GUIDELINES FOR DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF GEOSYNTHETIC REINFORCED

EMBANKMENTS ON SOFT FOUNDATIONS

1. INTRODUCTION

Construction of embankments over soft clay can be critical because of its low strength and high
compressibility. Embankments on soft soil can fail due to:
 Foundation soil failure
 Slide of embankment fill on underlying soft soil
 Excess of displacement
Various ground improvement methods are currently being used by the practicing engineers to
safely construct the structure over soft soils, like;
 Replacement with good soil
 Staged Construction
 Soil stabilization using admixtures
 Prefabricated Vertical Drains
 Stone or Lime Columns
 Reinforcements – Metallic or Polymer
 Combination of the above
The use of Geosynthetic reinforced embankment on soft foundations has been used by engineers
from 1980‟s. The behaviors of basal reinforced embankments over soft soils have been addressed
in various papers (Humphrey and Holtz 1987, Jewell 1988, Rowe 1997, Leroueil and Rowe
2001, Rowe and Li 2005). The guidelines for the design of high embankments on soft grounds
can also be referred from HRB SR No. 13 – 1994 and HRB SR No. 14 – 1994.
A comparison of Geosynthetic application with conventional ground improvement methods is
given in table 1. The major advantage of using basal reinforcement using geosynthetics
compared to conventional ground improvement technique is the better quality control as the
product is factory made.
Table 1: Comparison of Geosynthetic reinforced embankments and Conventional Solution
Conventional Solutions Advantages Of Geosynthetic Reinforcement
Soil Replacement – Removal of Replacement with good soil may not be possible at
soft soil and replacement with good some cases and if it is unavoidable, use of
soil geosynthetic allows the reduction in volume of soil
to be replaced and therefore, cost savings.

Staged Construction– The Staged construction is time consuming. Use of

embankment is built by successive
fill layers. Certain degree of
consolidation on foundation soil is
achieved before construction of the
next fill layer.
Vertical Drains or Stone Columns
–Provides drainage to reduce
consolidation time of foundation
soil.
Soil Stabilization Using
Admixtures–Chemicals, fly ash,
cement or sandy soils can be added
to the existing soil to increase the
bearing capacity.
geosynthetic can allow complete omission of staged
construction or reduction in the number of steps to
build the embankment. This allows rapid
construction of the embankment and reduces
consolidation time.
Use of geosynthetic reinforcement along with
prefabricated vertical drains or stone columns
accelerates consolidation time and allows rapid
construction.
Soil stabilization using admixtures may not be
possible with all types of soils. In such cases, basal
reinforcement can be a feasible solution.

2. INDIAN SOILS
Indian soils can be mainly categorized as follows:
 Black Soil
 Marine clay
 Red and Yellow Soil
 Laterite Soil
 Alluvial Soil
 Saline and Desert Soil
 Forest and Hill Soil

Black soils are mainly found over the Deccan Trap including Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh. These soils are found in river valley of Narmada, Tapi, Godavari
and Krishna. Black soil is clayey, impermeable and is known for its shrinkage and swelling
characteristics. These soils can have a soaked CBR as low as 1.5% and free swell index
sometimes can be greater than 50%.
India has about 6000 km long coast line stretching along nine states. The continental shelf
covers an area of about 3,80,000 sq km. Indian rivers carry enormous sediments to the sea. The
increased construction activities in the coastal cities and harbors on the marine deposits pose a
challenging task to engineers to meet the needs of rapid development and the necessity for
characterization of geotechnical properties of these deposits encountered along the coastal
region. The marine clays are generally grey, soft, silty clays which vary from 10 to 30 m in
thickness near the coast line. Marine soils have clay (particle less than 2 micron size) content of
35 to 60 per cent, silt 40 to 60 per cent and sand content usually less than 10 per cent. The
natural moisture content varies from 60 to 100 per cent. The reduction in liquidity index with
distance from the coast line is thought to be due to increase in the liquid limit of the soil from
weathering of clay minerals and secondary consolidation of the sediments. The marine clays are
highly plastic with liquid limit ranging from 50 to 150 per cent.
At Bombay high, soft to very soft clay near the sea bed has a thickness ranging from 10 to 30
m. This clay is normally consolidated. The plasticity increases with depth. The site is
characterized by heterogeneity in the stratification pattern. Marine clays again predominate in
south of Bombay high, although layers of silt and sand are often encountered. In the coastal
regions of Tamilnadu, there are a number of estuaries wherein the existence of soft, marine clay
is encountered in which, illite is the predominant clay mineral, natural water content varies from
60 to 90 per cent and in-situ strength values range from 7 to 15 kPa and poses problems of
construction and maintenance as well as stability of embankments, in the short term, and in the
long term, towards the settlement of the ground.
Red and yellow soils are found in the areas of Chhotanagpur plateau, Telengana, Nilgiris,
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and periphery areas of Deccan plateau. The particle size
of these types of soils is greater than 0.2 mm and less than 2 mm and has good moisture retention
capacity.
Laterite soils are formed by leaching in areas of heavy rain and thus found in elevated areas
which receive heavy rainfall. It covers an area of about 2.4 lakhs sq. km and is found in north
eastern state of Megahalaya.
 Alluvial soils cover around 40 percent of the Indian land. These soils are formed by the
deposition of fine sediments and silt by the rivers along their banks. Alluvial soils are mostly
present in the Great Northern Plains, the coastal belt and river deltas. These soils are mostly
clayey in nature.
Desert soils are found in the dry areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab and Haryana. These are
mostly sandy type of soil containing a considerable amount of salt.
Forest and Mountain soils are found mostly in northern part of India like Jammu and
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal and also in some parts of north east like Assam and
Sikkim.
Fine soil can be classified as soft or hard based on the undrained shear strength. Table 2 can be
used as a guide to differentiate between stiff and soft soils. For detailed classification of soils
including soft soils, following IS code can be referred.
 IS: 1498 : 1970 Classification and identification of soils for general engineering purposes

Table 2: Fine soil classification

Consistency Undrained Shear SPT value (N) SCPT value (kPa)
Strength (kPa) (acc. to correlation given by Akca (2003))
Hard >400 >30 >6000
Very stiff 200-400 15-30 3000-6000
Stiff 100-200 8-15 1600-3000
Medium 50-100 4-8 800-1600
Soft 25-50 2-4 400-800
Very Soft <25 0-2 0-400

3. APPLICATION AREAS

Soft clays are generally recent sediments laid down by rivers, sea or lakes. These deposits are
characterized by bedding and laminations, sometimes intercalated with sand or silt seams and are
usually subject to repeated desiccation and wetting near the surface. Soft soils exist in following
environments-
  In low land areas near sea coasts where marine sediments are often found.
 In the vicinity of rivers, especially those which have been subjected to meandering.
 In local depression where the runoff is restricted and the soil contains appreciable
amount of organic matter
In India, the major proportions of soft clays are marine and river delta deposits. They cover vast
areas of entire eastern and western coastal belts. Guidelines for Geosynthetic reinforced
embankments are beneficial for the engineers working in these coastal belts. In alluvial plains
like Bihar which consists of loose sand deposits and West Bengal in which clayey silt is there,
Geosynthetic reinforced embankments can prove to be an efficient method. It is also useful for
the engineers working on high embankments in the medium clay deposits of Gujarat and
Maharashtra. Basal reinforcement can be done for sites having black cotton soil which has
swelling and shrinkage characteristics. Basal reinforcement technique can be used for high
embankments with steep slope and also at the foundation of reinforced soil wall over soft soils.
Basal reinforcement can be combined with other ground improvement techniques also like pile
supported embankments or with stone columns. Design of Geosynthetic reinforced embankment
with such combinations is beyond the scope of these guidelines and can be referred from other
standard available, some of which are:
 IS 15284: Part 1 – Design and construction for Ground Improvement
 BS: 8006 – 2010 – Code of practice for strengthened / reinforced soils and other fills
 Geoguide 6: The new guide to reinforced fill structure and slope design in Hongkong.

4. DESIGN OF GEOSYNTHETIC REINFORCED EMBANKMENT OVER SOFT

FOUNDATION

The design of embankment on soft ground is generally governed by the shear resistance of the
foundation. The inclusion of Geosynthetic reinforcement at the foundation level could enhance
the performance of embankment as it resists the shear failure in the embankment as well as in the
foundation soil. It has also been experienced that the reinforcement can also partially reduce the
differential settlement.
The required tensile strength of reinforcement varies with time because of improvement of
foundation soil shear strength during consolidation. Usually the maximum design working load
is experienced during construction with a reinforcement design life equal to the time required to
achieve 90 percent consolidation (Figure 2).

H Embankment fill

Geosynthetic
reinforcement
D
Soft foundation soil

Fig. 1 Embankment reinforced with Geosynthetics

Fig. 2 Behavior of Reinforcement with Time

The design of Geosynthetic reinforced embankment should considered following stability

checks:
 Local stability of the embankment
 Rotational stability of embankment
  Lateral sliding stability
 Foundation extrusion stability
 Bearing Capacity Failure

4.1. LOCAL STABILITY OF EMABANKMENT

Local failure in the embankment occurs when the side slope is too steep (Figure 3). Hence, the
slope of embankment should be such that, it is gentler than the internal friction angle of the
embankment soil.

where,
H = Height of the fill in the embankment in meters;
= length of the side slope of embankment in meters (Figure 1);
 = Angle of friction of the embankment fill;

Fig. 3 Local Faliure

4.2. ROTATIONAL STABILITY

There are various methods available for determining the rotational stability of the embankment
(Figure 4) like slip surface analyses, finite element methods, finite difference methods and many
more.

Fig. 4 Rotational Failure

The basic principle involved in determining the rotational stability is to find the driving moment
(Md) and resisting moment (Mr) for a circular failure surface. Driving moment is caused by the
weight of the soil and surcharge loading over the embankment. On the other hand the cohesion
and friction angle of the soil contribute towards the resisting moment. The main component of
the resisting moment is due to the tension force in the reinforcement. The circular wedge can be
divided into various slices and driving and resisting moments can be added together to find the
factor of safety for rotational stability:

where, = summation of resisting moment developed in every slice in kNm

= summation of driving moment developed in every slice in kNm
Factor of safety for various failure surfaces has to be analyzed and minimum factor of safety
should be considered as critical. A validated computer program can be used to analyze the
circular failure surface. It is advisable to have a minimum value of critical factor of safety as 1.3
for rotational stability.

4.3. BEARING CAPACITY FAILURE

The most important part of the reinforced embankment over weak foundations is to analyze
bearing capacity against shear failure. For all Geosynthetic soil reinforcement applications, the
bearing capacity of the foundation soils is calculated independent of the type of geosynthetic
reinforcement used. Hence conventional bearing capacity theory can be used, with this failure
mode no physical property can be specified with respect to geosynthetic reinforcement.
The following expression can be used to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of the
foundation:

where,
=Undrained shear strength of the soil in
= Bearing capacity factor which can be calculated from Bonaparte and Christopher (1987) as
follows:
B = Width of the bottom of the embankment
D = Depth of the soft soil
It is advisable to have a minimum value of critical factor of safety as 2.0 for bearing capacity.
It should be noted that if the bearing capacity of foundation soil is not sufficient then
conventional ground improvement techniques like stage construction or vertical drains can also
be used along with basal reinforcement to increase the bearing capacity of the foundation soil.

Note: Bearing failure analysis given above considers that the whole base width is bearing the
load. But only the reinforcement will be effectively taking up the load. So the bearing capacity
analysis can be effectively done for the base width equal to the reinforcement length and taking
the effect of triangular surcharge beyond the bond length separately which increases the passive
resistance of the bearing soil, which in turn increases the bearing capacity (Rowe and Li
(2005)). As a result, we can minimize the base width of the embankment thus, minimizing cost as
well as space.

where,

b = Total reinforcement length at the bottom of the embankment

D = Depth of the soft soil
=Intensity of surcharge outside the reinforcement length which can be calculated from Rowe
and Li (2005) as follows:

n= cotangent of the slope angle

h= height of the embankment fill above the reinforcement edge
Z= Depth of soft soil layer in meters, (Z=D or Z=2H whichever is lower) (Figure 1)
4.4. LATERAL SLIDING
The lateral sliding stability of the embankment can be checked by considering that the
embankment fill should not slide over the reinforcement. So, the basal reinforcement must resist
the outward horizontal thrust of the embankment fill. The minimum tensile strength required to
resist lateral sliding is given below.

It is advisable to have a minimum value of critical factor of safety as 1.5 for lateral stability. It
may be assumed that load in the reinforcement may be assumed to be maximum at the edge of
the crest of the embankment.

where,
W =  h*
h*=average height of the embankment fill above the reinforcement length Le in meters
Le = Reinforcement Bond Length in meters (Figure 1)
 = interaction coefficient relating the embankment fill and reinforcement material bond
angle, which can be taken as 2/3
 = angle of internal friction for embankment fill
Ka = active earth pressure coefficient for embankment fill
 = Density of embankment fill in
H = Height of embankment in meters
q = Surcharge intensity over the embankment in

Fig 5: Lateral Sliding

4.5. FOUNDATION EXTRUSION

If the foundation soil is soft and of limited depth then the horizontal shear stresses cause
extrusion of soft foundation. These horizontal shear stresses can be stabilized by the interaction
forces between reinforcement and foundation soil as well as the passive resistance produced by
the soft foundation (Figure 6).

Fig. 6: Foundation Extrusion

The resistive force can be increased by providing sufficient length of the side slopes to prevent
extrusion. Following check must be done for the designed length of slope. It is advisable to have
a minimum value of critical factor of safety as 1.3.

where,
H = Height of embankment in meters
q = Surcharge intensity over the embankment in
LS = Length of the side slopes in meters
= interaction coefficient relating the adhesion of foundation soil and reinforcement
material which is in the range 0.4-0.6
 = Density of the embankment fill in
Cu = Undrained shear strength of the foundation layer in
Z= Depth of soft soil layer in meters, (Z=D or Z=2H whichever is lower) (Figure 1)
Additionally, care should be taken that the tensile strength of the reinforcement should be
sufficient to resist the tensile force transmitted from foundation to reinforcement.
where,
= Mobilized tensile load generated in the reinforcement in
Le = Required length of reinforcement in meters

4.6. OVERALL STABILITY

On very soft deposits, there is a probability of deep seated failures as shown in figure 7. To
check the embankment stability against deep seated failure conventional slip surface analysis can
be used. A validated computer program can be used to analyze the different failure surface and
calculating factor of safety. A minimum design factor of safety of 1.4 should be considered.

Fig. 7: Overall Stability

4.7. ALLOWABLE STRAINS IN THE REINFORCEMENT

The strains developed in the reinforcement must not exceed the values calculated according to
settlement criteria. Generally BS: 8006 suggests that maximum strain in the reinforcement
should not increase 5% for short term applications and 5% to 10 % for long term applications. If
basal reinforcement is given for embankments on soft sensitive foundation soils, the maximum
strain should not exceed 3%.

4.8. SETTLEMENT ANALYSIS

The inclusion of reinforcement alone does not reduce the total settlement of the foundation.
Hence conventional settlement analysis needs to be done to calculate the final settlement and
should be checked that it is within permissible limits. The tolerable settlements for the
embankments can be referred form IRC: 75 – 1979.
The settlement of foundation increases the tensile strain in the reinforcement and hence increases
the load in reinforcement. The allowable strains in the reinforcement should be checked
according to the values given in previous section.

4.9. DESIGN TENSILE STRENGTH OF REINFORCEMENT

The ultimate tensile strength of the reinforcement obtained from laboratory test must be suitably
adjusted, as this test only determines short term tensile strength of the reinforcement. So
reduction factors must be used to estimate the short term strength requirement of the
reinforcement, considering each of the factors affecting the strength of the reinforcement during
the service life of the structure. Reduction factor to account for the uncertainties in the design as
well as unknown loading condition must also be considered. Thus the short term tensile strength
reinforcement used for the basal reinforcement is obtained as follows:

= tensile strength of the reinforcement obtained from the stability analysis (long term
strength requirement) in
=ultimate tensile strength (short term strength requirement) from a standard in-isolation
wide-width tensile test in
=factor of safety to accommodate the uncertainties in the design as well as unknown loading
condition which can be taken as 1.2
=reduction factor for the items not adequately modeled in the laboratory test which is given as
follows:

Reduction factors for embankment basal reinforcement recommended by Koerner R. M. (1997)

= reduction factor for installation damage
reduction factor for avoiding creep over the life time duration of the structure
reduction factor against chemical and biological degradation
All the above reduction factors shall be determined as per ISO/TR – 20432: “Guidelines for
determination of long term strength of geosynthetics for soil reinforcement”.
It is necessary to consider each item individually and make a conscious decision as to how
important it is for the site specific situation. Since ambient temperatures in India are high, creep
reduction factors at 30 C and 40 C shall also be provided besides the reduction factors at 20 C.
Table 3 gives typical range of tested values of the reduction factors for geosynthetic made from
commonly used polymers. The table is included only to serve as a guide

Table 3: Typical range of tested values of reduction factors

Polymer type
PET 2 1.1 to 2.5 depending upon 1.1 to 2.0 depending on
PVA 2 the backfill gradation and the ambient environment
HDPE 4 product type and product type
PP 5
Only certified values (eg. BBA certification) of reduction factors are acceptable. In the absence
of such values it is recommended that the product shall not be accepted for use as a reinforcing
element.

5. SELECTION OF GEOSYNTHETIC AND FILL MATERIAL

5.1. Material
The geosynthetic using for basal reinforcement has the main function of reinforcing the soil.
The different modes of failure for the geosynthetics used as basal reinforcement are – failure by
rupture, failure in bond and failure by excessive strain. Consequently the requirements to be
satisfied by the reinforcement are as follows:
 The reinforcement should have adequate long-term design strength.
 The reinforcement should develop sufficient bond with the soil so as to prevent the
sliding of the embankment along the surface of the reinforcement.
 The strains developed in the reinforcement should not exceed the values given in section
4.7.
To meet the above requirement, a product with high tensile strength, low elongation and low
creep is required. The preferred products are high strength polypropylene or polyester (coated
with polyethylene) geogrids or high strength woven polyester geotextiles. Since geotextiles are
much prone to installation damages during construction, geogrids have been preferred for many
of the structures. Geocells, are one of the emerging basal reinforcement material, but its
application in real world projects is very rare due to lack of design methodologies.
Geocomposites are also a new basal reinforcement technique, in which the reinforcing as well as
separating or draining material are bonded together. A needle punched nonwoven geotextile
bonded to a geogrid provides in-plane drainage while the geogrid provides tensile reinforcement.
Such geotextile-geogrid composites are used for better drainage of low-permeable soils. Since
for embankments, length is much greater than width, reinforcement is required only in the
direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of embankment. Hence, reinforcement needs to
have high strengths in the longitudinal direction, with a minimum strength in the transverse
direction. Currently products with tensile strength as high as 1300 kN/m are available in the
market. But in cases where, more tensile stiffness of reinforcement is required, biaxial
reinforcements have also been in practice. Single layer of high strength reinforcement has proven
to be much efficient that multiple layer having the same total strength (Rowe and Li (2003)).

5.2. Strength requirements

The major properties and its requirement for different types of geosynthetics are discussed in
section 9.
5.3. Drainage requirement
The geosynthetic should allow free vertical drainage of the foundation soils to reduce pore
pressure buildup below the embankment. Main geosynthetic hydraulic properties are opening
size and permeability. The opening size should be such that there is enough resistance against
piping. The opening size should be a maximum to reduce the risk of clogging, while it should
have enough interaction with the embankment fill as well as underlying soft soil. It is
recommended that the permeability of the geosynthetic be at least 10 times that of the underlying
soil. The minimum permeability requirement, should be according to the specification given in
section 9 for different materials
 5.4. Environmental considerations
The resistance to chemical and biological attacks will mainly depends upon the material with
which, geosynthetics are made and the environmental conditions prevailing. Geosynthetics have
a very high resistance to chemical and biological attacks. However, in unusual situations such as
very low (< 3) or very high (> 9) pH soils, or other unusual chemical environments, such as in
industrial areas or near mine or other waste dumps, the chemical compatibility of the polymer(s)
in the geosynthetic should be checked to assure that it will retain the design strength at least until
the underlying subsoil is strong enough to support the structure without reinforcement.
5.5. Survivability requirements
The geosynthetics used for reinforcing embankments should have sufficient strength, inaddition
to the design strength, to withstand the damages occurring during installation. The degree to
which this occurs depends on handling of reinforcements prior to installation, the structure of the
reinforcements, the nature of the soil in which the reinforcements are installed (mainly the
particle size) and the compaction forces applied. This will depend upon the type of installation
method adopting for reinforcement, embankment fill construction as well. The survivability
requirement for geotextiles is higher compared to geogrids. If the geotextile is ripped,
punctured, or torn during construction, support strength for the embankment structure will be
reduced and failure could result. Reinforcement manufactures or certifying authorities publish
reduction factors for specified ranges of fill types and methods of compaction. When the nature
or grading of the fill, or the compaction method fall outside these ranges, these factors should be
found out according to ISO/TR – 20432 or from accredited testing laboratories. Minimum
strength requirement for puncture, grab, tear and burst, which are very much critical for
geotextile, is given in section 9.2.
5.6. Fill requirements
Most common and best practice is to use granular embankment fill. Embankments may also use
cohesive fill and in such cases, proper assurance should be made for the dissipation of excess
pore water pressure in the foundation soil as well as embankment fill. A basal drainage layer and
sometimes intermediate drainage layers in the embankment fill may be necessary. If cohesive
fills are used, at least few lifts of the fill material just above the geosynthetic should be free-
draining granular materials. This requirement provides the best frictional interaction between the
geosynthetic and fill, as well as a drainage layer for excess pore water dissipation of the
underlying soils.

6. DESIGN EXAMPLES

a) A 1.5m thick embankment with 10m crest width is to be constructed on a 5m thick

deposit of clay, for a road with traffic load 16kN/ . The clay deposit
( ) has an undrained shear strength of 10kpa and bulk density
18kN/ . The embankment fill is sand with bulk density 18kN/ and .

Lets choose a slope of 3H: 1V

Length of side slope
Length of the reinforcement provided below side slope =4.3m (Leaving 0.2m offset either
side)
Therefore, total reinforcement length, b=10+2 =18.6m
Therefore, base width of the embankment, B= 10+6H= 19m
10 m

16 kN/m2

1.5m 1 Embankment fill

3 ϒ=18kN/ ,

Geosynthetic
Soft clay reinforcement
5m
10kpa, ϒ=18kN/

Check for local stability

Check for bearing capacity

Bearing capacity of the foundation soil=
(

If basal reinforcement is provided, it is assumed that the overburden pressure is uniformly

distributed over the foundation layer. Thus,

Thus factor of safety against bearing capacity failure,

Check for lateral sliding

Check for foundation extrusion

Check for rotational stability

From the slip surface analysis using a validated computer program, the design tensile strength
needed for the reinforcement, is obtained as 20kN/m. Factor of safety against rotational failure is
obtained as 1.36 OK
Check for settlement
Initial pressure at the center of the soft clay layer P0=18*2.5=45
Increase in overburden pressure due to embankment fill, P=
Settlement after 100% consolidation, = 0.202m

Since settlement is within limits as specified by IRC- 75, no other settlement reducing techniques
is needed.
Tensile strength of reinforcement
Tensile needed considering the lateral sliding and foundation extrusion together =

Tensile needed considering the rotational failure=20kN/m

Considering the higher of the above two tensile strength requirement, Tds=40.4 kN/m
Long term strength required from rotational stability analysis=40.4 kN/m
Incorporating the reduction factors, say for polyethylene geogrid
Short term strength for the reinforcement =40.4*1.2*2*1.4*1.2=162.89 kN/m

a) An expressway has to be constructed for a traffic load of 21kN/ . The embankment to

be constructed is of 3.2m height with 18m crest width and to be constructed above a 7m
thick deposit of clay. The clay deposit has an undrained shear strength of 15kpa and bulk
density 18kN/ . The embankment fill is sand with bulk density 18kN/ and .
Lets choose a slope of 3.5H: 1V
Length of side slope
Length of reinforcement provided below side slope, (Leaving 4.2m offset either side)
Therefore, total reinforcement length, b=18+2 =32m
Therefore, base width of the embankment, B= 18+7H= 40.4m
18m

21 kN/m2

3.2m 1 Embankment fill

3.5 ϒ=18kN/ ,

Soft clay Geosynthetic

15kpa, ϒ=18kN/ reinforcement
7m local stability
Check for
Check for bearing capacity
Bearing capacity of the foundation soil=
(

If basal reinforcement is provided, it is assumed that the overburden pressure is uniformly

distributed over the foundation layer. Thus,

Thus factor of safety against bearing capacity failure,

Check for lateral sliding

Check for foundation extrusion

Check for rotational stability

From the slip surface analysis using a validated computer program, the tensile strength needed
for the reinforcement, is obtained as 170kN/m. Factor of safety against rotational failure is
obtained as 1.324 OK

Check for settlement

Initial pressure at the center of the soft clay layer P0=18*3.5=63
Increase in overburden pressure due to embankment fill, P=
Settlement after 100% consolidation, = 0.22m

Since settlement is within limits as specified by IRC- 75, no other settlement reducing techniques
is needed.

Tensile strength of reinforcement

Tensile needed considering the lateral sliding and foundation extrusion together =

Tensile needed considering the rotational failure=50kN/m

Considering the higher of the above two tensile strength requirement, Tds=115.58kN/m
Long term strength required from rotational stability analysis=115.58 kN/m
Incorporating the reduction factors, say for polyethylene geogrid
Short term strength for the reinforcement =115.58*1.2*2*1.4*1.2=466.01 kN/m

7. CASE STUDIES
a) Southern Transport Development Project Seethawaka Industrial Park, Avissawella, Sri
Lanka
Southern Transport Development Project (STDP) is Sri Lanka‟s first major expressway project
with a length of 126km stretching from Colombo to Matara. Part of the project at section JBIC
from Dodangoda to Kurundugahahetekma required construction of embankment over soft
foundation soil for a construction period of 130 days. The height of the embankment varies from
4m to 10.5m. Soil investigation further shows that the embankment is to be constructed in an
acidic environment. Preliminary design analysis shows that the foundation soil could not support
the embankment without treatment at the base of the embankment. High strength geogrids with
tensile strengths of 150kN/m2 and 200kN/m2 were used for basal reinforcement. The geogrid is
made from high molecular weight, high tenacity polyester multifilament yarns. The yarns are
protected with a polymeric coating making it suitable for acidic soil.

Before Fig. 8: Typical cross section of basal reinforcement used for southern transport
project Srilanka

b) Road Project: S.Marco-Argentano Road Italy

During the construction of the 3rd part of the National Highway no. 533 at the location S. Marco
to Argentano in Italy, a marshy land consisting of soft clay was encountered near a bridge
abutment. This zone had an approximate thickness of 2.50 m which extends for an area of
8,000sqm. Anticipating the instability problems associated with the construction of the 7m
(maximum) high embankment, high strength geogrid of tensile strength 400kN/m2 was used as a
basal reinforcement in between the embankment fill and the soft soil strata as shown in Figure 9.
A non-woven geotextile was used as a separator between geogrid and the drainage blanket made
of sand.
 Fig 9: Typical cross section of S.Marco-Argentano Road Italy

c) Expressway:Bangkok, Thailand

The new Bangkok Expressway was crossing a marshy area with a very soft soil consisting of
normal consolidated Bangkok clays, 20 m deep. The soft soil has a bulk density of 16kN/m2 and
undrained shear strength of 15kN/m2. The site investigations showed that the bearing capacity of
the foundation soil was too low to support a "traditional" highway embankment. In addition to
the above considerations, a high stiffness was required for the initial construction phase to allow
the heavy plant to operate on site without sinking into the extremely soft soil that was often
waterlogged. The design required four horizontal layers of biaxial geogrids for stabilizing this
embankment. The geogrid used was of tensile strengths of 32kN/m in the machine direction and
18kN/m in the cross machine direction. The geogrids were installed at 300 mm vertical spacing.
Tensile creep test results, adequate to determine the design tensile strength of the geogrids for a
design of 1 year under constant load (1 year was the anticipated time for the consolidation of the
clay soil under the embankment). In places, were water content is as high as 100%,
prefabricated vertical drains were installed along with reinforcement.

d) Road widening and reconstruction: Abu Dhabi, UAE

In order to increase the traffic flow on the main highway connecting the Emirate of Abu Dhabi
with the Saudi Arabian border, it was decided to widen the existing highway from four to eight
lanes. Due to the poor underlying soil conditions and the cost of importing engineered fill
material the designers looked at geotechnical solutions that would increase both the bearing
capacity of the subsoil and decrease the thickness of the fill material, that would normally be
required. Due to the aggressive nature of the fill material the chosen geosynthetic product had to
demonstrate a high degree of resistance to mechanical damage. The existing subgrade soil was
identified as a typical Subkha soil with a low bearing capacity. To enable the project to be
completed on time, ease of installation was also of prime importance. To stabilize the road
embankments and to avoid differential settlement, the consultant engineers opted for an integral
extruded PP geogrid of strength 25 kN/m, offering both high junction strength and resistance to
mechanical damage. The same product has been used also to reinforce and decrease the thickness
of imported fill of the slip roads. To extend the road width, excavations were made on either
side of the existing road and geogrids were installed at the base and special rock fill, was then
placed and compacted. For the slip roads geogrids were installed for the full width of the new
road base, back filled and compacted with the special rock fill.

e) Road Over Bridge near PMC Building, Port Road, Mundra, Gujarat
Mundra Special Economic Zone (SEZ) is located in Kutch District, Gujarat which is linked to
the National Highway Network through an extension of NH 8A Ext. from Mundra-Anjar-
Bhimasar. A railway crosses the port connectivity road (Mundra to NH8A). ROB (8 lane) was
proposed to cross the railway line. The approaches of ROB were proposed to be retained with a
reinforced soil wall. (Granular fill soil --unit weight 20kN/m2, ). Maximum height of
Reinforced Soil Wall is 9m. The soil up to 3.0 m was clayey silt. This layer is followed by sand
with silt up to 4.5 m. This is underlain by sandy silt with traces of clay till 9.0m. Ground water
table was at 1.5m. Safe Bearing Capacity of existing foundation was 15 t/m2 but the required safe
bearing capacity was 27t/m2. High strength geogrids having mono-axial array of geosynthetic
strips, which has a planar structure were used as basal reinforcement. The uni-directional
strength of the mono-axial geogrid was 200 kN/m. Stone columns were also used to reduce the
settlement of the approach road. Maximum tensile load is the sum of the load needed to transfer
the vertical embankment loading onto the stone columns and the load needed to resist lateral
sliding. Since the load is transmitted to the stone columns, settlement of the soil in between the
columns is also reduced considerably. Figure 9 shows the typical cross section of the reinforced
approach road.
Fig. 8: Typical cross section of basal reinforcement with stone columns used for Road over
bridge, Gujarat

f) Road Project: connection road between Visakhapatnam port and NH-5,

Vizag, Andhra Pradesh

To provide faster and easy access to Visakhapatnam port from NH–5, NHAI in association with
Visakhapatnam Port Trust was constructed a new four lane road. The length of this project road
is about 12.3 km. About 4.567 km length of this project road was subjected to ground
improvement using band drains and Geotextile (allowable tensile strength = 230kN/m). The
thickness of soft marine clay is 10m – 18m and undrained shear strength is 5 – 8 kpa. Cc varies
from 08 – 1.2. As per IS classification system the soil is classified as CH – type. The height of
the embankment is 2.5 to 3.2 m. An initial embankment of 730mm was laid on the virgin ground
to serve as stable platform for allowing normal functioning of the construction machinery for
installation of band drains as well as to ensure an uninterrupted functioning of the sand blanket
(600mm) as a drainage channel. The band drains were installed at a spacing of 1.15m c/c under
the embankment and 2m c/c under the berm.

g) Road over bridge: Thane Bhiwandi Vadapa Road over South Kasheli Creek
For proposed major bridge approach across road, the solid approaches is to be retained using
Reinforced Soil (RS) Walls. There was an embankment existing for many years. The road has to
be widened to the desired width of the bridge. The subsurface comprises of top 4 to 6m of very
soft to soft dark grey clay. From 7.5 m. to 10.00 m. soil constitutes of silty clay. This layer is
followed by medium dense dark grey medium sand. As the structures are near creek ground
water table is at top. Fill soil properties: Cohesion – 0 kN/m2, Angle of friction - 32°, Unit
weight of soil – 20 kN/m3. The maximum height of the embankment ia 9.6m. In order to achieve
the required global and bearing stability, basal reinforcement over piles has been proposed for
the new embankment. The piled embankment technique allows embankments to be constructed
to required heights without any restraint on construction rate with control on post construction
settlements. Basal reinforcement is used to form a geosynthetic raft over piles and transfer the
load to the piles, and thus enabling to maximize the economic benefits of the piles installed in
soft foundations. The reinforcement also counteracts the horizontal thrust of the embankment fill
and the need for raking piles along the extremities of the foundation can be eliminated. In the
direction along the length of the embankment the maximum tensile load should be the load
needed to transfer the vertical embankment loading onto the pile caps. In the direction across the
width of the embankment the maximum tensile load should be the sum of the load needed to
transfer the vertical embankment loading onto the pile caps and the load needed to resist lateral
sliding. Basal reinforcement proposed here is geogrid which has planar structure consisting of a
monoaxial array of composite geosynthetics strips. Each single longitudinal strip has a core of
high tenacity polyester yarns tendons encased in a polyethylene sheath; the single strips are
connected by cross laid polyethylene strip who give a grid like shape to the composite. Two
geogrids layers having uniaxial strength of 400 kN/m each, along and across the road were
given.
 Fig. 9: Typical cross section of basal reinforcement with piles used for Road over bridge,
Thane.

8. CONSTRUCTION ASPECTS

The construction procedures for reinforced embankments on soft foundations require special
attention to the difficulties that can arise from site access, site clearance and fill placement.
Improper fill placement can lead to geosynthetic damage, non uniform settlements and
embankment failure. Construction rate should be preferably slow enough to ensure that there is
enough dissipation of excess pore pressure. The following aspects shall be followed for efficient
handling, safe storage and placement of geosynthetic materials.

8.1 Site Preparation

o Substantial vegetation like trees and bushes should be cut to ground surface.
o The top foundation soil shall be free from undulations and prepared to the level as
indicated in the construction drawings or as directed by the Engineer.
o Materials causing damage to geosynthetic like debris etc. should be removed from
site.
o Ground should be excavated up to the desired level as per approved drawings.
o Excavated Ground should be properly compacted to 95% of modified proctor
density. If any loose packets of soil are identified it shall be removed with good
quality fill.
 o A sand (fine to well graded) layer of thickness shown in the approved drawings
shall be compacted to 95% modified proctor density.
8.2 Reinforcement Storage
o During storage, reinforcement rolls shall be elevated off the ground and
adequately covered to protect them from site construction damage, precipitation,
extended ultraviolet radiation including sunlight, chemicals that are strong acids
or strong bases, flames including welding sparks, and any other environmental
condition that may damage the physical property values of the reinforcement.
o Proper illumination shall be provided at important places to facilitate loading and
unloading operations of materials during the night.
o Special instructions for the handling of each component shall be provided to the
Stores department.
o The equipment used for loading and unloading shall be as per the guidelines for
the particular component. The arrangements for the same shall be made at the
yard and project site.
o The open storage area in the yard shall be leveled properly and capable of taking
the load of the material stacks. The ground shall be developed such that even
during rainy season the material stacks are accessible. All the materials shall be
kept on wooden Planks or Pipes to avoid direct contact with the ground. The
wooden planks or pipes shall also ensure that the stacks remain stable.
o Fire can inflict huge loss and damages to the materials stored in the yard.
Therefore, adequate numbers of fire extinguishers shall be available inside the
warehouse. The entire storage yard shall be considered a „No Smoking‟ zone.
o Ensure physical verification of the whole consignment as per packing details &
check for any visual damage. The damaged or defective materials shall be
immediately segregated and shifted to a separate area dedicated for such storage.
o Storing of material should be done by item category, size and grade. Adequate
space (1m) shall be made available between the stacks; sufficient enough to allow
movement of store/project staff for routine inspection. .
o Routine activities such as sweeping, cleaning, dusting shall be undertaken and
daily check list to be marked daily kept at each covered area.
 o Water and moisture acts as catalyst for deterioration of material. Storage place
shall be free from any water leakages. Security arrangements with a Gate for
restriction of unauthorized entry are also recommended.
o Entrances, exits, pathways shall be kept clean and free from material. Height and
weight restrictions should be considered while stacking material and damage due
to tear and shear.
o Provide proper drainage system and the yard shall be cleared of debris.
o The storage yard shall be provided with a permanent constructed or fabricated
mobile ramp.
8.3 Placing of Reinforcement
o The reinforcement shall be laid at the proper elevation and alignment as shown on
the construction drawings. It shall be placed with main strength direction oriented
perpendicular to centerline of the embankment.
o The reinforcement shall be installed in accordance with the installation guidelines
provided by the manufacturer or as directed by the Engineer. It may be
temporarily secured in place with ties, staples, pins, sand bags as required by fill
properties, fill placement procedures or weather conditions or as directed by the
Engineer.
o A layer of sand layer shall be compacted to 95% modified proctor density. Above
this layer as per design at a specified distance a layer of reinforcement shall be
placed.
o Care should be taken in the handling, lifting and positioning of reinforcement
rolls. If, the weight of the rolls is such that mechanical lifting arrangements are
necessary, the use of a lifting beam is recommended.
o Slack/wrinkles in the reinforcement layer shall be removed manually. Direct
movement of vehicles on the reinforcement shall be prevented.
o Under no circumstances the Geosynthetic should be exposed to direct sunlight for
more than 10 calendar days.
8.4 Reinforcement Jointing
 o Reinforcement should not laced or jointed to the other elements of the system
other than by overlapping and the required overlapping length must be detailed in
the drawing by the designer.
o An overlap of 300 mm or as indicated by Engineer shall be provided between the
adjacent rolls. There shall be no joints along the length of reinforcement.
8.5 End Anchorages
o The roll should be unwound a small amount by pushing the roll in the direction of
the reinforcement run. The base end of the reinforcement now exposed should be
secured by weighting or pinning it to the formation. When the roll is completely
unwound the free, end of the reinforcement should be hand tightened and secured
by weighting or pinning.
o Where reinforcement is to be anchored by passing it round an anchorage block
(thrust block), such as a gabion basket, and back on itself, then the reinforcement
should be pulled tight around the block and secured by pinning or weighting until
fill around the block has been placed. Fill should not be placed on the return
length of reinforcement until the length around the anchorage block has been
secured by filling.
8.6 Fill Considerations
o Reinforcement layer should be covered with well graded sand having angle of
internal friction as per approved drawings.
o All filling shall be done in layers of 200mm thickness. If ground water table is
encountered proper dewatering arrangement shall be arranged.
o Fill in immediate contact with the reinforcement should be placed and spread in
the longitudinal direction of the reinforcement only.
o Under no circumstances should tracked vehicles be allowed to traffic over the
laid, unprotected reinforcement.
o The sequence of fill placement should be considered with care, particularly over
very poor foundation soil where bearing capacity can be exceeded with small
loadings.
o Two placement techniques have been used successfully (Holtz 1990) – For less
severe foundation conditions the technique is to place the fill symmetrically from
the centre outward in an inverted U type construction (Figure 10).
o The second technique involves the initial construction end dump fill along edges
of geosynthetic to form access roads. After access roads, the fill should be spread
between each toe and placement should be parallel to the alignment and
symmetrical from the toe inward toward the center to maintain a U shape (Figure
11).
o Use lightweight dozers and/or front end rollers to spread the fill.

Figure 10: Inverted U Construction (FHWA HI-95-038, BS:8006)

 Figure 11: U Shaped Construction (FHWA HI-95-038, BS:8006)

9. TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR GEOSYNTHETICS

9.1. Specifications of Geogrids

1. Material - Geogrids are planar structures, in the form of grids usually made from
extruding high modulus polypropylene or high modulus high density polyethylene
(extruded geogrid), or by weaving high tenacity polyester multifilament yarns and
finished with a polymeric coating (woven geogrid), or by bonding geosynthetic strips
made of high tenacity polyester core with polyethylene strip (bonded geogrid). These can
be uniaxial (tensile resistance in one direction) or biaxial (tensile resistance in both
longitudinal and transverse direction). The short term strength requirement of the
reinforcement can be found out from clause 4.9. The adoption of reduction factors should
be strictly based on reliable test data and performance data available with the
manufacturer from accredited independent agency or the product should have a valid
third party accredited certification like BBA (British Board of Agreement) for basal
reinforcement application. Manufacturer should have creep test data from independent
accredited laboratory for period over 5 years.
2. Ultraviolet and Chemical Inertness – The geogrid shall be UV stabilized (ASTM
D4355) and should be inert to all chemicals existing in soil 4 ≤ pH ≤ 9.
3. Specifications – Geogrids shall be dimensionally stable and able to retain their geometry
under manufacture, transport, and installation. The geogrid shall confirm to the
requirements given in Table 4, 5 and 6.
4.
Table 4: Properties of Bonded Geogrids for Embankment Reinforcement
Property Test Method Unit Minimum
Requirement
Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) ISO 10319 kN/m 50
Strain at UTS ISO 10319 % 11
Tensile strength at 3% strain ISO 10319 kN/m 30 % of UTS
5% strain ISO 10319 kN/m 50% of UTS
Single Strip Tensile Strength kN 9
Single Strip Width Measuring Tape mm 80
Roll Length Measuring Tape m 50
Roll Width Measuring Tape m 3

Table 5: Properties of Extruded Geogrids for Embankment Reinforcement

Property Test Method Unit Minimum
Requirement
Average Tensile Strength ISO 10319 kN/m 60
Typical strain at M.A.T.S ISO 10319 % 11.5
Tensile strength at 3% strain ISO 10319 kN/m 30 % of UTS
5% strain ISO 10319 kN/m 50% of UTS
Typical junction strength efficiency % 95
Roll length Measuring Tape m 50
Roll width Measuring Tape m 3.5
 Table 6: Properties of Woven Geogrids for Embankment Reinforcement
Property Test Method Unit Minimum
Requirement
Tensile Strength – MD ISO 10319 kN/m 60
Strain at max. strength – MD ISO 10319 % 10
Tensile Strength – CMD ISO 10319 kN/m 35
Strain at max. strength – CMD ISO 10319 kN/m 12
Typical junction strength efficiency % 95
Roll length Measuring Tape m 50
Roll width Measuring Tape m 3.5

5. Eligibility Criteria for Manufacturer – The manufacturer/ supplier shall have

experience to use in similar ground improvement projects in India and/ or abroad
geogrids of the type that manufacturer proposes to use in the project. The manufacturing
unit of geogrid should have ISO 9001:2008 accreditations from an internationally
accredited organization for its quality procedures. In-house facility should be there to test
the tensile strength of the geogrid using computerized testing facilities.
6. Basis of Payment – Unless otherwise noted in the Plans, the accepted quantity of
Geogrid completed in place shall be paid for at the contract unit price per square meter.
This price shall constitute full compensation for all work materials, labor and other
incidentals required to complete the work in accordance with these Specifications.

9.2. Specifications of Geotextile

1. Material – Geotextiles are planer structures manufactured from polyester or

polypropylene multifilament yarns by weaving in the warp and the weft direction (woven
geotextile) or from virgin high tenacity polypropylene staple fibres by mechanical
bonding (non woven geotextile). Preferably woven geotextile are recommended for soil
reinforcement application.
2. Ultraviolet and Chemical Inertness – The geotextile must have a high resistance to
ultraviolet degradation (ASTM D4355) and to biological & chemical environments
normally found in soil.
3. Specifications – Geotextile shall be dimensionally stable and able to retain their
geometry under manufacture, transport, and installation. The geotextile shall confirm to
the requirements given in Table 7

Table 7: Properties of Woven Geotextile for Embankment Reinforcement

Property Test Method Unit Minimum
Requirement
Tensile Strength – MD ISO 10319 kN/m 60
Strain at max. strength-MD % 30
Tensile Strength – CMD kN/m 45
Strain at max. strength-CMD % 20
Puncture Strength ASTM D4833 N 600
Grab strength (MD) ASTM D4632 N 1400
Grab strength (CMD) ASTM D4632 N 1000
Apparent opening size ASTM D 4533 mm <0.1
Permeability ASTMD 4491 m/s 0.09
Roll length Measuring Tape m 100
Roll width Measuring Tape m 3

4. Eligibility Criteria for Manufacturer – The manufacturer/ supplier shall have

experience to use in similar ground improvement projects in India and/ or abroad
geotextiles of the type that manufacturer proposes to use in the project. The
manufacturing unit of geotextiles should have ISO 9001:2008 accreditations from an
internationally accredited organization for its quality procedures. In-house facility should
be there to test the tensile strength of the geotextiles using computerized testing facilities.

5. Basis of Payment – Unless otherwise noted in the Plans, the accepted quantity of
Geotextile completed in place shall be paid for at the contract unit price per square meter.
 This price shall constitute full compensation for all work materials, labor and other
incidentals required to complete the work in accordance with these Specifications.
Table 8: Specification of Geocomposite for embankment reinforcement
Property Test Method Unit Minimum
Requirement
Tensile Strength – MD ISO 10319 kN/m 50
Strain at max. strength-MD % 11
Tensile Strength – CMD kN/m 15
Strain at max. strength-CMD % 11
Tensile strength at 3% strain ISO 10319 kN/m 30 % of TS
5% strain ISO 10319 kN/m 50% of TS
Single Strip Tensile Strength kN 3
Single Strip Width Measuring Tape mm 24
Puncture Strength ASTM D4833 N 600 N
Apparent opening size ASTM D 4533 mm <0.1
Permeability ASTMD 4491 m/s 0.09
Roll Length Measuring Tape m 50
Roll Width Measuring Tape m 3

9.3. Specifications of Geocell

1. Material: Typically Geocell (or Cellular Confinement System) consist of a three

dimensional honey comb mattress that can be filled with granular soil / aggregate / sand
or concrete. The panels of the Geocell can be made of high density polyethylene (HDPE)
strips, with or without perforations. When expanded during installation, the
interconnected strips form the walls of a flexible, three-dimensional cellular structure into
which specified infill materials are placed and compacted.
2. Design: Geocell when in-filled with compacted infill material, creates a new composite
entity that possesses enhanced mechanical and geotechnical properties. When the soil
contained within a geocell is subjected to pressure, it causes lateral stresses on perimeter
cell walls. The 3D zone of confinement reduces the lateral movement of soil particles
 while vertical loading on the contained infill results in high lateral stress and resistance
on the cell-soil interface, while lateral expansion of the infill is restricted by high hoop
strength. This increases the shear strength of the confined soil, which reduces punching
of soft soil, increases shear resistance, and decreases deformation. However, actual
application to real-world projects is limited by a lack of design methodologies and cost
considerations. Detailed finite element analysis is recommended, rather than designing
with respect to lot of assumptions. For finite element analysis, accurate soil as well as
geocell material properties are needed. Detailed settlement analysis which is very critical
for geocell over soft soils, can also be obtained using FEM analysis.
The Geo-cell shall meet the requirements given below.
1. Minimum Cell height of 50mm
2. Minimum sheet thickness of Geocell should be 1.1 mm (ASTM D 5199) in case of
HDPE.
3. The expanded cell size should be less than 850 cm2 so as not to weaken the geocell
structurally.
4. Panel area should not be less than 18m2 for structural stability.
A non-woven geotextile is typically recommended for separation of the native soil and
the granular infill. Separation is important to prevent contamination and loss of shear
strength of the granular infill and to prevent punching or migration of the infill material
into the sub grade.
3. Installation:
 Geocell section is expanded to the predesigned shape and size, and placed over pre-
installed stake. Drive the anchor pin flush with the top of the geocell. The anchor pin
hooks should be over the cell walls. Geocell sections are fastened together using
stapler pliers, galvanized industrial stapler pins or cable tie. Additional anchor pins
are driven at specified spacing within the cells of the expanded geocell section. The
most appropriate method of anchoring should be specified in the design.
 After geoell sections are secured, filling with the specified materials is done. It is very
important to ensure that geocells are completely covered, after in-filling. Prolonged
exposure to sunlight will directly affect the product longevity. Limit drop height of
 filling material to a maximum of 1m. Infill work should be done from the toe of slope
to crest of slope and should be compacted well.
o Loose granular materials: overfill half the depth of geocell and compact with a
plate tamper or backhoe bucket
o Screened top soil: overfill the remaining and lightly tamp to leave soil flush
with top edge of cell walls.

10. BOQ ITEMS

Sl. Description Unit of Quantity Rates
No: Measurement
Bonded Geogrids

1 Supply and laying of uniaxial geogrid, Sq.M.

manufactured by bonding geosynthetic strips
made of high tenacity polyester core with
polyethylene strip, having ultimate tensile
strength of (as specified for the project) kN/m
with strain of 10.5% at ultimate tensile strength,
provided in a roll of length (as specified for the
project) metre and width (as specified for the
project) metre.
Extruded Geogrid

2 Supply and laying of biaxial geogrid, Sq. M

manufactured by extruding high modulus
polypropylene, having average tensile strength of
(as specified for the project) kN/m in machine
direction and (as specified for the project) kN/m
in cross machine direction with minimum
junction efficiency of 95%, provided in a roll of
length (as specified for the project) metre and
 width (as specified for the project) metre.

Woven Geotextiles

3 Supply and laying of woven geotextile made from Sq.M.

polypropylene multifilament yarn, having
minimum mass per unit area of (as specified for
the project) gsm, having tensile strength of (as
specified for the project) kN/m in machine
direction and (as specified for the project)
kN/m in cross machine direction with maximum
apparent opening size of (as specified for the
project) mm, provided in a roll of length (as
specified for the project) metre and width (as
specified for the project) metre.

11. GEOSYNTHETIC SUPPLIERS

List of prominent geosynthetic suppliers in India are given below.

 Strata Geosystems (India) Pvt. Ltd.
 Maccaferri Environmental solutions India Pvt. Ltd
 Techfab India Industries Ltd.
 Earthcon Systems Pvt. Ltd.
 Geosys India Infrastructure Pvt. Ltd.
 Hi-tech (Kolon)
 Z-Tech India Pvt. Ltd.
 VSL India Pvt. Ltd
 Tensar
 Tencate
 Polyfelt
REFERENCES
1. Rowe, R. K. & Soderman, K. L. (1987). Stabilization of very soft soils using high
strength geosynthetics: the role of finite element analyses. Geotextiles and
Geomembranes, 6, No. 1–3, 53–80.
2. Humphrey, D. N. & Holtz, R. D. (1987). Reinforced embankments: a review of case
histories. Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 6, No. 4, 129–144.
3. Jewell, R. A. (1988). The mechanics of reinforced embankments on soft soils.
Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 7, 237–273.
4. Rowe, R. K. (1997). Reinforced embankment behaviour: lessons from a number of case
histories. Proceedings of the Symposium on Recent Developments in Soil and Pavement
Mechanics, Rio de Janeiro, pp. 147–160.
5. Leroueil, S. & Rowe, R. K. (2001). Embankments over soft soil and peat. In
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering Handbook (ed. R. K. Rowe). Norwell,
MA: Kluwer Academic, pp. 463–500.
6. Rowe, R. K. & Li, A. L. (2001). Insights from case histories: reinforced embankments
and retaining walls. Proceedings International Symposium on Earth Reinforcement,
Kyushu, pp. 31–60.
7. Rowe, R. K. & Li, A. L. (2005). Geosynthetic reinforced embankments over soft
foundations. Geosynthetics International, V.12, No. 1
8. BS: 8006 – 2010 – Code of practice for strengthened / reinforced soils and other fills
9. Geoguide 6: The new guide to reinforced fill structure and slope design in Hongkong.
10. Koerner, R. M. – Designing using Geosynthetics, Fourth Edition.
11. Akca, N. 2003. Correlation of SPT-CPT data from the United Arab Emirates.
Engineering Geology, V.67, 219-231.
12. FHWA HI-95-038 – 1998 – Geosynthetic Design and Construction Guidelines.
13. HRB SR No. 13 – 1994. State of the Art: High Embankments on Soft Ground, Part A –
Stage Construction.
14. HRB SR No. 14 – 1994. State of the Art: High Embankments on Soft Grounds, Part B –
Ground Improvement.
15. IRC: 75 – 1979 – Guidelines for the Design of High Embankments.
16. Nordic Guidelines for Reinforced Soils and Fills.