energies

Article
Influence of the Design Parameters of a Fuel Thermal
Management System on Its Thermal Endurance
Liping Pang 1 , Shuxin Li 1 , Meng Liu 1, *, Rong A 2 , Aicheng Li 3 and Fanxin Meng 3
1 School of Aviation Science and Engineering, Beihang University (BUAA), Beijing 100191, China;
pangliping@buaa.edu.cn (L.P.); lishuxinxin0501@163.com (S.L.)
2 Institute of Manned Space System Engineering, China Academy of Space Technology, Beijing 100094, China;
ivory_118@126.com
3 Jincheng Nanjing Mechanics-Electronics-Hydraulics Engineering Research Center,
Aviation Industry of China, Nanjing 211102, China; liac8321@sohu.com (A.L.); sunsky170@163.com (F.M.)
* Correspondence: liumeng@buaa.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-010-8231-6654




Received: 28 May 2018; Accepted: 22 June 2018; Published: 27 June 2018


Abstract: The aerodynamic heating of a high-speed vehicle is destined to lead to a continuous fuselage
temperature rise. However, its airborne thermal load rises exponentially. This will severely limit
the thermal endurance of the high-speed vehicle and the working time of the electronic equipment.
A jet-propelled high-speed vehicle usually uses fuel to generate thrust, so fuel thermal management
technology has had much attention paid to it. During the vehicle design, its total amount of fuel
should match its flight envelope. However, determining the amount of carried fuel is very difficult
because it is affected by many factors. In order to analyze the relationship between the above influence
factors and the flight envelope, a typical fuel thermal management system is set up for high-speed
vehicles. Its dynamic characteristic equations are built correspondingly. A conception of thermal
endurance is further presented to reveal the maximum flight time. Some flight conditions are used
to analyze the influence of the main design parameters on the thermal endurance of high-speed
vehicles. The results can help to design the parameters of fuel thermal management systems for
high-speed vehicles.

Keywords: jet-propelled high-speed vehicle; fuel thermal management system; carried fuel capacity;
circulation fuel loop; hot fuel tank

1. Introduction
With the development of the interactive integration of aeronautics and astronautics technology,
reusable high-speed vehicles with horizontal take-off and landing have become a hot issue. The thermal
problem is always one of the important issues in high-speed vehicle technology development. This
directly restricts the improvement of the Mach number and flight performance [1]. High Mach-number
vehicles in their cruise stage will be heated by aerodynamic heating on the outer skin and inside
heat sources simultaneously [2]. Two aspects of thermal loads make the fuselage temperature rise
continuously and rapidly with the increase of flight time.
Compared with the ram-air heat sink, the fuel heat sink is preferred by high-speed vehicles
because it has an expendable nature with a larger specific heat and a lower total system penalty [3,4].
The successful application of a fuel thermal management system in the Lockheed Martin SR-71
reconnaissance aircraft has made long-time high-speed flight with jet-propelled power possible. The
fuel can be used to absorb the heat loads of the environmental control system (ECS), the hydraulic
system and the transmission system before being supplied to the engine [5,6]. In the later-developed
F-22 and F-35 high-performance fighters, the fuel sink has played an important role in their thermal

Energies 2018, 11, 1677; doi:10.3390/en11071677 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2018, 11, 1677 2 of 17

management systems [7–9]. Fuel has been considered as a high-quality heat sink among the rarely
available heat sinks for high-speed vehicles.
In order to explore the further possibility of fuel heat sinks and improve the heat load absorption
capacity of fuel thermal management systems, much theoretical and experimental research has been
carried out. These research works have mainly focused on three aspects. Firstly, some works aimed to
improve the thermal stability of fuel by improving the fuel composition. Its decomposition temperature
can be increased without reducing its heat capacity. In this way, the heat absorbed by fuel can be
increased greatly [10–12]. Secondly, some researchers have paid attention to increasing the coking limit
by reducing the oxygen molecules dissolved in the fuel using an advanced deoxygenation system.
Some technologies, such as catalytic technologies [13], a porous medium [14], a membrane [15], et al.,
were employed in the deoxygenation system. Therefore, the heat load absorption capacity of fuel
thermal management systems is increased greatly while the safety of the fuel system is improved
simultaneously. Thirdly, the structure improvement and optimization of fuel thermal management
systems is also an important means to improving the capacity of heat absorption. A fuel thermal
management system with a circulation loop and boundary layer cooling is better than a simple fuel
tank with drain architecture because of its better control performance and higher heat load absorption
capacity. This system configuration is widely used in F-22 and F-35 aircraft [16].
Doman carried out a great deal of work on the study of the optimization design method of the
integration of fuel thermal management systems and mission planning [17–19]. He proposed a mission
planning algorithm and trajectory optimization method considering the parameters of the fuel thermal
management system in order to maximize endurance and range under the condition of a certain fuel
weight [18]. Moreover, Doman proposed four configurations of a fuel thermal management system
and established dynamic mass and energy equations, respectively [19]. Alyanak and Allison then
carried out model-based investigations using these four configurations. Their research results showed
that the gross takeoff weight of aircraft can be reduced effectively through reasonable system design
for the same thermal load requirement [20]. The above study has not considered the heat exchange
process between the fuel tank wall and the environment or the time-dependent feature of the fuel
temperature. However, the fuel temperature in the tank will continue to rise due to the circulation flow
of the hot fuel. For this reason, German established a dynamic model of a fuel thermal management
system with or without tank-wall heat transfer in order to study the adaptability of a fuel thermal
management system for a certain flight mission [21]. However, these studies were all carried out when
the boundary layer temperature was relatively low and the cumulative effect of aerodynamic heating
on the fuselage was not considered. Specifically, for high Mach number situations, the cumulative
effect of aerodynamic heating will cause the tank temperature to rise continuously with the increase of
flight time. This effect should not be ignored, and it should be carefully considered in the design and
research process of fuel thermal management systems in high-speed vehicles.

2. Fuel Thermal Management System Configuration for High-Speed Vehicles

For a high-speed vehicle, its fuselage temperature will continue to rise with the increase of Mach
number and flight time due to aerodynamic heating. This will severely limit the endurance time of
the high-speed vehicle and the working time of the electronic equipment. The reasonable usage of
an airborne heat sink has become very important. Therefore, it is necessary to study the fuel thermal
management system configuration and the influence of design parameters on the flight time.
A fuel thermal management configuration is established for a jet-propelled high-speed vehicle, as
shown as Figure 1. The system uses the fuel as the heat sink to absorb the heat loads from the heat
sources by some heat exchangers (HEx), including a high-temperature polyalphaolephin (PAO)-fuel
HEx, a hydraulic oil-fuel HEx, a transmission oil-fuel HEx, an engine oil-fuel HEx and a coolant-fuel
HEx. In order to increase the fuel flow rate to improve the heat transfer performance with the airborne
heat sources, a circulation fuel loop is specially added. In this circulation loop, consumptive coolant
is used as the additional heat sink to cool the hot fuel. In this configuration, the heated fuel after
Energies 2018, 11, 1677 3 of 17
Energies 2018, 11, x 3 of 17

absorbing
absorbingheat loads
heat is is
loads divided
dividedinto two
into parts.
two parts.One
Onepart
partis istransported
transportedtotothetheengine
engineinin
order
orderto to
produce the thrust. The other part flows back to the fuel tank. If necessary, the circulation fuel
produce the thrust. The other part flows back to the fuel tank. If necessary, the circulation fuel will will be
cooled by the
be cooled byconsumptive coolant.
the consumptive coolant.

Additional heat sink

Consumptive coolant

4 3
Q c m
Consumptive m 1
(
Q 3 = r Q1 + Q h ) Circulation loop
coolant-fuel HEx
m r

Q 2 = Q1 + Q h
1 2
m r m 1 High-
Hydraulic Engine oil- Transmission
Fuel tank temperature
oil-fuel HEx fuel HEx oil-fuel HEx
Q r = Q 3 − Q c Q 1 PAO-fuel HEx
Q a
Boundary- Q h m d
m
layer air (
Q d = d Q1 + Q h
m 1
)
5
Engine

Figure 1. Fuel thermal management system configuration for a high-speed vehicle.

Figure 1. Fuel thermal management system configuration for a high-speed vehicle.

When the temperature at the outlet of the transmission oil-fuel HEx is much lower than the
maximumthe
When temperature
limit of the fuel at temperature,
the outlet of theTlim, transmission oil-fuel
the circulation loop HEx
is notis opened.
much lower than thethe
Otherwise,
maximum limit of the fuel temperature,
circulation loop will be opened. The control T lim range of the fuel circulation rate in the circulationthe
, the circulation loop is not opened. Otherwise, loop
circulation loop will be opened.
 r ∈. [0, m r ,max ] . Here, m r ,max is the specified maximum flow rate in the circulation loop. In is
The control range of the fuel circulation rate in the circulation loop
. is m . our
mr ∈ [0, mr,max ]. Here, mr,max is the specified maximum flow rate in the circulation loop. In our study,
once
.
study, 0, them
mr >once consumptive
r >0, the consumptive
coolant willcoolant
be usedwillasbethe
used assink
heat the heat sink
for the for the high-temperature
high-temperature fuel in
fuel to
order in maintain
order to maintain
the normaltheoperation
normal operation of themanagement
of the thermal thermal management
system. system.

3. 3.
Characteristic Equations
Characteristic and
Equations Their
and Numerical
Their Solutions
Numerical Solutions
InIn
order to to
order study thethe
study constraint relationship
constraint relationshipbetween
betweenflight speed
flight speedand
andairborne thermal
airborne thermalloads,
loads,
this section
this will
section establish
will dynamic
establish characteristic
dynamic equations
characteristic of the
equations of fuel thermal
the fuel management
thermal system
management in
system
Figure 1.
in Figure 1.

3.1. Characteristic
3.1. Equation
Characteristic of of
Equation thethe
Fuel Thermal
Fuel Management
Thermal System
Management System
For thethe
For fuel heat
fuel sink
heat sinksystem as shown
system as shown in Figure 1, the
in Figure instantaneous
1, the instantaneous temperature
temperature and and
flowflow
rate of
rate
theoffuel in the pipelines are affected by the flight conditions and the heat load.
the fuel in the pipelines are affected by the flight conditions and the heat load. The fuel The fuel consumption
is consumption
determined byisthe thrust requirement
determined of therequirement
by the thrust aircraft, but of thethe
fuelaircraft,
flow rate butand thetemperature
fuel flow rate in the
and
circulation loop is determined by airborne thermal load. When the available
temperature in the circulation loop is determined by airborne thermal load. When the available cooling capacity of the
fuel consumed
cooling by the
capacity of engine
the fuelcannot meet by
consumed thetheairborne
enginethermal
cannotload,meetthethefuel flow rate
airborne in theload,
thermal circulation
the fuel
loop needs to be increased. However, the maximum flow rate of the fuel
flow rate in the circulation loop needs to be increased. However, the maximum flow rate of the fuel is limited to the pump
power and pipe
is limited resistance.
to the pump power For the
andfuel thermal
pipe management
resistance. For the fuel system, thesemanagement
thermal heat exchange processes
system, these
between fuel andprocesses
heat exchange heat sources or heat
between fuelsinks
and heatare the mainor
sources factors affecting
heat sinks the main
are the engine fuel supply
factors affecting
temperature.
the engine fuelThese heat exchange
supply processes
temperature. These heatinclude the heat
exchange transfer include
processes betweenthe fuel andtransfer
heat airborne heat
between
sources,
fuel and airborne heat sources, the heat transfer between fuel and consumptive coolant, and thefuel
the heat transfer between fuel and consumptive coolant, and the heat transfer between heat
and high temperature air in the boundary layer. In order to study the relationship
transfer between fuel and high temperature air in the boundary layer. In order to study the between the initial
fuel capacity and
relationship the thermal
between endurance,
the initial a system
fuel capacity and thermodynamic analysis will
the thermal endurance, be conducted
a system in this
thermodynamic
section based on the first law of thermodynamics and the following assumptions
analysis will be conducted in this section based on the first law of thermodynamics and the following [22].
assumptions [22].
 The temperature change of the fuel mainly occurs in the fuel tank and heat exchangers. The heat
Energies 2018, 11, 1677 4 of 17

u The temperature change of the fuel mainly occurs in the fuel tank and heat exchangers. The heat
transfer process of the fuel in the pipeline and pumps is negligible.
u In the specified time, the power of the airborne heat sources is almost invariable.
u The change of the kinetic energy and potential energy of the fuel is negligible.
u The resistance loss in the fuel flow process is not considered.

Based on the above assumptions, the fuel thermal management system in Figure 1 can be divided
into four open subsystems: control volume (CV) 12, CV 34, CV 25 and CV 41.

(1) CV 12

CV 12 mainly includes some HExs to transfer heat from the heat sources to the fuel. The energy
flowing into or out of the control volume can be obtained by analyzing the heat exchange process
between the fuel and airborne heat sources. According to the energy conservation law, the heat
exchange process in the CV 12 can be expressed as
. . .
Q2 = Q1 + Q h (1)
. . .
where Q2 and Q1 are the energy terms flowing out of and into the CV 12, respectively, in J/s; Qh is the
heating power of the airborne heat sources in J/s.
At any time, the fuel temperature flowing out of the fuel tank is equal to the temperature of the
.
fuel inside the tank, so Q1 can be expressed as
. .
Q1 = m1 c p ( T − Tre f ) (2)

where T is the instantaneous fuel temperature in the fuel tank in K; Tref is an arbitrary reference
.
temperature in K; m1 is the fuel mass flow rate at the outlet of the fuel tank in kg/s; c p is the
constant-pressure specific heat of the fuel in J/(kg·K).
Because of the flow regulation characteristics of the circulation loop, the fuel flow rate in the
.
circulation loop should be controlled to match the heating power of the airborne heat sources. m1 can
be determined by the following equation:
 .
. Qh .
md if ≤ md

.

c p ( Tlim − T )
m1 = . .
.
(3)
Qh Qh


c p ( Tlim − T )
if c p ( Tlim − T )
> md

. .
where m1 is the fuel flow rate out of the tank in kg/s; md is the fuel consumption rate in kg/s; Tlim is
the fuel temperature limit in K.

(2) CV 25
.
The fuel is supplied to the engine in CV 25. For the fuel after heat absorption, one part, mr , returns
.
to the tank, and the other part, md , is supplied to the engine through CV 25. Therefore,
. . .
m1 = m d + mr (4)

Correspondingly,
.
. md  . . 
Qd = . Q1 + Q h (5)
m1
.
. mr  . . 
Q3 = . Q1 + Q h (6)
m1
. . .
where mr is the fuel circulation rate, kg/s; Qd and Q3 are the energy terms supplied to the engine and
the consumptive coolant-fuel HEx, respectively, in J/s.
Energies 2018, 11, 1677 5 of 17

(3) CV 34

CV 34 is the consumptive coolant-fuel HEx, and its equation can be set up as follows:
. . .
Qr = Q3 − Q c (7)
. .
where Qr is the energy flowing from CV 34 to CV 41 by the circulation loop in J/s; Qc is the energy
transferred between the consumptive coolant and the fuel in the CV 34, and it can be expressed as
. .
Qc = ε c Qc,max (8)
.
where Qc,max is the maximum heat transfer amount for the ideal situation in J/s; ε c is the efficiency, %.
.
ε c and Qc,max can be calculated by the following equations:
.
Qc,max = min(Cc , C f ) · ∆Tmax (9)

1 − exp[− NTU (1 − C ∗ )]
εc = (10)
1 − C ∗ exp[− NTU (1 − C ∗ )]
where Cc and Cf are the heat capacity terms of consumptive coolant and fuel, respectively, in W/K,
. .
and Cc = mc c p,c , C f = mr c p ; ∆Tmax is the maximum temperature difference of HEx in K; C ∗ is the heat
capacity ratio in the HEx, which is defined by the following equation:

min(Cc ,C f )
 max(Cc , C f ) 6= 0
C∗ = max(Cc ,C f ) (11)
 0 max(Cc , C f ) → ∞

Due to the phase transition of the consumptive coolant in the cold side of the HEx, C ∗ = 0. NTU
is a dimensionless number of heat transfer units and is defined as:
UHExc A HExc
NTU = (12)
min(Cc , C f )

where UHExc is the total heat transfer coefficient of coolant-fuel Hex in W/(m2 ·K); AHExc is the heat
exchange area of coolant-fuel Hex in m2 .
The consumptive coolant will be added into the consumptive coolant-fuel HEx only when the
fuel temperature of the circulation loop reaches Tlim . Therefore [23],
" !#
. . U A HExc
Qc = mr c p ( Tlim − Tsat ) 1 − exp − HExc
. (13)
mr c p

Thus, the consumption rate of the coolant per unit time is

. . " !#
dmw Qc mr c p ( Tlim − Tsat ) UHExc A HExc
= = 1 − exp − . (14)
dτ rw rw mr c p

where τ is flight time in s; rw is specific latent heat of the consumptive coolant in J/kg; Tsat is the
saturation temperature of the consumptive coolant in K; mw is the consumption mass of the coolant
in kg.

(4) CV 41
Energies 2018, 11, 1677 6 of 17

The main equipment in CV 41 is the fuel tank. According to the conservation of energy, the change
rate of the storage energy in CV 41 is as follows:

dEcv . . .
= Q a + Qr − Q1 (15)
dτ
.
where Ecv is the storage energy of CV 41 in J; Q a is the energy entering the CV 41 due to the aerodynamic
heating in J/s.
The energy of the control volume can be expressed in the following equation:
 
Ecv = mc p T − Tre f (16)

where m is the fuel mass in the CV 41 in kg; T is the fuel temperature in the CV 41 in K.
Under the effect of the temperature difference between the high temperature air in the boundary
layer and the fuel in the tank, the heat input from aerodynamic heating can be expressed in the
following equation:
.
Q a = Uwall Awall ( Te − T ) (17a)

where Uwall is the total heat transfer coefficient between the air in the boundary layer and the fuel in
the tank in W/(m2 ·K); Te is the air temperature in the boundary layer in K; Awall is the wetting area of
the inner wall of fuel tank in m2 .
Te and Awall can be determined with the following equations, respectively:

k−1
 
Te = TH 1 + r Ma2 (17b)
2
m
Awall = · A1 + A2 (17c)
m0,max
where TH is the atmosphere temperature at flight altitude in K; r is the recovery factor, for laminar flow
r = Pr1/2 , for turbulent flow r = Pr1/3 ; k is the ratio of specific heats for the ideal gas, k = 1.4; Ma is the
flight Mach number; m0,max is the maximum tank load mass in kg; A1 is the sidewall area of the tank
in m2 ; A2 is the bottom area of the tank in m2 .
The energy change rate in the CV 41 can be expressed as
.
dEcv . . . mr . . .
= Q a + Qr − Q1 = Uwall Awall ( Te − T ) + . Qh − md c p ( T − Tre f ) − ε c Qc,max (18)
dτ m1
.
where Qc,max is the maximum heat transfer amount for the ideal situation in J/s.
As the fuel mass change in the tank is only a result of engine fuel consumption, the fuel mass
change rate and the fuel consumption rate are opposite:
. .
m = −md (19)

Therefore, the fuel temperature change rate in the tank can be expressed as:
   
 . . .
mA1
dT
dτ = 1
mc p m0,max + A2 Uwall ( Te − T ) + mr
. Q
m1 h
− mr c p ( Tlim − Tsat ) 1 − exp − UHExc
.
m c
A HExc
(20)
r p

. .
According to the definition of m1 and mr,max , the Equation (20) can be simplified to three segments:
.
Qh .
If T ≤ Tlim − .
cv md
and mr = 0, then
 
dT 1 mA1
= + A2 Uwall ( Te − T ) (21)
dτ mc p m0,max
Energies 2018, 11, 1677 7 of 17

. . .
Qh Qh . Qh .
If Tlim − . < T ≤ Tlim − . . and mr = c p ( Tlim − T )
− md , then
c p md c p (md +mr,max )

  . .

dT 1 mA1
dτ = mc p m0,max+ A2 Uwall ( Te − T ) + Qh − md c p ( Tlim − T )
  
.
(22)
 
Tlim − Tsat Qh . U A
− m c p (T −T )
− md 1 − exp−  QHExc . HExc   
.
lim h −md cp
c p ( Tlim − T )

.
Qh . .
If Tlim − . . < T ≤ Tlim and mr = mr,max , then
c p (md +mr,max )

  . . 
dT
dτ = 1
mc p
mA1
+ A2 Uwall ( Te − T ) + mr,max
m0,max
.
m1 
Q h
.
mr,max ( Tlim − Tsat )
 
UHExc A HExc
(23)
− m 1 − exp − m. c r,max p

3.2. Numerical Solution Method of Characteristic Equations

The numerical method will be used to solve the above characteristic equations of the fuel thermal
management system [24]. Considering that the vehicle cruises at a constant speed and altitude, the
boundary layer temperature and the fuel consumption rate will remain constant. The following
equation can be obtained by discretizing the above equations:
.
  
i Qh .
m1 = min , md


c p ( Tlim − T i )




i i .
mr = m1 − m d



   
. i


 . i U A
 Qc = mr c p ( Tlim − Tsat ) 1 − exp −
 HExc
.i
HExc
mr c p  i = 0, 1, 2, · · · , I (24)

m. ri .

iA
 . i
 i + 1 i ∆τ m i
m0,max + A2 Uwall Te − T + m. i Q h − Qc
1


 T = T + mi c

 p 1

 .i
Qc
mw = mw + rw ∆τ
i + 1 i




 mi+1 = mi − m. ∆τ


d

The corresponding boundary conditions are


0
 T = Tini

m0w = 0 (25)
 m0 = m

0

where ∆τ is the time step, s; Tini is the initial temperature in K; m0 is the initial carried fuel capacity in
kg; i is the time node; the superscript 0 represents the corresponding initial value.
.
The initial carried fuel capacity m0 is linear with τ design , and is related to md and εf :

.
 
m0 = 1 + ε f × md × τdesign (26)

where εf is the coefficient of the remaining fuel in the tank in %.

Considering the constraints of Tlim , m0 and τ design , the following iteration conditions need to
be added: .
i Qh . .
T ≥ Tlim · · · or . . . − md > mr,max (27)
c p ( Tlim − T )
The instantaneous working characteristics of the fuel thermal management system in the whole
flight envelope can be determined by iterative calculation with the following flow chart, shown in
Figure 2.
 Q h
T i ≥ Tlim  or  − m d > m r ,max (27)
c p (Tlim − T )
The instantaneous working characteristics of the fuel thermal management system in the whole
flight envelope
Energies can be determined by iterative calculation with the following flow chart, shown
2018, 11, 1677 8 ofin17
Figure 2.

T < Tlim

 dcv (Tlim −T )
Qh ≤ m
m d

Q h
− m d ≤ m r ,max
c p (Tlim − T )

Q h
m r = − m d
Q a c p (Tlim − T )

Q r = 0
m
( )
Q r = r Q1 + Q h − Q c
m 1

m = m − m d dτ

time < τ design

Figure 2. Flow chart to solve characteristic equations.

Figure 2. Flow chart to solve characteristic equations.

4. Thermal Endurance of the Fuel Heat Management System

In this section, the concept of thermal endurance will be presented to evaluate the maximum
flight time, in which the fuel should not be overheated under the effect of heat loads. The constraint
relationship between the fuel thermal management configuration and the maximum airborne thermal
load will be analyzed carefully based on this conception.
The actual flight time, τ actual , should usually be equal to τ design in a normal design. In a cruising
flight, fuel temperature will gradually increase and total fuel mass will decrease. Therefore, when the
heat dissipation amount of the heat source cannot be met, the fuel will be overheated. If the overheat
occurs before the flight task is completed, some actions should be taken. In this case, the available
flight time of the fuel thermal management system does not match the actual flight task. Therefore,
two iteration termination conditions should be adopted in the solution process besides τ actual = τ design ,
as shown in Figure 2. One condition is that the fuel temperature exceeds the temperature limit; the
other condition is that the flow rate in the circulation loop exceeds its maximum limit of flow rate.
Concerning the available flight time of the fuel thermal management system, Doman [18,19] and
Alyanak et al. [20] of the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory put forward an evaluation index named
the critical flight time. This was mainly used to evaluate the large heat power of heat sources without
considering the effect of aerodynamic heating. Similarly, German [21] also analyzed the maximum
Energies 2018, 11, 1677 9 of 17

available time of a fuel thermal management system. These two indices are both the ratio of the
maximum heat capacity of heat sinks and the total amount of heat load. This can be expressed as
 
m0 cv ( Tlim − T0 ) + mw c p,w ( Tsat − T0 ) + rw
τcritical = . (28)
Qtotal
.
where τ critical is the critical flight time in s; Qtotal is the total amount of heat load per unit time in J/s;
c p,w is the constant-pressure specific heat of water in J/(kg·K).
For a low Mach number vehicle, the fuel temperature in the tank might keep constant when the
skin heat exchanger is used. In other words, the system can be in a steady state. In this condition,
the relationship between the critical flight time and the heat load can be determined with the above
equation. However, for a high-speed vehicle with aerodynamic heating, the system is always in a
dynamic state due to the continuously rising fuel temperature in the tank, and its critical flight time is
usually much longer than real flight time; that is, τ critical > τ actual . Therefore, according to the iteration
termination conditions in Figure 2, the definition of τ critical can be extended. In this paper, a new
definition of thermal endurance for the fuel heat management system, τ thermal , will be set up instead of
its steady state definition.
Before defining τ thermal , two terms need to be explained. τ actual is the time that the fuel temperature
reaches its maximum temperature limit. τ design is the designed flight time. Therefore, τ thermal is the
minimum value of τ design and τ actual , as shown in Equation (29).
  
τ
design if T τdesign < Tlim
τthermal = (29)
τ
actual if T (τreal ) = Tlim

According to the established characteristic equations in Equations (21)–(23), thermal endurance

can be expressed as the following functional form:
 . . .

τthermal = f Ma, Uwall , Qh , m0 , md , mr,max , Tsat , UHExc A HExc (30)

5. Analysis of Factors Affecting Thermal Endurance

The thermal endurance, τ thermal , is the maximum available working time of a fuel thermal
management system under given conditions. It is a key factor for designing and selecting this
system. However, the thermal environment of the fuel tank will continuously vary due to the effect of
aerodynamic heating. Meanwhile, the fuel flow rate in the circulation loop is dynamically adjusted with
the variation of heat load and tank temperature. Therefore, τ thermal will be affected by many factors.
This paper focuses on analyzing the influences of key design parameters on τ thermal . The whole
analysis will face the high-speed flight cruising stage at a constant speed and altitude. The selection and
estimation of the basic parameters mainly refer to the published values in the SR-71 flight manual [25]
Particularly, the fuel tank remaining coefficient considered the total proportion of both fuel remaining
and fuel consumption during the descending stage. The tank area was estimated based on the fuel
volume and the aircraft size. The fuel consumption during the cruising stage was indicated by the
average fuel consumption rate [26]. The following conditions will be used in the analysis:
u The fuel is JP7 fuel with a temperature limit of 423 K;
u The airborne thermal load remains constant throughout the cruising stage;
u The consumptive coolant is cooling water with Tsat = 333 K, and its total consumption will be
balanced with the actual demand.
.
In the design of system parameters, τ design , m0 , mr and the total heat transfer coefficient of the
wall, Uwall , are all important factors affecting the maximum heat load removed by the fuel thermal
management system [27].
Energies 2018, 11, 1677 10 of 17

(1) τ design is closely related to m0 and the designed flight conditions, which is decided by the
flight envelope;
.
(2) mr is a variable related to the design structure of the fuel thermal management system, which is
limited by pipe resistance and fuel pump power;
(3) Uwall is a variable related to the vehicle structure in the vehicle skin.

The detailed analysis will be carried out by some specified examples in order to obtain their
influence and constraint on τ thermal under different airborne thermal loads.

5.1. Initial Carried Fuel Capacity

This section will discuss the influence of the initial carried fuel capacity on the thermal endurance
of high-speed vehicles. Simulation conditions are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Simulation conditions.

Basical Parameters
Cruising Mach number Ma 4 -
Flight altitude H 25 km
Fuel tank remaining coefficient εf 40 %
Thermal resistance of consumptive coolant-fuel Hex 1/(UHExc AHExc ) 1/1500 K/W
Fuel tank bottom area A2 46.25 m2
Maximum area of tank side A1 94.5 m2
Total heat transfer coefficient of wall Uwall 10 W/(m2 ·K)
Initial fuel temperature T0 293 K
.
Fuel consumption rate md 4 kg/s
.
Maximum flow rate in circulation loop mr,max 8 kg/s
Simulation time step ∆τ 60 s
Simulation Variables
Designed flight time τ thermal (0, 70] min
Initial carried fuel capacity m0 (0, 23520] kg
Airborne thermal load Qh [400, 1600] kW

Figure 3 shows the influence of m0 and τ design on τ thermal under different values of Qh when the
. .
circulation 11, x loop works and mr,max / md = 2.
Energies 2018, fuel 11 of 17

Qh/(kW)
1600

1400

30 1200
m0 / (kg×1000)

20 1000

10 4200 800
3500
0 2800 600
4200 2100
3500
2800 1400 400
2100 τ design / (s)
1400 700
τ thermal / (s) 700
0 0

Figure3.3.Influence
Figure Influenceofofmm 0 and τdesign on τthermal under different values of Qh.
0 and τ design on τ thermal under different values of Qh .

In Figure 3, blue represents a lower airborne thermal load and red represents a higher airborne
In Figure 3, blue represents a lower airborne thermal load and red represents a higher airborne
thermal load. The blue area is mainly distributed near the diagonal line, which shows that τthermal is
thermal load. The blue area is mainly distributed near the diagonal line, which shows that τ thermal is
close to τdesign. The red area is mainly distributed in the area with larger τdesign and m0 and smaller τthermal.
close to τ design . The red area is mainly distributed in the area with larger τ design and m0 and smaller
Thermal endurance obviously decreases with the increase of airborne thermal load. In order to make
τ thermal . Thermal endurance obviously decreases with the increase of airborne thermal load. In order to
further quantitative analysis, the cutaway view is made, as shown in Figure 4, when the airborne
make further quantitative analysis, the cutaway view is made, as shown in Figure 4, when the airborne
thermal loads are selected as 400 kW, 800 kW, 1200 kW and 1600 kW, respectively.
thermal loads are selected as 400 kW, 800 kW, 1200 kW and 1600 kW, respectively.
τ design / (s)
0 700 1400 2100 2800 3500 4200
4200

400kW
3500 800kW
1200kW
 In Figure 3, blue represents a lower airborne thermal load and red represents a higher airborne
thermal load. The blue area is mainly distributed near the diagonal line, which shows that τthermal is
close to τdesign. The red area is mainly distributed in the area with larger τdesign and m0 and smaller τthermal.
Thermal endurance obviously decreases with the increase of airborne thermal load. In order to make
further
Energies quantitative
2018, 11, 1677 analysis, the cutaway view is made, as shown in Figure 4, when the airborne 11 of 17
thermal loads are selected as 400 kW, 800 kW, 1200 kW and 1600 kW, respectively.
τ design / (s)
0 700 1400 2100 2800 3500 4200
4200

400kW
3500 800kW
1200kW
2800 1600kW

/ (s)
τ thermal 2100

1400

700
△m0
0
0 3.92 7.84 11.76 15.68 19.6 23.52
m0 / (kg×1000)

Figure
Figure 4. Relationship
4. Relationship between
between m0 ,mτ0thermal
, τthermaland
andτ design
τdesign.

The following conclusions can further be drawn:

The following conclusions can further be drawn:
(1) τdesign increases with the increase of m0 under different thermal loads, but their slopes decrease
(1) τwith increases
designthe increase with loads; of m0 under different thermal loads, but their slopes decrease
the increase
of heat
with the increase of heat loads;
(2) When . Q h = 400 kW and. Q h = 800 kW, τthermal increases at the same slope with the increase of
(2) When Qh = 400 kW and Qh = 800 kW, τ thermal increases at the same slope with the increase of
m0, that is τthermal = τdesign. Hence, their maximum flight time is 4200 s when m0 = 23.52 × 103 kg.
m0 , that is τ thermal = τ design . Hence, their maximum flight time is 4200 s when m0 = 23.52 × 103
The fuel will not be overheated at any flight time. Actually, it is not necessary to open the
kg. The fuel will not be overheated at any flight time. Actually, it is not necessary to open the
circulationfuel
circulation fuelloop whenQ. Q=h 400
loopwhen = 400
kW.kW.ThisThis
willwill
be be further
further explained
explained in Figure
in Figure 5; 5;
h
(3)(3) For
Forthethecase
caseof
.
ofQQ  1200
h = 1200
h =
kW,
kW, if τifdesign
τdesign≤≤ 2200 s, then ττthermal ==
thermal τdesign. If .τdesign
τ design > 2200
If τ design s, then
> 2200 τthermal
s, then
<
τdesign. The
τ<thermal τ . The increase of m helps to prolong
increase of m0 helps to0prolong τthermal. Although
design τ . Although the cooling demand
thermal the cooling demand of thermal load of
thermal load canafter
can be satisfied be satisfied after
2200 s, the 2200 s, the
maximum maximum
flight flight time
time is decided by τisthermal
decided
. It is by
3855 s when
τ thermal . Itmis0 =
3855
23.52s when m0 = 23.52 × 103 kg;
× 103 kg;
.
(4)(4) For
Forthe caseofofQhQ=h 1600
thecase kW,kW,
= 1600 is is
τthermal
τ thermal always less
always than
less than τdesign. .Hence,
τ design Hence,the
themaximum
maximumflight flighttime
time
isisdecided by τ , and it is 2541 s when m = 23.52 × 103 kg;
thermal, and it is 2541 s when m00 = 23.52 × 103 kg;
decided by τthermal
(5)(5) The
The fuel weightpenalty
fuel weight penaltywillwillbebevery
verydifferent
differentininorder
ordertotokeep
keepthe thesame
sameflight
flighttime
timefor
fordifferent
different
thermal loads. For example, in order to maintain τ thermal = 2100 s, m0 will be 11.76 × 103 kg
thermal
Energies .
2018, loads.
11, x For example, in order to maintain τthermal .= 2100 s, m0 will be 11.76 × 10 kg for 12 3 Qof ≤
h 17
for Qh ≤ 1200 kW, but m0 will be 18.48 × 103 kg for Qh = 1600 kW. The net increase of initial
carried fuel capacity, ∆m0 , is about3 7000 kg. Therefore, the airborne thermal load should be
1200 kW, but m0 will be 18.48 × 10 kg for Qh = 1600 kW. The net increase of initial carried fuel
determined carefully.
capacity, △m0, is about 7000 kg. Therefore, the airborne thermal load should be determined carefully.

4500
4200
4000

3500

3000
/(s)

2500
τ thermal

2000

1500
400kW
1000 800kW
500 1200kW
1600kW
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
mr,max / md

Figure
Figure 5. 5. Influence
Influence
.
of of  r ,max
m
mr,max /m/dm
.
on on τthermal.
d τ thermal .

5.2. Fuel Maximum Flow Rate in the Circulation Loop

 r ,max , is directly related to the pipe

The maximum flow rate in the circulation fuel loop, m
diameter and pump power, Wpump. This section will analyze the interaction between the fuel flow rate
limit in the circulation loop and the thermal endurance of high-speed vehicles. The simulation
Energies 2018, 11, 1677 12 of 17

5.2. Fuel Maximum Flow Rate in the Circulation Loop

.
The maximum flow rate in the circulation fuel loop, mr,max , is directly related to the pipe diameter
and pump power, Wpump . This section will analyze the interaction between the fuel flow rate limit in
the circulation loop and the thermal endurance of high-speed vehicles. The simulation conditions are
as shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Simulation conditions.

Basical Parameters
Cruising Mach number Ma 4
Flight altitude H 25 km
Fuel tank remaining coefficient εf 40 %
Thermal resistance of consumptive coolant-fuel Hex 1/(UHExc AHExc ) 1/1500 K/W
Fuel tank bottom area A2 46.25 m2
Maximum area of tank side A1 94.5 m2
Total heat transfer coefficient of wall Uwall 10 W/(m2 ·K)
Initial fuel temperature T0 293 K
.
Fuel consumption rate md 4 kg/s
Simulation time step ∆τ 1 s
Designed flight time τ design 4200 s
Initial carried fuel capacity m0 23,520 kg
Simulation Variables
Airborne thermal load Q [400, 1600] kW
. h
Maximum flow rate in circulation loop mr,max [0, 16] kg/s

. .
Figure 5 shows the influence of mr,max on τ thermal for different Qh when τ design is specified as
4200 s.
Under the specified condition, τ design = 4200 s, it can be seen that:
.
(1) For Qh = 400 kW, τ thermal can be always equal to τ design without needing the circulation fuel loop.
. .
However, for Qh = 800 kW, τ thermal is less than τ design and τ thermal = 3200 s when mr = 0. τ thermal is
. .
equal to τ design only when mr,max /md ≥ 0.5.
. .
(2) For some high thermal load situations, for example Qh = 1200 kW and Qh = 1600 kW, the system
is not able to work without the circulation fuel loop because the heat loads exceed the maximum
. .
thermal capacity of the fuel supplied to the engine per unit time, namely Qh > md c p ∆Tmax . In
. . . .
these cases, τ thermal is always less than τ design when mr,max /md ≤ 4. When mr,max /md is low,
. .
thermal endurance is short. With the increase of mr,max /md , τ thermal first increases rapidly, and
then its slope gradually decreases until it tends to be stable. The maximum values of τ thermal are
. .
3855 s and 2541 s for Qh = 1200 kW and Qh = 1600 kW, respectively. τ thermal values finally decide
the actually flight time.
.
(3) The increase of mr,max is helpful for improving the heat control ability of the system. However,
for high airborne thermal load, the accumulated heat inside the vehicle will continuously increase
and the available heat sink will decrease with the flight time. Under this situation, the system
cannot continue to tolerate high thermal load, and the thermal load needs to be reduced properly.

If the airborne thermal load is constant during the cruise and τ thermal is required to be equal to
τ design , then the corresponding maximum airborne thermal loads, Qh ,max , removed by the fuel thermal
. .
management system, can be calculated with different maximum value of mr , mr,max . The results are
shown in Figure 6.
From Figure 6, we can observe that
.
(1) Qh,max first increases rapidly and then its rising slope decreases gradually with the increase of
. .
mr,max /md in Figure 6a. The fuel thermal management system can ensure τ thermal = τ design without
 Q h > m d c p ΔTmax . In these cases, τthermal is always less than τdesign when m r ,max / m d ≤ 4 . When
m r ,max m d is low, thermal endurance is short. With the increase of m r ,max m d , τthermal first
increases rapidly, and then its slope gradually decreases until it tends to be stable. The maximum
values
Energies of τ1677
2018, 11, thermal are 3855 s and 2541 s for Q h = 1200 kW and Q h = 1600 kW, respectively. 13
τthermal
of 17
values finally decide the actually flight time.
(3) The increase of m r ,max is helpful for improving
. . the system. However,
the heat control ability of
needing the fuel circulation loop when Qh,max ≤ 642 kW. However, if Qh,max > 642 kW, the fuel
. .
for high airborne
circulation thermal
fuel loop has to load, thethat
be used, accumulated
is mr,max /mheat inside the vehicle will continuously
d > 0;
increase and the available heat sink will decrease with . flight. time. Under this situation, the
the
(2) Meanwhile, Wpump and mw increase with the increase of mr,max /md , as shown in Figure 6b. When
system
. cannot
. continue to tolerate high . thermal load, and the thermal load needs to be reduced
mr,max /md > 1, the rising slope of Qh,max is obviously lower than the ones of Wpump and mw .
properly. .
This means that the added equivalent Qh,max will cause a higher consumption of Wpump and mw .
IfHowever,
the airborne thermalin
the increase load is constant
airborne powerduring the cruise
consumption and and
loadτweight
thermal is correspondingly
required to be equal to
requires
τdesign, the
thenengine
the corresponding maximum airborne thermal loads, Q , removed by the
to output more shaft power and to generate more thrust to maintain the flight speed,
h,max fuel thermal
management system,
which causes canfuel
more be calculated with
consumption anddifferent maximum
causes the  r to
value of m
engine performance , m r ,max
be . The [28].
reduced results
are shown in Figure 6.
1200 180 120 180

1050 150 100 150

900 120 80 120

Wpump / (kW)
Qh,max / (kW)

mw / (kg)
mw / (kg)
750 90 60 90

600 60 40 60

Qh,max 20 Wpump 30
450 30
mw mw
0 0
300 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 mr,max / md
mr,max / md

(a) (b)

 r ,max
m on Qh,,max  m andmQd .
/m/dm
. .
; (b)Qm
. . . . .
Figure 6.
Figure Influenceofofmr,max
6. Influence d Q h,max
on Wpump
, Wand mw . (a)
pump and mwm. r,max
(a) /mrd,max and
h,max h ,max md
; /(b)
r,max


and W 
mr ,max md
pump .
and Wpump.
5.3. Total Heat Transfer Coefficient of the Wall
From Figure 6, we can observe that
The thermal resistance of the heat exchange process between the fuel and boundary layer air is
(1) Q first increases rapidly and then its rising slope decreases gradually
mainlyh ,max
composed of four parts: the convection heat transfer resistance betweenwith skintheandincrease
boundaryof
layermair,
r ,max md
 radiation
the in Figureheat transfer
6a. The resistance
fuel thermal between skin
management system andcan
0 Kensure
space,τthe
thermalconduction heat
= τdesign without
transfer resistance of wall interlayers, and the convection heat transfer resistance between the inner
needing the fuel circulation loop when Q h ,max ≤ 642 kW. However, if Q h ,max > 642 kW, the fuel
surface and fuel. The total heat transfer coefficient decreases with the increasing of the wall insulation
circulation
thickness, which fuel loop has
is helpful toto be used,
isolate the that
aerodynamic m d > 0 but
is m r ,max heating, ; it will increase the vehicle weight.
For high-speed
(2) Meanwhile,vehicles,
Wpump and themwweight is closely
increase with therelated
increase of m  r ,max m d , as and
to maneuverability shownthermal endurance
in Figure etc.
6b. When
This section will analyze the interaction between the total heat transfer coefficient of the wall and the
m r ,max the rising slope of Q h ,max is obviously lower than the ones of Wpump and mw. This
m d > 1 ,of
thermal endurance high-speed vehicles. The simulation conditions are shown in Table 3.
means that the added equivalent Q h ,max will cause a higher consumption of Wpump and mw.
Table 3. Simulation conditions.
However, the increase in airborne power consumption and load weight correspondingly
requires the engine to output more shaft power and to generate more thrust to maintain the
Basical Parameters
flight speed,Cruising
whichMach
causes more
number
fuel consumption Ma
and causes the
4
engine performance to be
reduced [28]. Flight altitude H 25 km
Fuel tank remaining coefficient εf 40 %
Thermal resistance of consumptive coolant-fuel Hex 1/(UHExc AHExc ) 1/1500 K/W
5.3. Total Heat Transfer Coefficient of the Wall
Fuel tank bottom area A2 46.25 m2
Maximum area of tank side A1 94.5 m2
The thermalInitial
resistance of the heat exchange process
fuel temperature T0
between the 293
fuel and boundary
K
layer air is
.
mainly composedFuel of consumption
four parts: rate
the convection heat transfer
md resistance4between skin and
kg/s boundary
Simulation time step ∆τ 1 s
Designed flight time τ design 4200 s
Initial carried fuel capacity m0 23,520 kg
.
Maximum flow rate in circulation loop mr,max 8 kg/s
Simulation Variables
Airborne thermal load Qh [400, 1600] kW
Total heat transfer coefficient of wall Uwall [0, 30] W/(m2 ·K)
 Designed flight time τdesign 4200 s
Initial carried fuel capacity m0 23520 kg
Maximum flow rate in circulation loop  r ,max
m 8 kg/s
Simulation Variables
Energies 2018, 11, 1677 Airborne thermal load Qh [400,1600] kW 14 of 17
Total heat transfer coefficient of wall Uwall [0,30] W/(m2·K)

Figure
Figure 7 indicates thethe
7 indicates influence
influence of different Uwall
of different onon
Uwall τthermalunder
τ thermal underdifferent
differentairborne thermal
airborne loads
thermal loads
. .
r ,max / mdd = 2
when
when τdesign==4200
τ design andmm
4200ssand 
r,max / m  = 2.
.

4500
4200
4000

3500
/(s)

3000
τ thermal

2500

2000 400kW
800kW
1500 1200kW
1600kW
1000
0 3 6 10 15 20 25 30
2
Uwall / ( W/m ·K)

Figure
Figure 7. Influence
7. Influence of Uofwall
Uwall
on on τthermal
τ thermal ..

It can be seen that

It can be seen that
(1) There is a critical Uwall for a certain Q .  . The condition, τthermal = 4200 s, can be satisfied when Uwall
(1) There is a critical Uwall for a certain Qhh. The condition, τ thermal = 4200 s, can be satisfied when
is smaller than 20 W/(m2K) for Q .= 400 kW. So, the critical Uwall is 20 W/(m2K) for Q . = 400
Uwall is smaller than 20 W/(m2 K) forh Qh = 400 kW. So, the critical Uwall is 20 W/(m2 K) .forhQh =
kW.
400 kW.InIn
this
.
way,
this the
way, critical
the values
critical valuesofofUU will
wallwall be be
will 15 15
W/(m 2K)2and
W/(m 6 W/(m
K) and 2K) for
6 W/(m
.
Q h Q
2 K) for
= h800
= 800
kW
kW and
and Q  h= 1200 kW, respectively. Howver, there is no critical Uwall
Q = 1200 kW, respectively. Howver, there is no critical U for Q
wall for Q
h = 1600 kW and its
= 1600 kW and its
h h
τ design is always less than 4200 s;
(2) It can be seen that τ thermal obviously decreases and the effect of aerodynamic heating becomes
serious when Uwall is larger than its corresponding critical value. The increase of fuel temperature
caused by aerodynamic heating cannot be ignored with the further increase of Uwall . This will
.
seriously affect the acceptable tolerance value of Qh ;
(3) For a given τ thermal , the critical values of Uwall can help to optimize the thickness of wall interlayers,
which obtain the appropriate heat protection structure of the high-speed vehicle with a small
flight weight penalty.
. . .
In Figure 5, we have analyzed τ design , which can be 4200 s with mr,max /md = 2 when Qh = 800 kW
. .
and Ua = 10 W/m2 K. This simulation case will be used to analyze the change trend of Q a and Qc , as
shown in Figure 8.
From Figure 8, we can observe that
.
(1) For Ua = 10 W/m2 K and Qh = 800 kW, the circulation fuel loop does not need to work when
the fight time is less than 3089 s. After this time, the temperature in the fuel tank will be over its
critical temperature, and the circulation fuel loop must open to ensure τ design = 4200 s. Qc will
gradually increase after this time. Qa will slowly decrease before the end of the flight mission;
.
(2) For Ua = 20 W/m2 K and Qh = 800 kW, the circulation fuel loop does not need to work when
the fight time is less than 1670 s. After this time, the temperature in the fuel tank will be over its
critical temperature, and therefore the circulation fuel loop must open. However, due to the limit
. .
of mr /md = 2, the maximum τ thermal will only be 3540 s, which does not satisfy τ design = 4200 s.
 flight weight penalty.

 r ,max / m d = 2 when Q h = 800

In Figure 5, we have analyzed τdesign, which can be 4200 s with m
 and
kW and Ua = 10 W/m2K. This simulation case will be used to analyze the change trend of Qa
Energies 2018, 11, 1677 15 of 17
Q c , as shown in Figure 8.

Q .  . 
Figure8.8.Change
Figure Changetrend ofQ a aand
trendof QcQ
and . c.

6. Conclusions
From Figure 8, we can observe that

(1) The
Fordesign
Ua = 10ofW/m K and Q
fuel 2thermal  = 800 kW,systems
management has hadfuel
the circulation great importance
loop does not attached
need to work to it with
when
h
the development of more electric vehicles and airborne high-energy electronic equipment. Among its
the fight time is less than 3089 s. After this time, the temperature in the fuel tank will be over its
design elements, the thermal endurance capacity of fuel has become a critical factor. Especially for
critical temperature, and the circulation fuel loop must open to ensure τdesign = 4200 s. Qc will
high-speed vehicles, the thermal endurance capacity of fuel will decrease with the increase of flight
gradually increase after this time. Qa will slowly decrease before the end of the flight mission;
time due to the dual effects of airborne thermal load and aerodynamic heating. In order to evaluate
(2) For Ua = 20 W/m2K and  h = 800
the performance applicability ofQfuel
kW, the circulation fuel loop does not need to work when
thermal management systems over their whole envelope, this
the fightthe
paper defines time is lessendurance
thermal than 1670 s.
ofAfter this time,
fuel thermal the temperature
management in the
systems for fuel tank will
high-speed be overInits
aircraft.
critical
the design temperature,
of fuel and thereforesystems,
thermal management the circulation fuel loopmanagement
a fuel thermal must open. However, due to the limit
system is considered to
match ofits task m d = 2 , the
m r / envelope maximum
only when theτthermal
thermal willendurance
only be 3540time s, is
which
equaldoes
to itsnot satisfy τflight
designed design =time.
4200 s.
Thermal endurance is determined by some structural parameters, including the initial carried
fuel capacity,
6. Conclusions the maximum flow rate of the fuel circulation loop and total heat transfer coefficient
of the wall. This paper analyzes the influence of some parameters on the thermal endurance in
The design of fuel thermal management systems has had great importance attached to it with
detail by establishing the time-varying characteristic equations of fuel thermal management systems.
the development of more electric vehicles and airborne high-energy electronic equipment. Among its
The following conclusions are obtained:
design elements, the thermal endurance capacity of fuel has become a critical factor. Especially for
(1)high-speed vehicles,
The increase the thermal
of initial endurance
carried fuel capacitycapacity of fuel
is beneficial will decrease
to improving with the
thermal increasebut
endurance, of flight
the
timelarger
due to the dual effects of airborne thermal load and aerodynamic heating.
the airborne thermal load is, the more the extra fuel carrying amount to extend the thermal In order to evaluate
the endurance
performance is. applicability
The fuel weightof fuel thermal
penalty management
will be systems
high. Therefore, theover theirthermal
airborne whole envelope,
load should this
paperbe defines
determined the thermal endurance of fuel thermal management systems for high-speed aircraft. In
carefully;
the design of fuel
(2) The maximum flow rate thermal management
of the fuel systems, a fuelloop
circulation thermalis onemanagement
of the most system is considered
important factorsto
matchaffecting thermal endurance. Increasing the maximum flow rate of the fuel circulationtime.
its task envelope only when the thermal endurance time is equal to its designed flight loop
is beneficial to improve thermal endurance, which can ensure the thermal endurance is equal to
the designed flight time. However, this will result in the increase of circulation pump power and
the consumptive coolant amount, which will affect the engine performance in turn;
(3) When airborne thermal load is low, the total heat transfer coefficient of the tank wall has little
influence on the thermal endurance. However, with the increase of airborne thermal load, the
total heat transfer coefficient of the wall should be decreased properly by the reasonable design
of the fuel tank wall structure. The critical values of Uwall can be beneficial to the improvement
of thermal endurance and optimize the heat protection structure of high-speed vehicles with a
small flight weight penalty.

Therefore, it is very important to design the structural parameters of a fuel thermal management
system reasonably. It will be helpful to improving the thermal endurance and improving the matching
degree between the fuel thermal management system and the task envelope of high-speed aircraft.
Energies 2018, 11, 1677 16 of 17

Author Contributions: L.P. and R.A. conducted the integrity of entire study; S.L. performed the simulation
research; M.L. studied the design concepts; A.L. and F.M. analyzed the simulation data and Literature.
Funding: This work was funded by the National Key R&D Program of China (2017YFB1201100).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References
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