Notice :

Cannot is written as one word

Might and could are not past of may and can

Exercise 3.1 complete these sentences qualifying the mains verbs with modals

1. Accident ........... if you drive at a speed of beyond 100 km/h in a city road
2. Accident ........... if you drive at a speed of beyond 70 km/h in a city road
3. Accident ........... if you drive at a speed of beyond 40 km/h in a city road

3.2 group 2 : will, should, must, have to

To express certainty ( or to say that something is certainly true or unture),we use will, should, must,
have to.

1. For present and future situations, we use :

Will, should, must, have to + verb base

In which :
a. Will is used when the speaker means that something is certainly true, even though we
cannot see that it is true.
Example:
1. We all will die
2. According to Newton’s first law when a body at rest it will remain at rest unlest there is
a net force acts on the body.
b. Must is used when a speaker sees something as necessarily an logically true.
Example :
1. The magnetic pole must attract the particles since they made of iron the device must
also attract the glass.
c. Can’t is used when the speaker sees it as logically impossible for something to be true.

Example :
1. A car can’t move if there is no friction force.

2. Continuation of the action

Will, must and can’t + be +V_ing
Example:
1. In general, if our standard body of 1kg mass has an acceleration a, we know that the
force F must be acting o it.
2. The ball can’t be moving. It must be at rest because there’s no force acting on it.
 3. For a perfect situation, we use:

Will, must and can’t + have + PII

Example :
1. The experiment will have been conducted by now.
2. The ball is moving. Someone must have kicked it.
3. Newtonian mechanics can’t have worked in that case. Teh interacting bodies
were on the scale of atomic structure.

Exercise 3.2. study these sentence. In some of them the modal can be replaced by the present simple,
without any change in meaning. Rewrite these sentences in the present simple and leave the others.

1. The sea-water will corrode the iron

2. Sea-water will corrode iron
3. If alcohol is heated to 78 C it will boil
4. Sea-water will not affect this now alloy
5. Death will occur if body temperature exceeds 43 C
6. A compass needle will always point towards magnetic north
7. If the company drills in this area they will find the rock very hard
8. Unless a certain critical temperature is reached the structure of the steel will not change
9. If the satellite manages to return to the earth with the photographs, they will provide a great
deal of information
10. If small children drink only water they will suffer from calcium deficiency

3.3 Perfect
1. We use: may/might + verb base
to say that something is possibly true or an uncertain prediction
example:
a. We may find g by simply weighing a standard weight on a spring balance
b. There might be an error somewhere in the procedures
2. To lay emphasis on the continuation of the action, we can use

May/might + be + V_ing

Example :

1. He may/might be doing well in physics because he has borrowed a lot of books on physics from
the library
 3 The perfect can be used also :

Example :

1. He may/might have made a lot of observations before reaching such a conclusion.

3.4 Past perfect tense

Had + PII

Past perfect tense in used to express an action or a state before a past time reference.

Example :

1. Everything had been good before he put his nose in. Before quantum physics, the interacting
bodies on the scale of atomic structure had not been able to explain.

Exercise 3.3 Fill in the blank with will; can ; must; can’t; may or might

1. Suppose that earth pulls down on an apple with a force of 0.80N. the apple........... then pull up
on earth with a force of 0.80N
2. A particle of mass m, located outside earth a distance r form earth’s center, is released, it.........
fall towards the center of earth.
3. An object located on earth’s surface anywhere except at the two poles......... rotate in a circle
about the rotation axis and thus.......... have a centripetal acceleration that points towards the
center of the circle.
4. For an object situated in an underground laboratory, force of attraction........ be exerted on it by
the internal and external layers of the earth.
5. A body raised to a height h above the earth possesses a potential energy of mgh. However, this
formula....... be used only when the height h is much smaller than the earth’s radius.
6. How......... we ensure that a body thrown from the earth will not return to the earth?
7. In order for a body of mass m to break away from the earth, it...... over – come a gravitational
potential energy.
8. Whenever a gravitational field changes appreciably in size and/or direction across the
dimensions of a body, there........ be a tidal effect.
9. Cardwell said :” high temperature superconductors – which are oxides in nature – contain
predominantly copper, so this....... be a reasonable place to start”.
10. The system is not working now. There....... be something wrong with the engine.

Exercise 3.4. Put the verbs in brackets in its suitable tense.

 This is what we were going on in our flying laboratory. We (turn)........... on the jet engine by
pressing a button, and suddenly...... the objects surrounding us (seem).......... to come to life. Life bodies
which (be made)......... fast were brought into motion. The thermometer (fall)...... down, the pendulum
(begin).......... oscillating and, gradually coming to rest, assumed a vertical position, the pillow obediently
(sag).... a look at the instruments which (indicate).... the direction in which our ship (start).........
accelerating. Upawards, of course! The instruments (show)......... that we (choose).......... a motion with
an acceleration of 9.8m/sec2, not very great, considering the possibilities of our ship. Our sensations
(be)........... quite ordinary; we (feel).......... the way we did on earth. But why so? As before, we (be)-
.............. unimaginably far from gravitational masses, there (be)............ no gravity , but objects
(acquire)............ weight.

3.5 reading

accident analysic

consider the kinetic energy of a person travelling in a car on a motorway to be 36.000 J. Note that this is
about four times greater than the maximum possible kinetic energy of a sprinter. The following table
gives values of the constant force necessary to stop the person in

forces/N stopping distance/m

10 3600

100 360

1000 36

10.000 3.6

100.000 0.36

In all cases the work done by the person againts the stopping force is 36.000 J. In the first line of
the table above, the example is given of a very small force being exerted over avery long distance. The
person pushes forwards againts the seat and the floor on the car with a total force of 10 N. Using
newton’s third law, the seat and the exert a back wards force of 10 N on the person. In the second line,
the force of 100 N applied would correspond to a normal braking force, the third line would correspond
to fairly dramatic emergency stop; while stoping in the 3.4 m, the fourth line, would be a serious
accident. A person experiencing a force of 10.000 N applied would probably survive it if the force were
applied by a seat-belt, but not if applied to the head by steering wheel or windscreen. A force of 100.000
N would stop the person in a distance of 36 cm and would kill anybody.

Therefore, if the distance for stopping can be increased, the force necessary to stop is reduce.
Most manufacturers of cars now build into their car collapsible section that crumple and hence increase
the distance a person can travel if involved in accident. The forces involved in a collision are far from
being constant. In collision in which the average stopping force is 6000 N, the maximum stopping force
is over 15.000 N. It is maximum stopping force and how and where that force is applied that determines
whether bones are broken or not.

Exercise 3.5. read the above article and answer the following quiestions, and or fill the gap with a
suitable modal.

1. What likely is the normal stopping disatnce?

2. What will happen if we reduce stopping distance?
3. Car manufactures try to increase stopping distance, give two examples how the car
manufactures reduce the stopping distance.
4. Describe the relation between stopping force and stopping distance
5. Give approximate stopping distance in a car collision
6. If a driver drive with stopping distance of abour 400 m, then injure........ occur
7. If a driver drive with stopping distance of abour 40 m, then injure..... occure
8. Injure....... when the stopping force 9000 N
9. The bigger the stopping force the most likely injure........ happen
10. If you are in a train and suddently brakes with force of 11000 N the you........ break your bone