Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A n i m a l N e u ro l o g y
Nicholas D. Jeffery, BVSc, PhD, MSc, FRCVS
KEYWORDS
Glucocorticoid Meningoencephalomyelitis Inflammation Immunosuppression
Dog Intracranial pressure Tumor
KEY POINTS
Glucocorticoids have a multitude of effects on diseases affecting the central nervous
system (CNS) but are frequently misused.
There are few diseases for which glucocorticoids are the preferred or definitive therapy,
most of which are immune-mediated conditions, such as meningoencephalomyelitis of
unknown origin and steroid-responsive meningitis.
Glucocorticoid effects can impede and impair subsequent diagnostic workup if they are
given at early stages of disease.
Glucocorticoids may have beneficial effects to reduce edema associated with CNS
neoplasia.
For owners who wish to optimize treatment for their pets, it is almost always preferable to
delay treatment with glucocorticoids until a specific diagnosis has been attained.
INTRODUCTION
Department of Veterinary Clinical Science, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State Univer-
sity, 1600 South 16th Street, Ames, IA 50011, USA
E-mail address: njeffery@iastate.edu
pursuit of accurate diagnosis and targeted specific treatment before submitting to the
(often) temporary and nonspecific “feel-good” effect of corticosteroid therapy.
Somewhat counterintuitively, it could be considered that primary care practice in
veterinary medicine demands greater attention to constructing a differential diagnosis
list than does working in referral practice. In the neurologic referral practice especially,
because of access to high-tech equipment, it commonly is possible to make a precise
diagnosis, meaning that treatment plans can be accurately constructed and applied to
each individual as required. In contrast, in primary care practice, it is often not possible
to make a definitive neurologic diagnosis (because of the precluding cost of appro-
priate tests), meaning that pragmatic therapy is often required. For optimal application
of such pragmatic therapy, it is essential to have a comprehensive differential diag-
nosis list by which to weigh the potential beneficial and detrimental effects of any
specific course of action. When considering corticosteroid therapy, there are many
possible detrimental consequences associated with both the known desired effects
(eg, immunosuppression) and the side effects (eg, gut ulceration), which, in many
instances, may not outweigh the potential benefits. However, of course, there are
instances when it is rational to use corticosteroids as a pragmatic treatment. The
aim of this article is to provide the background information to aid in deciding when
corticosteroid therapy is appropriate for treating neurologic disease in specific small
animal patients.
Corticosteroids are lipophilic and can therefore pass freely through cell membranes
and have a very wide range of activity mediated via both intranuclear and intracyto-
plasmic interactions. There are 2 forms of corticosteroid receptor in cells: the mineral-
ocorticoid and glucocorticoid receptors and, although they have relatively high
affinities for their respective classes of corticosteroid, they will each interact with the
other class. In the brain, glucocorticoids are major ligands for mineralocorticoid
receptors, but this effect is ameliorated in many other tissues (such as the kidney)
by the enzyme 11b-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type II, which metabolizes cortisol
to cortisone (which is inactive). This article is concerned only with glucocorticoids (GC).
Immunosuppressive effects of GC result from their effects on pro-inflammatory
and anti-inflammatory cytokine production, which culminate in a reduced immune
response to stimuli.1 The effects are most evident on cell-mediated immune responses,
although reduction in antibody production also occurs at high dosage.2
Therapeutic Effects of GC
Corticosteroids have a multitude of physiologic and pharmacologic effects. Their
physiologic effects can be appreciated in the clinical signs that are apparent in the
deficiency state, hypoadrenocorticism (Addison’s disease), in which hypotension
and low blood glucose are prominent signs. Although most of the effects of hypoadre-
nocorticism are the result of mineralocorticoid deficiency, exogenous GC may also be
required for maintenance or (especially) management of periods of stress in Addison’s
disease.
More commonly, GC are used pharmacologically to achieve one or more of the
following: (1) immunosuppression; (2) anti-inflammatory effects; (3) anti-edema ef-
fects; and, (4) specific cytotoxicity versus neoplastic lymphocytes (ie, as part of a
cytotoxic protocol for lymphoma). Each of these effects constitutes a clear rationale
for their use in specifically diagnosed conditions (see later discussion).
Metabolic Effects
Gluconeogenic effects
This activity is mediated through the liver, in which there is increased synthesis of
glucose from nonsaccharide substrates, including amino acids and glycerol. There
is also inhibition of glucose uptake into the liver and adipose tissue from the blood.
The metabolic effects of GC are occasionally valuable in clinical medicine, for in-
stance, maintaining blood glucose levels in animals with (metastatic or nonoperated
cases of) insulinoma15; it has been estimated that methylprednisolone will increase
activity of the glucose-6-P cycle by 15-fold.16
1062 Jeffery
to make them less permeable31 and NF-kB-mediated effects also restore blood-brain
barrier function, thereby preventing leukocyte recruitment into the parenchyma.32
In contrast, GC do not reduce CNS edema resulting from cytotoxic lesions, in which
a lack of energy supply (through lack of blood, oxygen, glucose, or other metabolic
disturbances), for instance, that occur following trauma to the CNS, impairs ion chan-
nel and exchanger mechanisms. Cytotoxic edema is a consequence of loss of func-
tion in the sodium-potassium exchanger, leading to accumulation of sodium (and
therefore water) within the cells and eventual loss of membrane integrity. Because
GC cannot restore the function of the sodium-potassium exchanger (because it is
lost as a consequence of impaired energy supply), they have no effect on this disorder;
this largely explains why GC are not useful for reduction of edema that follows
traumatic injury to the CNS.
Immune-mediated myositis Although myositis can have an infectious cause (eg, Pro-
tozoal infections50), most cases in adult dogs are the result of an immune-mediated
disease.51 Several forms exist: masticatory muscle myositis (in which the masticatory
muscles are the only group clinically affected), extraocular myositis (a rare condition
causing abnormal eye movements in dogs; see Ref.52), dermatomyositis (in which
immune-mediated disease of both muscle and skin occur concurrently; most
commonly seen in collie dogs), and generalized myositis, which can have an acute,
waxing and waning, or chronic course. Although masticatory muscle myositis is
easy to recognize during the acute or chronic phases (because of pain and swelling
in the former and muscle atrophy in the latter) and dermatomyositis is easy to recog-
nize because of the breeds affected and the concurrent skin lesions, the generalized
condition can be difficult to recognize because the clinical signs can be rather nonspe-
cific. Although severely affected animals may walk with a stiff gait, be reluctant to rise
from recumbency, or reluctant to walk any distance at all, many other affected cases
may exhibit very indistinct signs, such as a general reluctance to exercise or showing
nonspecific signs of “depression.”
In all myositis conditions, evaluation of CK levels in the blood can be a useful aid to
diagnosis, although because of the short half-life of this enzyme,53 a normal level
does not rule out muscle disease. Levels above w2000 to 3000 IU are generally
regarded as abnormal. Further diagnostic evaluation involves electrodiagnostic tests
and muscle biopsy, which can reveal inflammatory cell infiltration, usually by lympho-
cytes or macrophages. Masticatory muscle myositis can be diagnosed by blood
samples demonstrating a raised level of the type 2M antibodies that are specific
for this condition.54
Treatment of all 3 types of immune-mediated muscle disease is generally very grat-
ifying, although cases with severe muscle atrophy may not recover full muscle mass or
even full range of motion in affected regions if there has been extensive fibrosis as a
secondary consequence of muscle inflammation. GC are well recognized to cause
muscle atrophy, especially of the masticatory muscles, and so this can complicate
evaluation of response in some cases. Large doses of GC can cause muscle weak-
ness,55 which, anecdotally at least, seems to be more clinically significant in larger
Corticosteroid Use in Small Animal Neurology 1065
in older Labrador retrievers,68 but occasional cases can be recognized that appear
to have a chronic inflammatory cause. Such cases can be diagnosed through careful
and in-depth electrodiagnostic tests plus CSF analysis that identifies an inflammatory
component through elevated protein or cell content or through nerve biopsy. Such
cases can be candidates for immune-suppression using GC alone or in combination
with other immunosuppressive agents, although such therapy does not invariably
lead to resolution of clinical signs.
Infectious disease
In general, infectious disease is usually assumed to be a contraindication to the use
of GC, because of their effects in reducing inflammatory and immune responses to
eliminate or repel the infectious process. Although this is generally true with regard
to the ability to overcome viral infections, which relies largely on nonspecific inflam-
mation and then generation of an immune response, all of which are detrimentally
affected by GC, GC therapy does have some possible benefits in other types of infec-
tion, albeit when used in combination with anti-infective drugs.
Most notably, it has been argued that GC use in combination with antibiotics can be
helpful in the treatment of acute bacterial meningitis in human patients. Reduced
levels of nitric oxide may be a mechanism by which GC exert these beneficial ef-
fects.69 However, the clinical effect remains controversial, with some studies suggest-
ing benefits and some showing detrimental effects, suggesting that the net result
may depend on the environmental conditions.70 In dogs, bacterial meningitis can
usually be treated using antibiotics alone and so the need to add GC can be reserved
for cases in which there has been a failure to respond adequately.
Low doses of GC are commonly given together with antifungal drugs when treating
fungal infections, such as blastomycosis or cryptococcosis in animals.71 The justifica-
tion is that the widespread death of fungal organisms creates an inflammatory
response that can be damaging in itself and lead to severe detrimental sequelae.72
Although in general there are strong reasons to wish to avoid GC in the face of a
viral infection, for the reasons described above, there can be specific examples in
which GC therapy may be beneficial for the individual. Most notable in neurology
is the notion that canine distemper virus leads to “bystander” demyelination caused
by the inflammatory reaction to the infection.73 Use of low doses (w1 mg/kg/d) of
prednisolone can reduce this effect and therefore are often recommended for
treatment.74
Use for pain control or other nonspecific purposes
Pain
In general practice, there is often a great deal of pressure on veterinarians to admin-
ister a treatment that will alleviate the signs of pain to which an owner attributes a pet’s
abnormal behavior. Although nowadays there are many options for pain relief in small
animals, including long-acting opioid therapy (fentanyl patches), nonsteroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) of many types, and Tramadol, many veterinarians remain
more comfortable with using GC as a form of pain relief. Common reasons for this
choice include the detrimental effects that have been highlighted in association with
the other options, including risk of owner abuse, cost, risk of seizures, and detrimental
gastrointestinal effects. Although some of these are well founded, the risks of NSAIDs
seem to have been overestimated by many academic veterinarians compared with the
actual number of reports of side effects,75 and therefore, avoidance of this class of
drugs may be misplaced. Even so, for treatment of radicular (nerve root) pain, a com-
mon source of pain for human “back” patients, a recent Cochrane Review suggested
that NSAIDs were of no benefit over placebo.76
Corticosteroid Use in Small Animal Neurology 1067
Nonspecific use
As outlined above, although GC may give many apparent benefits to the animals from
the owners’ point of view, these are often illusory. For instance, increasing an animal’s
appetite through GC administration may also reduce glycogen stores, increase mus-
cle catabolism, reduce bone mass, and increase the risk of diabetes mellitus. Infec-
tious diseases may also be potentiated. Again, therefore, the use of GC should be
avoided until a diagnosis has been made.
has suggested that the apparent benefit was a consequence of the manner that the
analysis was conducted.84 Reanalysis of the data has suggested that there was no
beneficial effect and, in addition, there has been concern that the detrimental effects
of steroids in promoting infections and muscle loss outweigh any possible benefits
anyway.85 In veterinary medicine, there is even less reason to trust that GC have
benefits because those that were purported to occur in the human trials depended
on the effects on gray matter rather than white, which is often not the prime target
in dogs and cats (because of the common sites of spinal cord injury in these species).
More pertinently, a specific study on spinal cord injury in dogs did not detect a benefit
of MPSS,86 although that could also be a consequence of low study power.
In human medicine, in which head trauma is a more major problem, GC had long
been used as a first-line treatment. However, the CRASH study,87 which systemati-
cally investigated the benefits of GC (MPSS) in head injury, concluded very strongly
that they were detrimental, so detrimental that the study was terminated early because
of excess deaths in the GC group. No similar trials have been conducted in veterinary
medicine, but there is little reason to suppose that the results would be any different.
Although the mechanisms that underlie this detrimental effect of GC in head trauma
are not fully understood, and may result from more general effects on metabolism
and blood pressure, it has been shown that GC exacerbate neuronal death following
a wide range of insults to the CNS.3 The effects of GC on immune cells may also
contribute to these detrimental outcomes.
In conclusion, there is no good reason to support the use of GC in CNS trauma.
production of muscle proteins, can be reversible when the steroid therapy is termi-
nated, and may be ameliorated by exercise programs.28
SUMMARY
GC are powerful drugs that have widespread effects throughout the body and
would ideally be used only after a definitive diagnosis that indicates their use (ie,
immune-mediated, noninfectious inflammatory conditions, or [for edema relief]
CNS tumors).
However, veterinarians frequently must make pragmatic decisions in the face of
incomplete knowledge and will often be tempted to reach for the GC bottle. To avoid
detrimental consequences of this decision, it would be sensible to first ask the following:
1. Will the owner subsequently change their mind and wish to have further diagnostic
workup performed and seek definitive treatment? If so, it is highly preferable to
avoid GC therapy at this stage.
2. Could the use of GC cause detrimental effects in this patient? Is it at high risk of
overwhelming infection (especially fungal disease)? Will GC be likely to cause gut
ulceration? Might this dose of GC cause muscle weakness?
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