. The students find that, despite their best efforts, they cannot swing the stopper
so that the cord remains exactly horizontal.

i. Draw and label vectors to represent the forces acting on the ball
ii. Explain what measurements you need to make to determine the angle that the cord makes with the horizontal.
c. Perform the experiment by substituting the spring scale for five different masses.
d. Calculate the centripetal force, tangential velocity and centripetal acceleration for each case.
e. Neatly plot graphs of:
2
i. Fc vs ac ii. v vs ac
f. Calculate the slopes for each graph. Clearly mark the points selected on the graph. Show all your calculations below.
What do the slopes of each graph represent?

CIRCULAR MOTION 2. An experiment is performed using the apparatus

above. A small disk of mass m1 on a frictionless table is attached to one
end of a string. The string passes through a hole in the table and an
attached narrow, vertical plastic tube. An object of mass m2 is hung at the
other end of the string. A student holding the tube makes the disk rotate
in a circle of constant radius r, while another student measures the period
P.

m1r
a. Derive the equation P = 2π that relates P and m2 .
m2 g
The procedure is repeated, and the period P is determined for four different values of m2 , where m1 = 0.012 kg and
r = 0.80 m. The data, which are presented below, can be used to compute an experimental value for g.

m2 (kg) 0.020 0.040 0.060 0.080

P (s) 1.40 1.05 0.80 0.75

b. What quantities should be graphed to yield a straight line with a slope that could be used to determine g ?
c. Plot the quantities determined in part (b), label the axes, and draw the best-fit line to the data. You may use the blank
rows above to record any values you may need to calculate.
d. Use your graph to calculate the experimental value of g.

PENDULUM. The simple pendulum above consists of a bob hanging from a light string.
You wish to experimentally determine the frequency of the swinging pendulum.
a. By checking the line next to each appropriate item on the list below, select the equipment
that you would need to do the experiment.

____ Meterstick ____ Protractor ____ Additional string

____ Stopwatch ____ Photogate ____ Additional masses
b. Describe the experimental procedure that you would use. In your description, state the measurements you would make,
how you would use the equipment to make them, and how you would determine the frequency from those measurements.
c. You next wish to discover which parameters of a pendulum affect its frequency. State one parameter that could be
varied, describe how you would conduct the experiment, and indicate how you would analyze the data to show whether
there is a dependence.
d. After swinging for a long time, the pendulum eventually comes to rest. Assume that the room is perfectly thermally
insulated. How will the temperature of the room change while the pendulum comes to rest? Justify your answer.
____ It would slightly increase ____ It would slightly decrease ____ No effect. It would remain the same
e. Another pendulum using a thin, light, metal rod instead of a string is used in a clock to keep time. If the temperature of
the room was to increase significantly, what effect, if any, would this have on the period of the pendulum? Justify your
answer.
____ It would increase ____ It would decrease ____ No effect. It would remain the same

FORCE CONSTANT. A thin, flexible metal plate attached at one

end to a platform, as shown above, can be used to measure mass.
When the free end of the plate is pulled down and released, it
vibrates in simple harmonic motion with a period that depends on
the mass attached to the plate.
To calibrate the force constant, objects of known mass are attached
to the plate and the plate is vibrated, obtaining the data shown.

a. The data obtained in the experiment is shown in the table. Calculate the period.
Mass (kg) tavg for 10 vibrations (s) T (s)
0.10 8.86
0.20 10.6
0.30 13.5
0.40 14.7
0.50 17.7
b. Complete the last column in the table by calculating the quantity that needs to be graphed to provide a linear
relationship from the data collected.
c. Sketch a graph of the best straight-line fit to the data points.
d. From your graph clearly calculate the force constant of the metal plate.
 ROTATIONAL INERTIA. A solid disk of unknown mass and known radius R is used as a
pulley in a lab experiment, as shown. A small block of mass m is attached to a string, the
other end of which is attached to the pulley and wrapped around it several times.
The block of mass m is released from rest and takes a time t to fall the distance D to the
floor.

a. Calculate the linear acceleration a of the falling block in terms of the given quantities.
b. The time t is measured for various heights D and the data are recorded in the following table.

i. What quantities should be graphed in order to best determine the acceleration of

the block? Explain your reasoning.
ii. Plot the quantities determined in (b) i., label the axes, and draw the best-fit line to
the data.
iii. Use your graph to calculate the magnitude of the acceleration.

c. Calculate the rotational inertia of the pulley in terms of m, R, a, and fundamental constants.
d. The value of acceleration found in (b)iii, along with numerical values for the given quantities and your answer to (c),
can be used to determine the rotational inertia of the pulley. The pulley is removed from its support and its rotational
inertia is found to be greater than this value. Give one explanation for this discrepancy.

ELECTRICITY

DC CIRUITS 1. In the circuit shown, A, B. C, and D are identical light

bulbs. Assume that the battery maintains a constant potential
difference between its terminals (i.e., the internal resistance of the
battery is assumed to be negligible) and the resistance of each light
bulb remains constant.

a. Draw a diagram of the circuit in the box below. Use and label the resistors symbols as A, B. C, and D to refer to the
corresponding light bulbs.
b. List the bulbs in order of brightness, from brightest to least bright. If any two or more bulbs have the same brightness,
state which ones. Justify your answer.

c. Bulb D is then removed from its socket.

i. Describe the change in the brightness, if any, of bulb A when bulb D is removed from its socket. Justify your answer.
ii. Describe the change in the brightness, if any, of bulb B when bulb D is removed from its socket. Justify your answer.

CIRCUITS 2. A student is asked to design a circuit to supply an electric motor with 1.0 mA of current at 3.0 V potential
difference.
a. Determine the power to be supplied to the motor.
b. Determine the electrical energy to be supplied to the motor in 60 s.
c. Operating as designed above, the motor can lift a 0.012 kg mass a distance of 1.0 m in 60 s at constant velocity.
Determine the efficiency of the motor.
To operate the motor, the student has available only a 9.0 V battery to use as the power source and the following five
resistors.

d. In the space below, complete a schematic diagram of a circuit that shows how one or more of these resistors can be
connected to the battery and motor so that 1.0 mA of current and 3.0 V of potential difference are supplied to the motor.
Be sure to label each resistor in the circuit with the correct value of its resistance.
 WAVES AND SOUND

SPEED OF SOUND 1.
A vibrating tuning fork is held above a column of air, as
shown in the diagrams above. The reservoir is raised and
lowered to change the water level, and thus the length of
the column of air. The shortest length of air column that
produces a resonance is L1 = 0.25 m, and the next
resonance is heard when the air column is L2 = 0.80 m long.
The speed of sound in air at 20°C is 343 m/s and the speed
of sound in water is 1490 m/s.

a. Calculate the wavelength of the standing sound wave produced by this tuning fork.
b. Calculate the frequency of the tuning fork that produces the standing wave, assuming the air is at 20°C.
c.Calculate the wavelength of the sound waves produced by this tuning fork in the water.
d.The water level is lowered again until a third resonance is heard. Calculate the length L3 of the air column that produces
this third resonance.
e. The student performing this experiment determines that the temperature of the room is actually slightly higher than
20°C. Is the calculation of the frequency in part (b) too high, too low, or still correct? _____Too high _____Too low
_____Still correct Justify your answer.

SPEED OF SOUND 2. You are given the

apparatus represented in the figure. A glass
tube is fitted with a movable piston that
allows the indicated length L to be adjusted.

A sine-wave generator with an adjustable frequency is connected to a speaker near the open end of the tube. The output
of a microphone at the open end is connected to a waveform display. You are to use this apparatus to measure the speed
of sound in air.
a. Describe a procedure using the apparatus that would allow you to determine the speed of sound in air. Clearly indicate
what quantities you would measure and with what instrument each measurement would be made. Represent each
measured quantity with a different symbol.
b. Using the symbols defined in part (a), indicate how your measurements can be used to determine an experimental
value of the speed of sound.
c. A more accurate experimental value can be obtained by varying one of the measured quantities to obtain multiple sets
of data. Indicate one quantity that can be varied, and describe how a graph of the resulting data could be used to
determine the speed of sound. Clearly identify independent and dependent variables, and indicate how the slope of the
graph relates to the speed of sound.
Solve problems by looking for energy and work first, then forces, last of all kinematics.

GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS
Valuable information can be obtained by analyzing graphs.

A. Most common slopes:

1. The slope of a position-time graph gives the velocity.
2. The slope of a velocity-time graph gives the acceleration.
3. The slope of a force-elongation graph gives the spring constant.
4. For Ohmic materials the slope of a potential difference-current graph gives the resistance.

B. Most common areas under the curve:

8. The area under the curve of a velocity-time graph gives the displacement.
9. The area under the curve of an acceleration-time graph gives the change in velocity.
10. The area under the curve of a force-time graph gives the impulse (change in momentum).
11. The area under the curve of a force-distance graph gives the work done.

EXPERIMENTAL PROBLEMS
1. If asked for a procedure, write it in a numbered sequence with clear sentences. Think if somebody with no physics
background could follow your directions. If needed include a simple labeled sketch.

2. Use names for physical quantities rather than symbols (mass not ‘m’, force not ‘F’).

3. You may be asked for a graph of data. Be sure to plot the data points clearly. Draw a curve as appropriate, use the
ruler for a best-fit-line. Never connect the dots!

4. There is always some uncertainty associated with any measurement. Every measuring instrument has an inherent
uncertainty that is determined by the precision of the instrument. When asked to discuss uncertainties talk about the
issues with measuring.