PLATE GIRDERS - I

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

A fabricated plate girder shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1 is employed for supporting

heavy loads over long spans. The bending moments and shear forces produced in such
girders are well beyond the bending and shear resistance of rolled steel girders available.
In such situations the designer has the choice of one of the following solutions:

• Use two or more regularly available sections, side-by-side. This is an expensive

solution and may still not satisfy deflection limitation.
• Use a cover-plated beam; i.e. weld a plate of adequate thickness to beef up each
flange. This would enhance the bending resistance, in circumstances where the web
has adequate shear resistance and the rolled steel section is only marginally
inadequate.
• Use a fabricated plate girder, wherein the designer has the freedom (within limits) to
choose the size of web and flanges, or
• Use a steel truss or a steel-concrete-composite truss.

This chapter is concerned with plate girders only. Plate girders are large I – shaped
sections built up from plates, as shown in Fig. 2.
Transverse
stiffener

Fig. 1 Typical plate girder with intermediate and end stiffeners

Fig. 2 Cross-section of fabricated plate girders

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Nearly all plate girders built today are welded, although they may use bolted field splices.
In the West, plate girders are invariably fabricated in fabrication shops, using numerically
controlled welding machines [See Fig. 2(a)]. If the plate girders are to be fabricated in the
field, the type sketched in Fig. 2(b) is used to minimise overhead welding.

The primary function of the flange plates is to resist bending moments by developing
axial compressive and tensile stresses. The web plate resists the shear. For a given
applied bending moment, the axial force decreases, as the depth of the girder (d)
increases. From this point of view it is economical to keep the flanges as far apart as
possible. This would ensure that the flanges would have to resist smaller axial forces.
Thus a smaller area of cross section would suffice than would be the case if a smaller
depth were chosen. However, this would also mean that the web would be deep. To
reduce the self-weight (and the corresponding self-weight bending moment), the web
thickness (t) would have to be limited to slender proportions, (the web proportions are
normally expressed in terms of the web slenderness ratio, d/t). Slender webs (with large
d/t values) would buckle at relatively low values of applied shear loading. (It is also
important to note that webs having a span/depth ratio smaller than 12 would result in a
“deep” beam, wherein the structural behaviour can no longer be described by
conventional simple beam theories).

Efficient and economical design usually results in slender members. Hence advantage
must be taken of the post buckling capacity of the web i.e. the ability of the girder to
withstand transverse loads considerably in excess of the load at which the web buckles
under shear. A girder of high strength to weight ratio can be designed by incorporating
the post buckling strength of the web in the design method employed. This would be
particularly advantageous where the reduction of self-weight is of prime importance.
Examples of such situations arise in long span bridges, ship girders, transfer girders in
building etc.

2.0 SHEAR RESISTANCE OF TRANSVERSELY STIFFENED PLATE

GIRDERS

Webs of plate girders are usually stiffened transversely as shown in Figure 1. This helps
to increase the ultimate shear resistance of the webs, as will be seen later. The stiffener
spacing (a) influences both buckling and post buckled behaviour of the web under shear.
In order to allow for this, the parameter (a/d) which accounts for the geometry of the web
panel is important. Obviously, a long span girder will have various web panels and each
panel will have different combinations of bending moments and shear forces. In a long
plate girder, panels close to the support will be subjected to predominant shear and those
close to the centre, to predominant bending moments.

In what follows, the effect of shear will be considered first, followed by the effect of co-
existing bending moment and shear forces.

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2.1 Shear resistance of a web

2.1.1 Pre-buckling behaviour (Stage 1)

When a web plate is subjected to shear, we can visualise the structural behaviour by
considering the effect of complementary shear stresses generating diagonal tension and
diagonal compression.

Fig. 3 Unbuckled shear panel

Consider an element E in equilibrium inside a square web plate subject to a shear stress q.
The requirements of equilibrium result in the generation of complementary shear stresses
as shown in Fig. 3. This results in the element being subjected to principal compression
along the direction AC and tension along the direction of BD. As the applied loading is
incrementally enhanced, with corresponding increases in q, very soon, the plate will
buckle along the direction of compressive diagonal AC. The plate will lose its capacity to
any further increase in compressive stress; the corresponding shear stress in the plate is
the “critical shear stress” qcr. The value of qcr can be determined from classical stability
theory if the boundary conditions of the plate are known. As the true boundary conditions
of the plate girder web are difficult to establish due to restraint offered by the flanges and
stiffeners we may conservatively assume them to be simply supported. The critical shear
stress in such a case is given by

π 2E
2
⎛t⎞
qcr = k s ⎜ ⎟
(
12 1 − ν 2
) ⎝d ⎠
(1)

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where, ks is the shear buckling coefficient given by

2
⎛d ⎞ a
k s = 5.35 + 4 ⎜ ⎟ where ≥ 1, i.e. for wide panels
⎝a⎠ d

2
⎛d ⎞ a
k s = 5.35 ⎜ ⎟ + 4 where ≤ 1, i.e. for webs with closely
⎝a⎠ d
spaced transverse stiffeners

Values of qcr for various values of web aspect ratios are tabulated in Table 1.

Table 1: qcr (MPa) Values

a/d 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.5

d/t
100 169 129 115 Buckling does
not govern
125 108 83 73 Buckling does
not govern
150 75 57 51 204
175 55 42 37 150
200 42 32 29 115
225 33 25 23 91
250 27 21 18 72

E = 200,000 MPa ν = 0.3 π = 3.1412

When the value of (d/t) is sufficiently low (d/t < 85) qcr increases above the value of yield
shear stress and the web will yield under shear before buckling.

2.1.2 Post buckled behaviour (Stage 2)

The compression diagonal (AC) is unable to resist any more loading beyond the one
corresponding to the elastic critical stress. Once the web has lost its capacity to sustain
increase in compressive stresses, a new load–carrying mechanism is developed.
Applications of any further increases in the shear load are supported by a tensile
membrane field, anchored to the boundaries, viz. the top and bottom flanges and the
adjacent stiffener members on either side of the web. The angle of inclination of the
membrane stress (θ) is unknown at this stage (See Fig. 4). Thus the total state of stress in
this web plate may be obtained by superimposing the post-buckled membrane tensile
stresses (pt) upon those set up when the applied shear stress reached the critical value qcr.

The state of stress in the web in the post-buckled stage is shown in Fig. 5.

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Fig. 4 Post buckled behaviour Fig. 5 State of stress in the web in

the post buckled stage
Resolving these stresses in the direction along and perpendicular to the inclination θ we
get,

pθ = qcr .sin 2θ + pt
p(θ + 90 ) = − qcr sin 2θ (2)
qθ = − qcr . cos 2θ

Since the flanges are of finite rigidity, the pull exerted by the tensile membrane stresses
in the web will cause the flanges to bend inwards.

2.1.3 Collapse behaviour (Stage 3)

When the load is further increased, the tensile membrane stress (pt) developed in the web
continues to exert an increasing pull on the flanges. Eventually the resultant stress (pθ)
(obtained by combining the buckling stress in Equation (1) and the membrane stress pt)
reaches the yield value for the web.

This value (of the membrane stress at yield) may be denoted by pyw, and may be
determined by Von-Mises yield criterion.

pθ2 + p(2θ + 90 ) − pθ . p(θ + 90 ) + 3qθ2 = p yw

2
(3)

where, pyw = tensile yield stress of the web

By substituting the values of pθ, p(θ+90) and qθ from Equation (2), the above equation
may be presented in a non-dimensional form as follows:

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2
p yt ⎛ qcr ⎞ ⎛ 3 2 ⎞
= ⎜1 − ⎟ ⎜1− sin 2θ ⎟ − 3 . qcr sin 2θ (4)
p yw ⎜ q ⎟ ⎝ 4 ⎠ 2 q yw
⎝ yw ⎠

where, qcr is obtained from Equation (1)

p yw tensile yield
q yw = i.e. shear yield = (5)
3 3

Tensile membrane
stress at yield = pyt

Fig. 6 Collapse of the panel

Once the web has yielded, final collapse of the girder will occur when four plastic hinges
are formed in the flanges as shown in Fig. 6. The plastic moment capacity of the flange
plate is Mpf.

By using the virtual work method, Rockey and his team at Cardiff have shown that the
failure load can be computed from

M pf
VS = qcr . d .t + p yt .t sin 2 θ (d cot θ − a + c ) + 4 (6)
c

where c = distance between the hinges given by

2 M pf
c= (7)
sinθ p yt .t

This equation can be non-dimensionalised by using the shear load required to produce
yielding in the entire web (Vyw = qyw. d.t.)

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VS qcr ⎛ a ⎞ p yt p yt M pf
= + 3 sin 2 θ ⎜ cot θ − ⎟ + 4 3 sin θ . (8)
V yw q yw ⎝ d ⎠ p yw p yw d 2t. p yw

Equation (6) or (8) can be solved if θ is known. As these equations are based on Energy
Method, the correct solution will be obtained by maximising Vs with respect to θ. By a
systematic set of parametric studies, Evans has established that θ is approximately equal
to 2/3 of the inclination of diagonal of the web.
2 ⎛d ⎞
θ ≅ tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ (9)
3 ⎝a⎠

Notice that Equations (6) and (8) are obtained by adding 3 quantities: web-buckling
strength, post-buckling membrane strength of the web plate and the plastic moment
capacity of the flange.

In this context, it must be noted that in order for the flanges to develop hinges, the flanges
must be classifiable as "plastic" sections. If flanges can not develop plastic hinges
because they are compact, semi-compact or slender, this method of analysis is NOT
applicable.

2.1.4 “Weak” flanges

When a plate girder has weak flanges, Mpf is a small quantity in comparison with the
other terms. Hence

VS q ⎛ a ⎞ p yt
= cr + 3 sin 2 θ ⎜ cot θ − ⎟ (10)
V yw q yw ⎝ d ⎠ p yw

In this case the tension field is NOT supported by flanges.

Fig. 7 Weak flange

The field anchors entirely on transverse stiffeners as shown in Fig. 7.

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2.1.5 Very “Strong” flanges

When “Very Strong” flanges are employed, the distance (c) of the plastic hinge away
from the end panel increases. When c = a, the hinges will form at the four corners,
constituting a “picture frame” type mechanism (See Fig. 8) and the tension field angle
(θ) is 45°. Ultimate shear in this case is given by:

⎛ 2⎞
VS 1 qcr 3 ⎜ 1 ⎛⎜ qcr ⎞⎟ ⎟ d M pf
= + ⎜⎜1− 4 ⎜ q ⎟ ⎟⎟ + 4 3 a . d 2t p (11)
V yw 4 q yw 2 ⎝ yw ⎠ ⎠
⎝ yw

Fig. 8 Picture frame mechanism of strong flange

2.1.6 Very “Thick” webs

In case the web is thick, it will yield before buckling failure will form by a picture frame
mechanism, with qcr = qyw.

VS ⎛ d ⎞ M pf
=1 + 4 3 ⎜ ⎟ . 2 (12)
V yw ⎝ a ⎠ d t p yw

2.1.7 Very “Slender” webs

Very slender webs are rarely used as they cause anxieties for the users due to high levels
of buckling.

In very slender webs qcr/qyw is extremely small and there will be significant post-buckled
tension field, the value of membrane stress pyt will be very large. The general expression
given in Equation (8) is valid and θ can be evaluated using equation (9).

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3.0 WEBS SUBJECTED TO CO-EXISTENT BENDING AND SHEAR

When a girder is subjected to predominant bending moments and low shear, its ultimate
capacity is conditioned by the interaction between the effects of the bending moment and
shear force.

Fig . 9(a)

Fig. 9(b)

Fig. 9 Interaction between bending and shear effects

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The interaction diagram is generally expressed in the form seen in Fig. 9, where the shear
capacity is plotted in the Y-axis and the bending capacity in the X-axis. Any point in the
interaction diagram shows the co-existent values of shear and bending moment that the
girder can sustain. The vertical ordinates are non-dimensionalised using Vyw (Yield shear
of the web) and the horizontal ordinates by Mp (the fully plastic moment resistance of the
cross section). The portion of the curve between points A and C is the region in which the
girder will fail by predominant shear, i.e. shear mechanism of the type represented in Fig.
6 will develop at collapse.

The vertical ordinate at A presents the shear capacity (Vs) given by Equation 8. This shear
capacity will reduce gradually due to the presence of co-existent bending moment.
Beyond point C, when the applied moment is high, the failure will be triggered by the
collapse of flanges by one of the following: (i) by yielding of flange material or (ii) by
inward buckling of the compression flange or (iii) by lateral buckling of the flange. Thus
there is a distinct change in failure criterion represented by line OC in Fig. 9(a); the left
of OC represents shear failure and the right of OC, flexural failure. Generally the flange
failure mode will be triggered, when the applied bending moment is approximately equal
to the plastic moment resistance MF, provided by the flange plates only, neglecting the
contribution from the web.

M F = b f .T . p yf (d + T ) (13)

where, bf - Breadth of flange

T - Thickness of flange
pyf- Design stress of flange
d - depth of web plate

This value represents the horizontal co-ordinate of the point C, i.e. the point F. In zone
ABC, the presence of additional bending moment requires the following three factors to
be considered.

• The reduction in the web buckling stress due to the presence of bending stresses.
• The influence of bending stresses on the value of membrane stress required causing
yield in the web.
• The reduction of plastic moment capacity of flanges due to the presence of axial
flange stresses caused by bending moment.

3.1 Modified web buckling stress

The modified web buckling stress due to coincident bending stress may be computed
from the following interaction Equation:
2
⎛ qcrm ⎞ ⎛ f ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ mb ⎟⎟ = 1 (14)
⎝ qcr ⎠ ⎝ f crb ⎠

where, qcrm = modified shear buckling stress in web

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qcr = elastic critical shear stress in web (pure shear case as defined
previously)
fmb = compressive bending stress in the extreme fibre at the mid panel due to
the bending moment.
fcrb = buckling stress for the plate due to a pure bending moment given by

π 2E
2
⎛t⎞
= 23.9 ⎜ ⎟
f crb
(
12 1 − ν 2
) ⎝d ⎠
(15)

3.2 Modified membrane stress for web yielding

The bending membrane stress (pyt) to be added to the critical shear stress (qcr) was
calculated in the pure shear case, using Equations (4) and (1) respectively. The modified
expression for the membrane stress pytm, in the presence of applied bending moment is
given by

p ytm = −
1
2
A+
1
2
(A 2
(
− 4 pb2 + 3qcrm
2
− p yw
2
)) (16)

where, A = 3 qcrm sin 2θ + pb sin2θ - 2pb cos2 θ

pb = The value of bending stress, which varies over both the depth and
width of the web panel.

As pytm varies for various values of pb, it may be necessary to compute pytm at a number of
locations in order to compute the resultant of the membrane stresses. This could be time-
consuming. To simplify the design calculations an adequately accurate approximate
procedure is suggested a little later.

3.3 Reduction of plastic moment capacity of flanges

When high axial forces are developed in the flanges due to bending moments, their
effects in reducing plastic moment capacity of flange plates must be taken into account.
From plasticity theory, the reduced capacity (M'pf ) is given by

⎡ ⎛ p ⎞2 ⎤
M ' pf = M pf ⎢1− ⎜ f ⎟ ⎥ (17)
⎢ ⎜⎝ p yt ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦

where, pf is the average axial stress for the portion of the flange between hinges.

3.4 Design procedure

The simplified design procedure suggested by Rockey et. al (1978) is validated by them
by experiments and parametric studies. This procedure is summarised below:

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The shear load capacity at point C of the interaction diagram may be obtained
approximately from an empirical relationship given below.

M pf ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ b ⎞ 8 ⎤
1
⎛ Vc ⎞ q cr p yt ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎡
⎜ ⎟= + sin ⎜ θ d ⎟ ⎢0.554 + 36.8 ⎢ ⎥
⎜V ⎟ q ⎥ ⎢2 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ (18)
⎝ yw ⎠ p ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎣ M F ⎦ ⎝ d ⎠
⎣ ⎦
yw yw

This equation gives the vertical ordinate of the point C in the interaction diagram [Fig.
9(a)]. The horizontal ordinate as stated previously is given by the value of MF (See
Equation 13).

The interaction diagram is constructed in stages as follows [See Fig. 9(b)]:

(i) Between A and B, the curve is horizontal. The horizontal ordinate B is given by
maximum bending moment in the end panel given by Vs.b, but limited to a value
of 0.5MP.
(ii) Between B and C, the curve may be straight (for simplicity). The moment
corresponding to C is given by
MF = bf . T . pyf (d + T)
(iii) The point D represents nearly the ultimate capacity of the flanges (Mu) and the
shear values when high bending is present. This is discussed in the next section.

3.5 Webs subjected to pure bending

The region beyond C of the interaction diagram represents a high bending moment, so the
failure is by bending moment, rather than by shear mode. In a thin walled girder, the web
subjected to compressive bending stress will buckle, thereby losing its capacity to carry
further compressive stresses. The compression flange will therefore carry practically all
the compressive stresses, as the web is unable to be fully effective. Consequently the
girder is unable to develop full plastic moment of resistance (Mp) of the cross section.

If no lateral buckling occurs (e.g. by provision of adequate lateral supports), the girder
will fail by inward collapse of compression flange at an applied moment (Mu) which is
approximately equal to the moment required to produce first yield in the extreme fibres of
compression flange. This moment is – of course – reduced because of the effects of web
buckling. Though the concept is simple, the resulting calculations are complex. The
research of Cooper in 1971 enables the ultimate moment capacity to be determined by a
simple formula:

Mu A ⎡d E ⎤ MF
= 1− 0.0005 w ⎢ − 5.7 ⎥ ≥ (19)
My A f ⎢⎣ t p yf ⎥⎦ My

My = Bending moment required to produce yield in the extreme fibre of flange assuming
fully effective web (i.e. neglecting web buckling)

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This value of Mu is the moment required to produce yield in the extreme fibres of the
flange. The corresponding stresses in the web will be below yield. (Point D in the
interaction diagrams). The ordinate of D can be calculated approximately from

VD M p − Mu
= (20)
VC M pw

where, Mp is the fully plastic moment capacity of the complete cross section
Mpw = plastic moment resistance of the web plate alone.
= 0.25 td2. pyw
The complete interaction diagram can now be drawn.

4.0 ULTIMATE BEHAVIOUR OF TRANSVERSE WEB STIFFENERS

The shear failure mechanism described so far has been extensively verified by
experiments. Before post-buckling action in webs can develop the members in the
boundary (viz. the flanges and the stiffeners) must be able to support the forces imposed
on them by the web tension field.

The transverse stiffeners play an important role in allowing the full ultimate capacity of
the girder to be achieved (a) by increasing the web buckling stress (b) by supporting the
tension field after web buckling and (c) by preventing the tendency of flanges to get
pulled towards each other. The stiffeners must therefore possess sufficient rigidity to
ensure that they remain straight, while restricting buckling to the individual web panels.

Fig. 10 Force imposed on transverse stiffeners by tension field

4.1 Analysis of loads imposed on the transverse stiffener

Fig. 10 represents the loads acting on typical stiffener CD positioned between two
adjacent panels, each of which have developed shear failure mechanism. This is perhaps
the most critical form of loading of an intermediate stiffener.

Let us consider the loads on the intermediate stiffener

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The resultant of the loads acting on portion W1C of top flanges is Ffw, inclined at an angle
of θ1 and DY2 of bottom flange is Ff.2, inclined at an angle of θ2. The vertical component
of these forces will tend to pull the flanges together and the stiffener will resist this by
developing end loads (VC and VD).

VC = − Ff .1 sin θ1
VD = + F f .2 sin θ 2 (21)

Moreover, the loading imposed directly upon the stiffener by web tension field can be
split into 3 zones: the top part CG is subject to a pull to the left by the left hand panel, the
bottom part HD is similarly subject to a pull to the right by the right hand panel. The part
GH is pulled to the left and to the right (these two forces more or less balancing each
other). Thus the central region remains virtually unloaded by the tension field action.

The vertical component of forces on zones CG and DH are respectively obtained as

V1 = − p yt1 .t .CG .sin θ1 . cosθ1

V2 = − p yt 2 .t . HD .sin θ 2 . cosθ 2 (22)

Thus once the ultimate shear loading and the geometry of failure mechanism has been
determined, calculations of forces on the stiffeners by employing Equations (21) and (22)
may be made.

Unfortunately, the actual behaviour of stiffeners (as evidenced by experimental studies by

Rockey in 1981 and Puthali in 1979) is somewhat different from the simple model
described above.
Firstly, a portion of the web plate acts with the stiffeners in resisting the axial load,
despite the fact the web has theoretically yielded due to tension field. The effective cross
section is in the form of a T section or a cruciform section, if the stiffeners are on both
sides of the web plate.

Secondly the theory explained previously assumed that the axial loading is applied to the
stiffener cross section at its mid thickness. The true position of load application is
unknown and some degree of eccentricity of application of loads is inevitable.

Thus the stiffener is subjected to both axial load (P) and bending moment arising due to
px
the eccentricity of the applied load from the centroidal axis (x) and is given by .
There will–inevitably be–some imperfections (δo) in the stiffener giving rise to
consequent moments of Pδo. The disturbing action on the stiffener due to the web
buckling is difficult to quantify but nevertheless is present.

Horne (1979) has proposed a suitable expression to define the combination of axial load
and bending moment (making allowance for the above complexities) which can be
sustained by a stiffener:

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M
= 1 .0 −
(
p ys t s bs − x + 0.5t )
2
P
(23)
M ps M ps Ps

where, Mps = Full plastic moment capacity of the section where there is no axial loading
Ps = Squash load (i.e. full axial yield load)
bs = Width of stiffener
ts = Thickness of stiffener
pys = Design stress of stiffener
t = Thickness of web

For any girder, the axial load to which the stiffener is subjected can be computed from
Equations (21) and (22). Then, provided the co-existent moment is less than the allowable
moment defined by Equation (23), the stiffener will be able to support the loads to which
it is subjected.

The theory governing the design of stiffeners is given above; but the design codes make
simplifications to ease the task of the designers and enable quick sizing of the stiffeners.

5.0 GENERAL BEHAVIOUR OF LONGITUDINALLY STIFFENED GIRDERS

In order to obtain greater economy and efficiency in the design of plate girders, slender
webs are often reinforced both longitudinally and transversely. The longitudinal stiffeners
are generally located in the compression zones of the girder. The main function of the
longitudinal stiffeners is to increase the buckling resistance of web. The longitudinal
stiffener remains straight thereby subdividing the web and limiting the web buckling to
smaller web panels. In the past it was usually thought that the resulting increase in
ultimate strengths could be significant. Recent studies have shown that this is not always
the case, as the additional cost of welding the longitudinal stiffeners invariably offsets
any economy resulting in their use.

The main effect of longitudinal stiffeners is to increase the elastic critical buckling
strength. Studies by Rockey et al have shown that a longitudinally reinforced plate girder
subject predominantly to shear would develop a collapse mechanism, similar to the one
described previously, provided the stiffeners remained rigid up to failure. Once a tension
field develops it extends over the complete depth of the girder. In other words, once one
of the sub panels has buckled, the post buckling tension field develops over the whole
depth of the web panel and the influence of the stiffeners may be neglected. Thus the
equations established previously are valid, keeping in mind qcr values are enhanced due
to the smaller panel dimensions.

In the design of longitudinal stiffeners, linear buckling theories are often used to establish
the minimum value of stiffener rigidity required to ensure that the longitudinal stiffeners
remain straight at first buckling. This would ensure that the buckling is limited to
individual sub-panels of the web. This invariably involves the provision of stiffeners of
substantial sizes, just so that they would remain straight without themselves buckling.

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Normally the rigidity of such stiffeners has to be increased by 4-6 times, to satisfy this
requirement. The heavy stiffeners thus designed, though adequate, will naturally increase
the weight of steel used and therefore the cost. It seems that it is more sensible to increase
the web thickness in these cases.

In general, the extra cost of providing longitudinal stiffeners is rarely justified. In western
countries numerically controlled machines are used extensively for fabricating plate
girders. In these countries the provision of longitudinal (and transverse) stiffeners
involves manual welding and contributes to the rise in the cost of fabrication. Indeed, in
Scandinavian countries, the current trend is to eliminate or minimise the use of transverse
stiffeners as far as possible. The use of longitudinal stiffeners has also been discontinued
for this reason in these countries. In other words, if they can help it, they do not use any
stiffeners at all!

Longitudinal stiffeners are rarely – if ever – used in buildings. They are sometimes used
in bridges, particularly when the Elastic Design is employed. Fig. 11 shows a typical
plate girder with longitudinal and transverse stiffeners.

Fig. 11 Longitudinal and Transverse stiffeners

6.0 CONCLUSIONS

This chapter has considered the ultimate behaviour of plate girders in some detail.
Fundamental theoretical relationship based on buckling and post-buckling theories have
been established. In some case, semi-empirical procedures have been suggested to ease
the tedium of lengthy calculations. Transverse stiffeners have been considered in some
depth. The use of longitudinal stiffeners has also been described and the reasons for not
using these extensively have been discussed.

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7.0 REFERENCES

1. Narayanan R. Plated Structures, Stability & Strength. Chapter 1 Longitudinally

and transversely reinforced Plate Girders, (by EVANS H.R.) Elsevier Applied
Science Publishers, London, 1983.
2. Owens D.R.G. Skaloud, M. and Rockey K.C. Ultimate Load behaviour of
longitudinally reinforced web plates, IABSE Memories 1970 Zurich 113 – 148.
3. Cooper P.B The ultimate bending moment for Plate Girders, Proceedings of
IABSE Colloqum, London, 1971.
4. Mele M and Puthali R : University of Rome Reports CECAR / 136, 1979.
5. Rockey K.C., Evans H.R. and Porter D.M. A design method for predicting
collapse behaviour of Plate Girders, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers 1978, pp 85-112.
6. Rockey K.C. and Skaloud M : Influence of flange stiffeners on load carrying
capacity of webs in shear. Proceedings of the Eighth Congress IABSE, New York,
429-439.

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PLATE GIRDERS – II
16
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter describes the current practice for the design of plate girders adopting
meaningful simplifications of the equations derived in the chapter on Plate Girders – I, as
per provisions of BS 5950: Part – 1 for buildings.

It is important to choose appropriate sections for various components of the plate girder.
In these girders, the bending moments are assumed to be carried by the flanges by
developing compressive and tensile forces. To effect economy, the web depth ‘d’ (See
Fig. 1) is chosen to be large enough to result in low flange forces for the design bending
moment.

End post A Load Load Transverse stiffener

a b

Flange plates
λ Web plate
Welds
A Longitudinal elevation Section A-A

Fig. 1 A typical Plate Girder

1.1 Span to depth ratios

The recommended span / depth (λ/d) ratios for initial choice of cross-section in a plate
girder used in a building is given below:

i. Constant depth beams used in simply-supported composite

and non-composite girders with concrete decking 12 < λ/d < 20

ii. Constant depth beams in continuous composite and non-

composite girders 15 < λ/d < 25

iii. Simply-supported crane girders 10 < λ/d < 15

© Copyright reserved
1.2 Recommended proportions for web
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When d/t ≤ 66.2ε, where ε = (250/fy) 1/2 the web plate will not buckle because the shear
stress ‘q’ is less than critical buckling stress ‘qcr’. The design, in such cases, is similar to
rolled steel beams. Here we consider plate girders having thin webs with d/t > 66.2ε. In
the design of these webs, shear buckling should be considered. In general we may have
an un-stiffened web, a web stiffened by transverse stiffeners (Fig. 1) or a web stiffened by
both transverse and longitudinal stiffeners (Fig. 2).

By choosing a minimum web thickness ‘t’, the self-weight is reduced. However, the webs
are vulnerable to buckling and hence are stiffened if necessary. The web thicknesses
recommended are:

i. For un-stiffened web t ≥ d/250

ii. For stiffened web with a/d > 1 ; t ≥ d/250

and with a/d ≤ 1 ; t ≥ (d/250)(a/d)1/2

where a is the horizontal spacing between the transverse stiffeners in a web of depth d
and thickness t.

In practice, however, a/d < 1 is rarely used - if at all - in plate girders used in buildings
and bridges.

To avoid flange buckling into web, BS 5950: Part - 1, specifies

i. For un-stiffened web t ≥ (d/294)(pyf /250)1/2

where pyf is the design stress of flange material.

ii. For stiffened web with a/d > 1.5; t ≥ (d/294)(pyf /250)1/2

and with a/d ≤ 1.5; t ≥ (d/337)(pyf /250) 1/2

Transverse
stiffeners
End post Longitudinal
stiffener

Flange plate

Fig. 2 End panel strengthened by longitudinal stiffener

1.3 Recommended proportion of flanges

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Generally the thickness of flange plates is not varied along the spans for plate girders
used in buildings. For non-composite plate girder the width of flange plate is chosen to be
about 0.3 times the depth of the section as a thumb rule. It is also necessary to choose the
breadth to thickness ratio of the flange such that the section classification is generally
limited to plastic or compact sections only (b/T ≤ 8.9ε). This is to avoid local buckling
before reaching the yield stress. For preliminary sizing, the overall flange width-to-
thickness ratio may be limited to 24. For the tension flanges (i.e. bottom flange of a
simply supported girder) the width can be increased by 30%.

1.4 Stiffener spacing

Vertical stiffeners are provided close to supports to increase the bearing resistance and to
improve shear capacity. Horizontal stiffeners are generally not provided in plate girders
used in buildings. Intermediate stiffeners also may not be required in the mid-span region.
When vertical stiffeners are provided, the panel aspect ratio a/d (see Fig.1) is chosen in
the range of 1.2 to 1.6. The web is able to sustain shear in excess of shear force
corresponding to qcr because of vertical stiffeners. Vertical stiffeners help to support the
tension field action of the web panel between them. Where the end panel near support is
designed without using the tension field action a smaller spacing of a/d = 0.6 -1.0 is
adopted. Sometimes double stiffeners are adopted near the bearing (see Fig. 3) and in
such cases the overhangs beyond the supports are limited to 1/8 of the depth of the girder.

Load
Strut Tension field zone

(a) Tension field in individual sub-panel

Load
Tension field tie

(b) Equivalent N - truss

Fig. (3) Tension field action and the equivalent N - truss

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2.0 PROVISIONS FOR MOMENT AND SHEAR CAPACITY AS PER BS 5950-

PART 1

Any cross section of the plate girder will have to resist shear force and bending moment.
The design may be based on any one of the following assumptions:

1) The moment is resisted by the flanges and the shear is resisted by the web
only.
2) The moment is resisted by the entire section while the web is designed to
resist shear and longitudinal stresses due to bending.
3) A combination of (1) and (2) above by approximating a percentage of the
shear to the web and remaining to the entire section. This method is rarely
used.

The assumptions made in method (1) leads to mathematical simplification and a good and
simple visualisation of load transfer mechanism. This method is used for computing the
moment and shear capacity of a section as indicated below.

2.1 Moment Capacity

Moment capacity Mc is computed from the plastic capacity of the flanges. Thus,

Mc = pyf Zpf (1)

where, pyf = The design stress of the flange steel ( = fyf /γm)
Zpf = Plastic section modulus of flanges about the transverse axis of the section.
γm = Material safety factor for steel (= 1.15)

2.2 Shear Capacity

Thin webs are designed either with or without stiffeners. These two cases are described
individually below.

2.2.1 Webs without intermediate stiffeners

The shear capacity of un-stiffened webs is limited to its shear buckling resistance. Hence,

Vcr = qcr d t (2)

The elastic pre-buckling behaviour was described in section 2.1.1 of the previous chapter.
Based on this theory the code gives the following values for qcr, for webs, which are not
too slender. These values depend on the slenderness parameter λw defined as

λw = (0.6 pyw / qe) ½ (3)

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where, qe = Elastic critical shear strength values to be used in design for different
values of a/d and d/t are tabulated in Table - 1.
pyw = Design strength of web ( = fyw /γm)
γm = Material safety factor for steel (= 1.15)

The elastic critical stress (Refer Table 1 of the previous chapter) has been simplified and
given based on a/d and t/d as given in Table - 1.

Table 1: Elastic critical stress related to aspect ratio

Aspect ratio Elastic critical stress

a/d ≤ 1 qe = [0.75 + 1/(a/d)2] [1000/(d/t)]2

a/d > 1 qe = [1 + 0.75/(a/d)2] [1000/(d/t)]2

where, a is the stiffener spacing

d is the depth of web

Table - 2 gives the values of qcr recommended by the code for design purposes.

Table 2: Elastic critical stress for design purposes

λw ≤ 0.8 0.8 < λw < 1.25 λw ≥ 1.25

qcr = 0.6 pyw qcr = 0.6 pyw[1 – 0.8(λw – 0.8)] qcr = qe

Note that for very slender webs qcr is limited to elastic critical shear stress. In other cases
the value of qcr is a function of design stress of web steel, pyw .

2.2.2 Webs with intermediate stiffeners

Design of the plate girders with intermediate stiffeners, as indicated in Fig. 2, can be done
by limiting their shear capacity to shear buckling strength. However this approach is
uneconomical and does not account for the mobilisation of the additional shear capacity,
as indicated earlier. The shear resistance is improved in the following two ways.

i) Increase in buckling resistance due to reduced a/d ratio.

ii) The web develops tension field action and thus resists considerably larger stress than
the elastic critical strength of web in shear.

Fig.3 shows the diagonal tension fields anchored between top and bottom flanges and
against transverse stiffeners on either side of the panel. With the stiffeners acting as struts
and the tension field acting as ties the plate girder behaves similar to an N-truss [Fig.
3(b)]. As indicated in the previous chapter, the failure occurs when the web yields and
plastic hinges form in flanges, 2 at top and 2 at bottom, developing a sway mechanism.

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The full shear buckling resistance is calculated as,

Vb = [ qb + qf (kf)1/2 ] d t but ≤ 0.6 py dt (4)

The first term qb comprises of critical elastic stress qcr and the tension field strength of the
panel i.e.,
yb
qb = qcr + (5)
⎡a ⎛a⎞ ⎤
2

2⎢ + 1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢d ⎝ d ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎣

where, yb = (pyw2 – 3qcr2 + φt2) 1/2 - φt

1.5qcr
φt =
2
⎛a⎞
1+ ⎜ ⎟
⎝d ⎠

a – spacing of transverse stiffeners

d – depth of girder

t – web thickness

pyw – design web strength ( = fyw /γm)

Note that this is a simplified version of equation (4) derived in the previous chapter based
on yield criteria.

The term qf(kf)1/2 represents the contribution of the flanges to the post buckling strength
and depends on plastic moment capacity of the flanges Mpf [Equation (8) of the previous
chapter]

The flanges support the pull exerted by the tension field. When the flanges reach their
ultimate capacity they form hinges. kf is a parameter that relates to the plastic moment
capacity of the flange Mpf , and the web Mpw, described later.

The flange-dependent shear strength is simplified and given as

⎡ ⎛ yb ⎞
1/ 2
⎤
q f = 0.6 p yw ⎢4 3 ⎜ ⎟ sin θ ⎥ (6)
⎢ ⎜p ⎟ 2⎥
⎣ ⎝ yw ⎠ ⎦
where, θ = tan-1(d/a)

When the girder is to resist pure shear, then

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2b 2
M pf = T p yf (7)
4
However in presence of overall bending moment, the contribution of flange to shear
resistance will be reduced by the longitudinal stress f induced because of overall bending
moment, by the factor (1 – f/pyf). When f approaches pyf at maximum moment region, the
factor nearly becomes zero and hence the contribution of flanges to shear resistance will
become negligible.

The plastic moment capacity of the web, Mpw, is given by

Mpw = 0.25 d2 t pyw (8)

and

kf = Mpf / 4 Mpw (9)

Fig. 4 shows typical variations of shear strength with web stiffness as contributed by

a) critical shear strength

b) post buckling strength due to web tension field adequately resisted by transverse
vertical stiffeners
c) the plastic moment capacity of the flanges.

Shear strength

(c)
(b)

(a)

Web stiffness (d/t)

Fig. 4 Typical variation of shear strength with web stiffness as
contributed by shear strength of panel, post buckling
strength due to tension field and flange mechanism

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3.0 END PANELS

For tension field action to develop in the end panels, adequate anchorage should be
provided all around the end panel. The anchor force Hq required to anchor the tension
field force is
1
⎛ q ⎞ 2

Hq = 0.75 d t p y ⎜1 − cr ⎟ (10)
⎜ 0.6 p ⎟
⎝ y ⎠

The end panel, when designed for tension field will impose additional loads on end post
and hence it will become stout [Fig. 5(a)]. For a simple design it may be assumed that
the capacity of the end panel is restricted to Vcr so that no tension field develops in it [Fig.
5 (c)]. In this case, end panel acts as a beam spanning between the flanges to resist shear
and moment caused by Hq and produced by tension field of penultimate panel.

This approach is conservative, as it does not utilise the post-buckling strength of end
panel especially where the shear is maximum. This will result in the a/d value of end
panel spacing to be less than that of other panels. The end stiffener should be designed
for compressive forces due to bearing and the moment, Mtf, due to tension field in the
penultimate panel.

In order to be economical the end panel also may be designed using tension field action.
In this case the bearing stiffener and end post are designed for a combination of stresses
resulting from compression due to bearing and a moment equal to 2/3 caused due to
tension in the flanges, Mtf. The stiffener will be stout. Instead of one stout stiffener we
can use a double stiffener as shown in Fig. 5(d). Here the end post is designed for
horizontal shear and the moment Mtf.

4.0 STIFFENERS

Stiffeners are provided to transfer transverse concentrated compressive force on the

flange into the web and are essential for desired performance of web panels. These are
referred to as bearing stiffeners. Intermediate web stiffeners are provided to improve its
shear capacity. Design of these stiffeners is discussed below.

4.1 Load bearing stiffeners

Whenever there is a risk of the buckling resistance of the web being exceeded, especially
owing to concentrated loads, load-bearing stiffeners are provided. Normally a web width
of 20 t on both sides as shown in Fig. 5 (b) is assumed to act along with the stiffener
provided to resist the compression as an equivalent cruciform shaped strut of effective
length 0.7 times its actual length between the top and bottom flanges. The bearing stress
in the stiffener is checked using the area of that portion of the stiffener in contact with the
flange through which compressive force is transmitted.

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Panel B Panel A
Bearing stiffener
and end post
X X

(a) End panel designed using tension

field action and end post designed
for both bearing and to resist tension
field

Stiffener
Web
t Panel B Panel A

20t 20t

(b) Section at X-X (c) End panel designed without using

tension field action

End post Panel B Panel A

Bearing
stiffener

(d) End panel designed using tension field

strengthened by additional stiffener
(Double stiffener)

Fig. 5 Various treatments for end panel

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4.2 Intermediate stiffeners

The intermediate stiffeners are provided to prevent out of plane buckling of web at the
location of stiffeners. The buckling resistance Pq of the stiffener acting as a strut (with a
cruciform section as described earlier) should be not less than (Vt -Vs) where Vt is the
maximum shear force in the panel and Vs is the buckling resistance of web without
considering tension field action. In its limit Vs will be equal to Vcv of the web without
stiffeners.

Sometimes the stiffeners are provided for more than one of the above purposes. In such
cases stiffeners are considered for their satisfactory resistance under combined load
effects. Such combined loads are common.

4.3 Longitudinal stiffeners

Longitudinal stiffeners are hardly used in building plate girders, but sometimes they are
used in highway bridge girders for aesthetic reasons. They are not as effective as
transverse stiffeners. Nowadays, the use of longitudinal stiffeners is rare due to welding
problems.

For design of longitudinal stiffeners there are two requirements:

• A moment of inertia to ensure adequate stiffness to create a nodal line along the
stiffener
• An area adequate to carry axial compression stress while acting integrally with the
web.

5.0 CURTAILMENT OF FLANGE PLATES

For a plate girder subjected to external loading, the maximum bending moment occurs at
one section usually, e.g. when the plate girder is simply supported at the ends, and
subjected to the uniformly distributed load, then, maximum bending moment occurs at
the centre. Since the values of bending moment decreases towards the end, the flange
area designed to resist the maximum bending moment is not required at other sections.
Therefore the flange plates may be curtailed at a distance from the centre of span greater
than the distance where the plate is no longer required as the bending moment decreases
towards the ends. It gives economy as regards to the material and cost. At least one flange
plate should be run for the entire length of the girder.

6.0 SPLICES

6.1 Web splices

A joint in the web plate provided to increase its length is known as web splice. The plates
are manufactured up to a limited length. When the maximum manufactured length of the
plate is insufficient for full length of the plate girder, web splice becomes essential. It also

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becomes essential when the length of plate girder is too long to handle conveniently
during transportation and erection. Generally, web splices are not used in buildings. They
are mainly used in bridges.

Splices in the web of the plate girder are designed to resist the shear and moment at the
spliced section. The splice plates are provided on each side of the web.

6.2 Flange splices

A joint in the flange element provided to increase the length of flange plate is known as
flange splice. The flange splices should be avoided as far as possible. Generally, the
flange plates can be obtained for full length of the plate girder. In spite of the availability
of full length of flange plates, sometimes it becomes necessary to make flange splices.
Flange joints should not be located at the points of maximum bending moment.

7.0 CONCLUSIONS

This chapter has outlined the procedure for design of plate girders as specified in BS
5950: Part - I for buildings. It shows how the reserve strength due to post buckling
behaviour explained in Plate Girder I chapter can be advantageously used by the designer
without performing mathematically involved calculations.

8.0 REFERENCES

1. Narayanan. R: Plate Girders, Steel Designer's Manual (Fifth Edition). The Steel
Construction Institute UK 1992.

2. Evans H.R: Introduction to Steelwork Design to BS 5950 Part 1 SCI Publication 069.
The Steel Construction Institute UK 1988.

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Job No: Sheet 1 of 18 Rev

Structural Steel Job Title: PLATE GIRDER
Design Project Worked Example - 1
Made by Date 15-04-00
SSSR
Checked by PU Date 25-04-00
Calculation Sheet

PROBLEM:

The girder showed in Fig. E1 is fully restrained against lateral buckling

throughout its span. The span is 36 m and carries two concentrated loads as
shown in Fig. E1. Design a plate girder.

Yield stress of steel, fy = 250 N/mm2

Material factor for steel, γm = 1.15
Dead Load factor, γfd = 1.35
Imposed load factor, γfλ = 1.50

W1 w W2
9000 mm 18000 mm 9000 mm

36000 mm

Fig. E1 Example plate girder

1.0 LOADING

Dead load:

Uniformly distributed load, wd = 20 kN/ m (Including self-weight)

Concentrated load, W1d = 200 kN
Concentrated load, W2d = 200 kN

Live load:

Uniformly distributed load, wλ = 35 kN/m

Concentrated load, W1λ = 400 kN
Concentrated load, W2λ = 400 kN

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Job No: Sheet 2 of 18 Rev

Structural Steel Job Title: PLATE GIRDER
Design Project Worked Example - 1
Made by Date 15-04-00
SSSR
Checked by PU Date 25-04-00
Calculation Sheet
Factored Loads:

w′ = wd * γfd + wλ* γfλ = 20 * 1.35 + 35 * 1.5 = 79.5 kN/m

W′ 1 = W1d* γfd + W1λ* γfλ = 200 * 1.35 + 400 * 1.5 = 870 kN
W′ 2 = W2d * γfd + W2λ* γfλ = 200 * 1.35 + 400 * 1.5 = 870 kN

2.0 BENDING MOMENT AND SHEAR FORCE

Bending moment (kN-m) Shear force (kN)

UDL effect w1λ2 79.5 *36 * 36 w1λ

= = 12879 = 1431
8 8 2

Concentrated load Wλ
= 870 *9 = 7830
effect 4 W = 870

TOTAL 20709 2301

The design shear forces and bending moments are shown in Fig. E2.

3.0 INITIAL SIZING OF PLATE GIRDER

Depth of the plate girder:

The recommended span/depth ratio for simply supported girder varies

between 12 for short span and 20 for long span girder. Let us consider
depth of the girder as 2400 mm.

λ 36000
= = 15.0
d 2400
Depth of 2400 mm is acceptable.

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Job No: Sheet 3 of 18 Rev

Structural Steel Job Title: PLATE GIRDER
Design Project Worked Example - 1
Made by Date 15-04-00
SSSR
Checked by Date 25-04-00
Calculation Sheet PU

(For drawing the bending moment and shear force diagrams, factored
loads are considered)

79.5 kN/m
870 kN 870 kN
9000 mm 18000 mm 9000 mm

36000 mm
2301
1585.5
715.5

Shear force
715.5
in kN
1585.5
2301

20709
Bending moment
in kN-m

Fig. E2 Bending moment and shear force diagrams

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Sheet 4 of 18 Rev
Structural Steel Job Title: PLATE GIRDER
Design Project Worked Example - 1
Made by Date 15-04-00
SSSR
Checked by Date 25-04-00
Calculation Sheet PU

Flange:

py = 250/1.15 = 217.4 N/mm2

Single flange area,

M max 20709 *106
Af = = = 39690.7 mm 2
d py 2400 * 217.4

By thumb rule, the flange width is assumed as 0.3 times the depth of the
section. Try 720 X 60 mm, giving an area = 43200 mm2.

Web:

Minimum web thickness for plate girder in buildings usually varies between
10 mm to 20 mm. Here, thickness is assumed as 14 mm.

Hence, web size is 2400 X 14 mm

4.0 SECTION CLASSIFICATION

Flange:
1
⎧⎪ 250 ⎫⎪ 2 1
⎧ 250 ⎫ 2
ε =⎨ ⎬ = ⎨ ⎬ = 1.0
⎪⎩ f y ⎪⎭ ⎩ 250 ⎭

B − t 720 − 14
b= = = 353
2 2

b 353
= = 5.9 < 7.9 ε
T 60

Hence, Flange is PLASTIC SECTION.

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Job No: Sheet 5 of 18 Rev

Structural Steel Job Title: PLATE GIRDER
Design Project Worked Example - 1
Made by Date 15-04-00
SSSR
Checked by Date 25-04-00
Calculation Sheet PU

Web:
d 2400
= = 171.4 > 66.2 ε
t 14
Hence, the web is checked for shear buckling.

5.0 CHECKS

Check for serviceability:

d 2400
= = 9.6 mm < t
250 250
d
Since, t >
250
Web is adequate for serviceability.

Check for flange buckling in to web:

Assuming stiffener spacing, a > 1.5 d

1/ 2
d ⎛ p yf ⎞
1/ 2
2400 ⎛ 217.4 ⎞
t ≥ ⎜ ⎟ = × ⎜ ⎟ = 7.6 mm
294 ⎜⎝ 250 ⎟⎠ 294 ⎝ 250 ⎠

Since, t (= 14 mm) > 7.6 mm, the web is adequate to avoid flange buckling
into the web.

Check for moment carrying capacity of the flanges:

The moment is assumed to be resisted by flanges alone and the web resists
shear only.

Distance between centroid of flanges, hs = d + T = 2400 + 60 = 2460 mm

Af = B * T = 720 * 60 = 43200 mm2

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 PLATE GIRDERS - II

Job No: Sheet 6 of 18 Rev

Structural Steel Job Title: PLATE GIRDER
Design Project Worked Example - 1
Made by Date 15-04-00
SSSR
Checked by Date 25-04-00
Calculation Sheet PU

Mc = pyf * Af * hs = 217.4 * 43200 * 2460 * 10-6 = 23103.5 kN-m

> 20709 kN-m

Hence, the section in adequate for carrying moment and web is designed for
shear.

6.0 WEB DESIGN

The stiffeners are spaced as shown in Fig. E5. The spacing of stiffeners is
taken as 3000 mm. The spacing can be increased towards the centre of the
span for economy.
W1 W2
A B C D

12 panels @ 3000 mm [36000 mm]

Fig.E3 Trial stiffener arrangement

Panel AB is the most critical panel (Maximum shear zone), so design checks
for the web are made for panel AB only.

End panel ( AB) design:

d = 2400 mm
t = 14 mm
a 3000
= = 1.25
d 2400

d 2400
= = 171.4
t 14

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 PLATE GIRDERS - II

Job No: Sheet 7 of 18 Rev

Structural Steel Job Title: PLATE GIRDER
Design Project Worked Example - 1
Made by Date 15-04-00
SSSR
Checked by Date 25-04-00
Calculation Sheet PU

Calculation of critical shear strength, qcr:

Elastic critical stress, qe (when a/d > 1) = [1.0 + 0.75/(a/d)2][1000/(d/t)]2

= [1 + 0.75/(1.25)2][1000/(171.4)]2

= 50.4 N/mm2

Slenderness parameter, λw = [0.6(fyw/γm)/qe]1/2

= [0.6(250/1.15)/50.4]1/2

= 1.61 > 1.25

Hence, Critical shear strength (qcr = qe) = 50.4 N/mm2

FVA 2301*103
fv = = = 68.5 N / mm 2
dt 2400 *14
Since, fv > qcr (68.5 > 50.4)

Panel AB is designed using tension field action.

Calculation of basic shear strength, qb:

1.5qcr 1.5 * 50.4

φt = = = 47.2
1 + (1.25)
2 2
⎛a⎞
1+ ⎜ ⎟
⎝d ⎠

yb = (pyw2 – 3qcr2 + φt2) 1/2 - φt = (217.42 – 3*50.42 + 47.22) 1/2 – 47.2 = 157.4

yb 157.4
qb = qcr + = 50.4 + = 78.0 N / mm 2
⎡a 2⎤
2⎡1.25 + 1 + (1.25)2 ⎤
⎛a⎞ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
2⎢ + 1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢d ⎝d ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦

Version II 16 - 18
 PLATE GIRDERS - II

Job No: Sheet 8 of 18 Rev

Structural Steel Job Title: PLATE GIRDER
Design Project Worked Example - 1
Made by Date 15-04-00
SSSR
Checked by Date 25-04-00
Calculation Sheet PU

Since, qb > fv (78.0 > 68.5)

Panel AB is safe against shear buckling.

Checks for the web panel:

End panel AB should also be checked as a beam (Spanning between the

flanges of the girder) capable of resisting a shear force Rtf and a moment Mtf
due to anchor forces.
(In the following calculations boundary stiffeners are omitted for simplicity)

Check for shear capacity of the end panel:

1
⎡ q ⎤
2
⎡ f v − qcr ⎤
H q = 0.75 dt p y ⎢1 − cr ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0.6 p y ⎥⎦ ⎣ qb − qcr ⎦
qcr = 50.4 N / mm 2
1
⎡ 50.4 ⎤ 2 ⎡ 68.5 − 50.4 ⎤
H q = 0.75* 2400 *14 * 217.4 ⎢1 − ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = 2814 kN .
⎣ 0.6 * (250 / 1.15) ⎦ ⎣ 78 − 50.4 ⎦
Hq 2814
Rtf = = = 1407 kN
2 2
Av = t .a = 14 * 3000 = 42000 mm2

Pv = 0.6 pyw Av = 0.6 * (250/1.15) * 42000/1000 = 5478 kN

Since, Rtf < Pv, the end panel can carry the shear force.

Version II 16 - 19
 PLATE GIRDERS - II

Job No: Sheet 9 of 18 Rev

Structural Steel Job Title: PLATE GIRDER
Design Project Worked Example - 1
Made by Date 15-04-00
SSSR
Checked by Date 25-04-00
Calculation Sheet PU

Check for moment capacity of end panel AB:

Hq d 2814 * 2400
M tf = = *10−3 = 675.4 kN − m
10 10
a 3000
y = = =1500
2 2

1 3 1
I = ta = *14 *30003 = 3150 * 107 mm 4
12 12

I 3150 *107
M q = py = * (250 / 1.15) *10− 6 = 4565 kN − m
y 1500
Since, Mtf < Mq (675.4 < 4565)

∴The end panel can carry the bending moment.

7.0 DESIGN OF STIFFENERS

Load bearing stiffener at A:

Design should be made for compression force due to bearing and moment.

Design force due to bearing, Fb = 2301 kN

Force(Fm) due to moment Mtf, is

M tf 675.4
Fm = = *103 = 225 kN
a 3000

Total compression = Fc = Fb + Fm = 2301 + 225 = 2526 kN

Version II 16 - 20
 PLATE GIRDERS - II

Job No: Sheet 10 of 18 Rev

Structural Steel Job Title: PLATE GIRDER
Design Project Worked Example - 1
Made by Date 15-04-00
SSSR
Checked by Date 25-04-00
Calculation Sheet PU

Area of stiffener in contact with the flange, A:

0.8 Fc
Area ( A) should be greater than
p ys

0.8 Fc 0.8* 2526

= * 103 = 9295 mm 2
p ys 217.4

Try stiffener of 2 flats of size 240 X 25 mm thick

Allow 15 mm to cope for web/flange weld

A = 225 * 25 * 2 = 11250 mm2 > 9295 mm2

∴ Bearing check is ok.

Check for outstand:

Outstand from face of web should not be greater than 20 tsε.

1
⎧⎪ 250 ⎫⎪ 2 1
⎧ 250 ⎫ 2
ε=⎨ ⎬ =⎨ ⎬ = 1.0
⎪⎩ f y ⎪⎭ ⎩ 250 ⎭

Outstand bs = 240 mm < 20 tsε (= 20 * 25 * 1.0 = 500)

bs = 240 mm < 13.7 tsε (= 13.7 * 25 * 1.0 = 342.5)

Hence, outstand criteria is satisfied.

Version II 16 - 21
 PLATE GIRDERS - II

Job No: Sheet 11 of 18 Rev

Structural Steel Job Title: PLATE GIRDER
Design Project Worked Example - 1
Made by Date 15-04-00
SSSR
Checked by Date 25-04-00
Calculation Sheet PU

Check stiffener for buckling: (The effective stiffener section is shown in Fig. E4)
Y

25 mm
bs = 240 mm
14 mm
X

Web
bs = 240 mm
Stiffener

Fig. E4 End bearing stiffener

The buckling resistance due to web is neglected here for the sake of
simplicity.

25 * 4943 1
Ix = − * 25*143 = 25115*10 4 mm 4
12 12

Ae = Effective area = 240 * 25 * 2 = 12000 mm2

1 1
⎡I ⎤ 2 ⎡ 25115*104 ⎤ 2
rx = ⎢ x ⎥ =⎢ ⎥ = 144.7 mm
⎣ Ae ⎦ ⎣ 12000 ⎦

Flange is restrained against rotation in the plane of stiffener, then

le = 0.7 l = 0.7 * 2400 = 1680 mm

le 1680
λ= = = 11.6
rx 144.7

Version II 16 - 22
 PLATE GIRDERS - II

Job No: Sheet 12 of 18 Rev

Structural Steel Job Title: PLATE GIRDER
Design Project Worked Example - 1
Made by Date 15-04-00
SSSR
Checked by Date 25-04-00
Calculation Sheet PU

For fy = 250 N/mm2 and λ = 11.6

σc = 250 N/mm2 from table (3) of chapter on axially compressed columns

Buckling resistance of stiffener is

Pc = σc Ae / γm = (250/1.15) * 12000 * 10 -3 = 2609 kN

Since Fc < Pc (2526 < 2609), stiffener provided is safe against buckling.

Check stiffener A as a bearing stiffener:

Local capacity of the web:

Assume, stiff bearing length b1 = 0

n2 = 2.5 * 60 * 2 = 300 BS 5950: Part – 1, Clause 4.5.3

Pcrip = (b1+ n2) t pyw

= (0 + 300) * 14 * (250/1.15) * 10-3 = 913 kN

Bearing stiffener is designed for FA

FA = Fc – Pcrip = 2526 – 913 = 1613 kN

Bearing capacity of stiffener alone

PA = pys * A = (250/1.15) * 12000/1000 = 2609 kN

Since, FA < PA (1613 < 2609)

The designed stiffener is OK in bearing.

Stiffener A – Adopt 2 flats 240 mm X 25 mm thick

Version II 16 - 23
 PLATE GIRDERS - II

Job No: Sheet 13 of 18 Rev

Structural Steel Job Title: PLATE GIRDER
Design Project Worked Example - 1
Made by Date 15-04-00
SSSR
Checked by Date 25-04-00
Calculation Sheet PU

Design of intermediate stiffener at B:

Stiffener at B is the most critical intermediate stiffener, hence it will be

chosen for the design.

Minimum Stiffness:

I s ≥ 0.75 dt 3 for a ≥ d 2

0.75 dt 3
Is ≥ for a < d 2
a3

d 2 = 2 * 2400 = 3394 mm

∴a < d 2 ( 3000 < 3394)

Conservatively' t' is taken as actual web thickness and minimum' a' is used.

1.5 d 3t 3 1.5 * 24003 * 143

= = 632 * 10 4 mm 4
a2 3000 2

Try intermediate stiffener of 2 flats 90 mm X 12 mm

12 *1943 12 *143
(I s )Pr ovided = − = 730 * 104 mm 4
12 12

The section provided satisfies the minimum required stiffness.

Version II 16 - 24
 PLATE GIRDERS - II

Job No: Sheet 14 of 18 Rev

Structural Steel Job Title: PLATE GIRDER
Design Project Worked Example - 1
Made by Date 15-04-00
SSSR
Checked by Date 25-04-00
Calculation Sheet PU

Check for outstand:

Outstand of the stiffener ≤ 13.7 tsε

13.7 tsε= 13.7 * 14 * 1.0 = 192 mm

Outstand = 90 mm (90 < 192)

Hence, outstand criteria is satisfied.

Buckling check:

Stiffener force, Fq = V - Vs

where, V = Total shear force

Vs = Vcr of the web.

Elastic critical stress, qe = 50.4 N/mm2

Vcr = qcr d t = 50.4 * 2400 * 14 * 10-3 = 1693 kN

Shear force at B, VB = 2301 – [(2301 – 1585.5)*(3000/9000)] = 2062.5 kN

Stiffener force, Fq = [2062.5 - 1693] = 369.5 kN

Version II 16 - 25
 PLATE GIRDERS - II

Job No: Sheet 15 of 18 Rev

Structural Steel Job Title: PLATE GIRDER
Design Project Worked Example - 1
Made by Date 15-04-00
SSSR
Checked by Date 25-04-00
Calculation Sheet PU

Buckling resistance of intermediate stiffener at B:

Y
20tw 20tw

12
90

X
14
90

Fig.E5 Effective section

20 tw = 20 * 14 = 280 mm
1 560 *143 12 *143
Ix = * 12 *1943 + − = 743 * 104 mm 4
12 12 12

A = 180 * 12 + 560 * 14 = 10000 mm2

1
⎡ 743 *104 ⎤ 2
rx = ⎢ ⎥ = 27.3
⎣ 10000 ⎦

le = 0.7 * 2400 = 1680

le 1680
λ= = = 61.5
rx 27.3
For fy = 250 N/mm2 and λ = 61.5

From table3 of chapter on axially compressed columns,

σc = 182.3 N/mm2

Version II 16 - 26
 PLATE GIRDERS - II

Job No: Sheet 16 of 18 Rev

Structural Steel Job Title: PLATE GIRDER
Design Project Worked Example - 1
Made by Date 15-04-00
SSSR
Checked by Date 25-04-00
Calculation Sheet PU

Buckling resistance = (182.3/1.15) * 10000 * 10-3= 1585 kN

Fq < Buckling resistance. (369.5 < 1585)

Hence, intermediate stiffener is adequate

Intermediate stiffener at B - Adopt 2 flats 90 mm X 12 mm

Intermediate Stiffener at D (Stiffener subjected to external load):

Try intermediate stiffener 2 flats 90 mm X 12 mm thick

It satisfies the minimum stiffness requirement as in case of stiffener at B.

Buckling check:

Fq − Fx F Ms
+ x + ≤1
Pq Px M ys

Fq = V- Vs V = 1585.5 kN

Vs = Vcr = qcr d t = 50.4* 2400 * 14 * 10-3 = 1693 kN

Fq is negative and so we can take Fq – Fx = 0

Ms = 0

Fx = 870 kN

Version II 16 - 27
 PLATE GIRDERS - II

Job No: Sheet 17 of 18 Rev

Structural Steel Job Title: PLATE GIRDER
Design Project Worked Example - 1
Made by Date 15-04-00
SSSR
Checked by Date 25-04-00
Calculation Sheet PU

Version II 16 - 28
 PLATE GIRDERS - II

Buckling resistance of load carrying stiffener at D:

(Calculation is similar to stiffener at B)

Buckling resistance, Px = (182.3/1.15) * 10000 * 10-3= 1585 kN

Fx / Px = 870/1585 = 0.55 < 1.0

Hence, stiffener at D is OK against buckling

Stiffener at D - Adopt flats 90 mm X 12 mm thick

Web check between stiffeners:

fed ≤ ped

fed = w1/ t = 79.5/14 = 5.7 N/mm2

when compression flange is restrained against rotation relative to the web

⎡ ⎤
⎡ ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
= ⎢2.75 + ⎥ E ⎢ ⎥
2 2 200000
= 2.75 +
( ) ( )
ped
⎢ a 2⎥
d 2 ⎢ ⎛ 3000 ⎞
2⎥
⎛ 2400 ⎞
2
⎢⎣ d ⎥⎦ t ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ⎜ ⎟
⎢⎣ ⎝ 2400 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ 14 ⎠

3.79 * 20000
= = 27.4 N / mm 2
26406

Since,
fBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBed < ped [5.7 < 27.4], the web is OK for all
panels.

Job No: Sheet 18 of 18 Rev

Structural Steel Job Title: PLATE GIRDER
Design Project Worked Example - 1
Made by Date 15-04-00
SSSR

Version II 16 - 29
 PLATE GIRDERS - II

Checked by Date 25-04-00

Calculation Sheet PU

8.0 FINAL GIRDER

(All dimensions are in mm)

A B C D E F

3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000

(a) Longitudinal section of plate girder

720
60

14
2400

(b) Flange and web proportions

Fig. E6 Final girder

Version II 16 - 30