Coastal Engineering 45 (2002) 223 – 238

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An experimental study of rip channel flow

Nils Drønen a,*, Harshinie Karunarathna b, Jørgen Fredsøe a,
B. Mutlu Sumer a, Rolf Deigaard a
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering (MEK), Coastal and River Engineering, Building 115, Technical University of Denmark,
DK-2800 Lyngby, Denmark
b
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Katubedda, Moratuwa, Sri Lanka

Abstract

A laboratory study of the flow over a bar with a single rip channel has been performed. First, the well-known pattern of a bar
circulation cell with a strong offshore-directed current out through the rip channel and a weaker onshore-directed return flow over
the bar is documented. Then measurements of the three-dimensional structure of the flow in the area where the rip channel, the
bar and the trough meet and well inside the rip channel are presented. These measurements reveal that 3D effects play an
important role, and that a depth-integrated viewpoint may not always be sufficient for predicting the flow in the near bed region.
Particle-tracking experiments illustrate the near bed flow pattern over the entire area. These demonstrate how the overall
trajectory pattern changes as a function of the distance of wave breaking from the bar crest: For some conditions, the rip current is
fed from the trough and for other conditions it is fed directly from the bar. Both the 3D measurements and the trajectory tests show
the existence of a weaker onshore-directed near-bed drift in the area where the rip current ceases. Finally, in a series of sensitivity
tests, measurements of the rip current intensity for different wave climate and water level conditions reveal a strong correlation
between the rip current intensity and the wave height (both normalized). D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Rip channels; Rip current; Three-dimensional flow; Near-shore circulation; Coastal processes

1. Introduction channel morphology, is relatively well understood.

Rip channels in bars and the associated seaward-
directed rip currents has been a well-known phenom-
enon for decades (see, e.g. Shepard et al., 1941;
McKenzie, 1958; Sonu, 1972). Although the emer-
gence of the rip channel morphology itself is still
relatively poorly understood, the fundamental driving
mechanism for the flow over an already formed rip
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +45-45-25-14-27; fax: +45-45-
93-6328.
E-mail addresses: nd@isva.dtu.dk (N. Drønen), jf@isva.dtu.dk
(J. Fredsøe).
Especially in the case of normal wave incidence, a
widely accepted model for the driving mechanism of
the circulation current over a bar with rip channels is as
follows. As the waves break over the bar along-shore
pressure gradients appear due to the difference in wave
breaking intensity — and thereby set-up — over the bar
and in the rip channel. The pressure gradients drive
along-shore feeder currents towards the rip channels
from where the water masses are ejected seawards.
Despite this rather well-established model for the basic
driving mechanism a wide range of questions has not
been resolved. Examples of outstanding questions and
problems are as follows.

0378-3839/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 3 7 8 - 3 8 3 9 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 3 5 - 2
224 N. Drønen et al. / Coastal Engineering 45 (2002) 223–238
Which are the mechanisms behind the energy
. e.g. for field work, because it indicates how to collect
loss? Is the bed friction dominant or is a significant
amount of energy lost in the form of head losses, for
example as the water flows from the bar crest and into
the trough?
. How important is the flux of water that flows
directly into the rip channel from the bar without
flowing over the crest into the trough?
. How are the conditions on the beach inshore the
trough affected by the bar –channel system, and is
there an interaction between the flow pattern on the
beach and the circulation current over the bar and in
the channel.
. The three-dimensional flow pattern is unknown.
It is not known if strong secondary flows (like for
example the helical flow pattern in a river bend) are
present where the depth integrated streamlines have a
strong curvature, or if the circulation pattern in the
vertical plane associated with undertow currents in the
surf zone interacts with the horizontal circulation.
. Which parameters are of importance for the
strength of the flow through the rip channel, and
how are they most conveniently grouped into dimen-
sionless numbers.
. The morphological forcing and development of
the system of bars and rip channels are not fully
understood. It is not known if a satisfactory descrip-
tion can be obtained on the basis of a depth-integrated
flow description, or if the three-dimensional flow
structure most be included.
The purpose of the present work is to provide
information on some of these questions by investigat-
ing — in a wave flume — the flow over a schematized
bathymetry with a bar intersected by a rip channel. Of
special interest is the three-dimensional structure of
the rip flow. Three-dimensional measurements are not
only important to contribute to our fundamental
understanding of the physical processes, but also
when numerical models of complicated 3D flows
are to be tested, such measurements are of utmost
importance. Measurements of the three-dimensional
velocity distribution in a rip channel under controlled
laboratory conditions have to the authors’ knowledge
not been reported in the literature before.
The other main objective of the study is to suggest
a non-dimensional relationship between wave-cli-
mate/water level characteristics and the structure and
strength of the rip-current. This is of great importance,
and condense data material into proper non-dimen-
sional quantities.
Earlier examples of adopting laboratory techniques
and wave tanks for studying near-shore circulation
can be found in the literature. In Bowen and Inman
(1969), rip currents induced by standing synchronous
edge waves (i.e., circulation not supported by undu-
lations in the topography but by a hydrodynamic
mechanism) were studied. That study showed that
standing edge waves can exist in a wave flume, and
also suggested their relevance for the near-shore
region. In Haller et al. (1997), the main objective,
on the other hand, was to investigate the horizontal
circulation primarily supported by significant along-
shore variations in the underlying topography (a long-
shore bar with intersecting rip channels). The along-
shore scaling of the topography was rather similar to
the one used in the present study. The measured 2D
horizontal flow field of Haller et al. (1997) clearly
showed the existence of a mean circulation current
with a strong offshore-directed rip current out through
the rip channel. Furthermore, Haller et al. (1997)
reported the free rip current to be fluctuating in the
horizontal plane. Haller et al.’s experimental results
were later used to test 2D horizontal numerical models
(Haas et al., 1998; Chen et al., 1999).
It must be noted that bar/rip channel systems can
vary considerably in the horizontal plane (for exam-
ple, depending on the ratio between along-shore wave
length and trough width or width of the rip channel) as
well as in the vertical plane (for example the variation
in water depths at different locations). In our experi-
ments, it has not been a main objective to reproduce
the dimensions or proportions found in natural sys-
tems, but to make a geometry where many of the
pertinent physical phenomena are present.
The geometry of the experimental facility imposes
some restrictions on the dimensions of the bar. The
most important is the width of the flume, which limits
the along-shore dimension of the topography. There-
fore, the topography represents only one half along-
shore wave length of a rhythmic bar/rip channel
system, with the fixed shore-normal walls of the wave
flume located at the center line of the rip channel and
at the center of the bar between two rip channels. With
this set-up the experiments are well suited to inves-
tigate the two- and three-dimensional flow pattern
 N. Drønen et al. / Coastal Engineering 45 (2002) 223–238
over the bar and into the rip channel, but it cannot
reproduce the tendencies for the rip to form a mean-
der-like pattern offshore of the rip channel, as ob-
served in the experiments of Haller et al. (1997).
In summary, the present paper presents measure-
ments of the three-dimensional flow pattern over a
schematized bar/rip channel topography in a wave-
flume (normal wave incidence). To illustrate specifi-
cally the near bed flow pattern, bed particle trajecto-
ries over the topography are included. Finally,
changes in flow pattern and rip current intensity for
different wave climates and water levels are presented.
2. Experimental set-up and procedures
The experiments were performed in a 4-m wide
and 30-m long wave tank at ISVA’s laboratory. A
model of a bar with a rip channel was set up, and the
bed topography, which is sketched in Fig. 1, was kept
constant throughout the experiment. The slope of the
offshore side of the bar was 1/27, and the beach slope
was 1/17. The bar height (height of crest over trough
level) was 0.13 m and the width was 4.8 m. The width
of the trough was 1.9 m. The width of the rip channel
was 1 m. These scales have not been selected to
Fig. 1. Sketch of physical model. Top: side view of bed topography.
Bottom: plan view of bed topography. Hatched areas are sloping
parts.
225
Fig. 2. Non-dimensional spectrum of surface elevation (field data)
applied for generation of irregular waves.
represent a real topography, but rather to schematize
some typical features associated with bar/rip channel
systems. With respect to the along-shore scaling this
geometry is very similar to the one used in Haller et
al. (1997). The dark areas in Fig. 1 represent sloping
parts placed at the different junctions to avoid any
sharp corners in the topography.
As stated earlier, the model can be interpreted as a
section of a longshore bar periodically interrupted in
the along-shore direction by rip channels. The model
thus corresponds to half a wave length (in the along-
shore direction) of such a bar/rip channel system, and
the side-walls in the cross-shore direction correspond
to symmetry lines normal to the coast. In this set-up
the rip current is, due to the side-wall, not allowed to
fluctuate in the longshore direction. This may explain
why the low-frequency motion observed in Haller et
al. (1997), where the rip was free to oscillate, was not
observed in the present study.
The wave generator produced regular or irregular
waves that were unidirectional and normal to the
coastline. Irregular wave generation was based on a
wave recording from the field. The bandwidth was
rather broad, corresponding to a bandwidth measure q
of 0.35, where q is defined as
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
m1 m1
q¼ 1
m0 m2
226 N. Drønen et al. / Coastal Engineering 45 (2002) 223–238

mi being the ith moment of the wave frequency Table 2

distribution, see e.g. Sumer and Fredsøe (1997). The Test conditions, test 2: particle trajectories
non-dimensional spectrum of the wave field recording Test Hrms (m) H (m) Dc (m) T (s)
used to generate the irregular waves is given in Fig. 2. 2a – 0.19 0.15 1.5
The wave generator was located around 6 m from the 2b – 0.13 0.15 1.5
2c 0.09 – 0.10 1.5
first sloping part of the geometry (i.e., around 12.4 m
2d 0.09 – 0.05 1.5
from the bar crest).
Three kinds of experiments were performed: Sur-
face elevation measurements, velocity measurements,
and particle tracking measurements, as will be 3.1. Surface elevation measurements
detailed later in this work. Furthermore, supplemen-
tary dye experiments were performed. The surface elevation was measured using a high-
precision resistance wave gauge. The gauge consisted
of a pair of thin ( < 0.1 mm) golden wires 4 mm apart.
3. Test conditions In test 1a, the measurements were made over an
area with a resolution of 0.8 m in the cross-shore
In Tables 1, 2 and 3, the test conditions for the direction (eight points), and 0.6 m in the longshore
entire experiment are summarized. The wave height direction (six points). Fig. 3a shows the location of the
has been given as deep-water wave height H for individual measurements. Samples were made over 50
regular waves and deep-water root-mean-square wave waves at 33.3 Hz.
height Hrms in the case of the irregular waves. The From the¯ surface elevation signal, the mean surface
wave heights have been obtained from measurements elevation g and the wave height were calculated. For
close to the wave generator. Dc is the still-water depth regular waves, the wave height is termed H, and for
at the bar crest, and T is the peak period of the surface the irregular waves the wave height is the root-mean-
elevation. square wave height Hrms defined as
The location of the individual measurements can pffiffiffiqffiffiffiffiffi
be seen in Fig. 3a in the case of tests 1a –c and 3a –k. Hrms ¼ 8 g2
Similarly the locations for the cases of tests 1d– e and
3* can be seen in Fig. 3b.
In all tests, the surface elevation was measured close
For all experiments, the wave generator was run for
to the wave generator to get the root mean square
at least 50 waves before a given test series was started.
wave height of the incoming waves.
This was done in order to ensure that waves and mean
currents were in a state of equilibrium (i.e., unaffected
by the start up of the generator).
Table 3
Test conditions, test 3: rip current intensity
Test Hrms (m) H (m) Dc (m) T (s)
Table 1
Test conditions, test 1: 2DH circulation and 3D 3* – 0.15 0.10 1.5
3a 0.06 – 0.10 – 0.10 1.5
Test Hrms (m) H (m) Dc (m) T (s) Test summary
3b 0.04 – 0.10 – 0.05 1.5
1a – 0.19 0.15 1.5 Surface elevation 3c 0.07 – 0.10 – 0.15 1.5
1b – 0.19 0.15 1.5 Velocity at one depth 3d 0.08 – 0.13 – 0.10 2.0
(z = D/3) 3e 0.06 – 0.08 – 0.10 1.0
1c – 0.19 0.15 1.5 Velocity profiles over 3f 0.06 – 0.12 – 0.05 2.0
bar/rip/trough 3g – 0.08 – 0.20 0.10 1.5
1d – 0.15 0.10 1.5 Velocity profiles in 3h – 0.07 – 0.17 0.10 2.0
rip channel 3i – 0.12 – 0.14 0.10 1.0
1e – 0.15 0.10 1.5 Velocity in rip channel 3j – 0.06 – 0.15 0.05 1.5
close to bed 3k – 0.11 – 0.19 0.15 1.5
 N. Drønen et al. / Coastal Engineering 45 (2002) 223–238 227

Fig. 3. (a) Plan view of the measurement locations for tests 1a – c and 3a – k. (b) Plan view of the measurement locations for tests 1d – e and 3*.

3.2. Velocity measurements velocity distribution. Furthermore, it was found that

The flow was measured in two horizontal direc-
tions using a two-component Laser Doppler Ane-
mometer (LDA). In tests 1b – c, the LDA system
consisted of a 4-W argon/krypton laser and two
Dantec 57 N10 Burst Spectrum Analyzers. In tests
1d –e, 3* and 3a– k, the LDA system applied com-
prised a 4-W argon/krypton laser, two Dantec 55 N 21
frequency tracker units and two Dantec 55 N 12
frequency shifters.
In test 1b, the measurements were made in the two
horizontal directions at one third of the depth from the
bed. This choice of measurement level was motivated
by the fact that the velocity at this depth corresponds
to the depth-averaged velocity for a logarithmic
air entrainment from breaking waves was not a prob-
lem at this depth. Measurements were made over the
same domain as for the surface elevation, but with a
longshore spacing of 0.8 m (five points) and a cross
shore spacing of 0.8 m (seven points) (Fig. 3a).
In test 1c, velocity profiles (2D horizontal) were
measured at several verticals near the point where the
bar, the rip channel, and the trough meet. The loca-
tions of the measurements are given in Fig. 3a.
Tests 1d and 1e are further studies of the three-
dimensional structure of the rip-channel flow. In test
1d, the cross-shore and the longshore velocities were
measured at several verticals, and at several cross-
shore positions down the rip channel, all at 30 cm
from the side-wall. In test 1e, the cross-shore veloc-
228 N. Drønen et al. / Coastal Engineering 45 (2002) 223–238
ities were measured 2 cm from the bed, at five
different cross-shore positions (separated by 25 cm)
in the rip channel. For each cross-shore position,
measurements were made at four different longshore
positions; in this way, horizontal profiles of cross-
shore near-bed flow down the rip-channel were
obtained. The locations of the measurements are given
in Fig. 3b.
For tests 1b –e, samples were made over a period
of 50 waves at 33.3 Hz.
The purpose of tests 3a – k was to measure the
maximum velocity in the rip channel for different test
conditions. Before choosing a strategy for measuring
the maximum velocity, a pilot test, test 3*, was
performed, where the longshore profile of the cross-
shore velocity in the rip channel was measured. On
the basis of test 3*, the following measurement
strategy was determined. Tests 3a –k concern meas-
urements at one third of the depth from the bed, 10 cm
from the wall. The cross-shore position was shifted
down the channel (see Fig. 3a) until a maximum in the
mean velocity was identified. This procedure was
necessary because the position of the maximum rip
current velocity to a high degree depended on the test
conditions. The sampling frequency in all tests was 50
per peak period (for both wave and velocity measure-
ments), and the total number of waves was 50.
From velocity time series the overall time-averaged
(mean) velocities were found.
3.3. Particle tracking
To visualize the flow for different test conditions,
particle-tracking tests were performed. A ball (approx-
imately 2 cm in diameter) with a relative density
around 1.05 was released at selected positions, and
its movement over the bed was taped on video. The
trajectories were then found by identifying the posi-
tion of the ball relative to a grid on the bed at regular
time intervals.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Horizontal circulation
In Fig. 4a – c, the wave height distribution, the
mean surface elevation and the mean horizontal
velocity at one third of the depth above bed level in
test 1a, are plotted.
In Fig. 4a, the distribution of wave height over the
domain is given as isolines (in centimeters). Waves
coming in from the wave maker (located outside the
figure to the right) are seen to be homogeneously
distributed along-shore before they reach the bar/rip
channel. As the waves travel over the bar along-shore
gradients in the wave height are observed. The decay
pattern of the wave height over the bar/rip channel
clearly shows that the waves are generally breaking
more over the bar than in the rip channel (where there
hardly is any breaking). It is furthermore noticed that
the waves over the bar are not breaking at the same
distance to shore despite the fact that the topography
is locally along-shore uniform. In fact, the breaking
seems to be larger close to the wall at y = 4 m
compared to the middle part of the bar ( y = 2– 2.5
m). In the proximity of the rip channel (say around
y = 1.5 m) the wave decay also is larger compared to
the middle part. This effect of along-shore variations
in the wave field not directly supported by the under-
lying topography, may be due to the presence of
standing edge waves (standing waves normal to the
direction of wave propagation). Standing synchronous
edge waves in a wave flume were observed and
described by Bowen and Inman (1969) for an along-
shore uniform plane beach topography, and a standing
wave system may possibly also exist over a more
complex topography like the present one. On the other
hand, if standing waves were present in the present
case, the effect was certainly much smaller compared
to what — for some parameter settings — could be
observed for the corresponding along-shore uniform
case. In preliminary tests, before the rip channel was
introduced in the bar (i.e., a uniform barred topog-
raphy), standing waves were for some parameter
settings seen to be generated. In those cases, they
could easily be identified by just looking at the water
surface and the breaker line (amplitudes in the order
centimeters). In the case of a non-uniform topography
like the one treated here, standing waves were on the
other hand not detectable by eye for any of the
parameter settings used in the study. Thus, the pres-
ence of the rip channel was assumed to dampen the
effect of standing waves compared to the uniform
case. Furthermore, in order to reduce the possible
effect of standing waves in the present specific test,
 N. Drønen et al. / Coastal Engineering 45 (2002) 223–238 229

Fig. 4. (a) Wave height distribution in cm for test 1a. (b) Mean surface elevation in cm for test 1a. (c) Mean horizontal velocity distribution at
one third of the depth from the bed, test 1b. The waves are traveling from right to left.
230 N. Drønen et al. / Coastal Engineering 45 (2002) 223–238
the wave parameters were chosen so that standing
waves in the corresponding uniform case did not
appear.
In Fig. 4b, the mean surface elevation in centi-
meters is given. Comparison between the wave height
distribution (Fig. 4a) and the mean surface elevation
distribution (Fig. 4b) indicates that the onshore-direc-
ted wave forcing induced by wave breaking, i.e.
gradients in the shore normal radiation stress (Lon-
guet-Higgins and Stewart, 1964), locally tend to be
balanced by gradients in the mean surface elevation
(set-up). Because of the along-shore non-uniformity in
the wave field, the set-up pattern is relatively com-
plex. Notice first the strong offshore (directed) gra-
dient in the rip channel around x = 0 m. This gradient
is by far the strongest gradient in the entire domain not
balanced by radiation stress gradients (which is also
reflected in location of the maximum flow velocity in
Fig. 4c). This gradient is not due to wave breaking
(there are hardly any breaking in the rip channel). It
must be supported by some other mechanism. Close
to the transition between the rip channel and the bar,
the set-up over the bar is slightly larger than the set-up
in the rip channel, corresponding to more waves
breaking over the bar compared to the rip channel
(almost no wave breaking). This creates — locally —
along-shore gradients in the surface elevation between
the rip channel and the bar, eventually driving a flow
from the bar toward the rip channel as depicted in Fig.
4c, hence supporting the strong rip channel gradient.
Fig. 4c shows the horizontal velocity field at a
given level — one third of the depth above bed level.
First of all, the significant offshore-directed current (in
the order of magnitude 0.3 m/s) out through the rip
channel is noticed.
In contrast to the classic conceptual idea where the
set-up created over the bar induce feeder-currents in
the trough, the present test shows a lateral flow going
from the bar more directly into the trough. The driving
agent for this lateral flow is the local gradient in the
mean surface elevation in the proximity of the rip
channel. The effect of the rip current being fed
directly from the bar is discussed later for the particle
trajectory tests, where flow patterns for different wave
heights and water levels are investigated.
Notice that integration of the cross-shore velocities
in Fig. 4c over a cross-section of the flume, say at
x = 1.0 m, yields a seaward-directed net flux. This is
because the Eulerian wave drift is not present in the
measurements. The Eulerian wave drift exists above
wave trough level and gives an onshore mass-flux
contribution, which balances out the offshore-directed
mass-flux below the wave trough.
From visual observation of dye movement on the
beach, indications of a second circulation cell rotating
in the opposite (clockwise) direction on the beach
were found. This second cell is not directly repre-
sented in the laser measurements (no measurements
were made on the beach), but in the vicinity of the
side-wall ‘intersecting’ the bar ( y = 4 m) a strong
offshore-directed flow is observed close to the beach.
The strength of this ‘jet’ is in the same order of
magnitude as the strength of the rip current, and
seems to have some influence on the dynamics on
the bar part just offshore. The influence of this current
on the rip current is believed to be of secondary
importance. A beach circulation cell rotating in the
opposite direction of the bar/rip channel circulation
was also found in Haller et al. (1997).
4.2. Three-dimensional flow distribution
The three-dimensional distribution of mean hori-
zontal flow velocities from test no 1c is shown in Fig. 5.
The profiles cover the water column below the wave
trough only. Thus, the wave drift profile from around
the wave trough to the wave crest is not resolved. From
this plot, several three-dimensional features can be
seen. In the rip channel, the strong outward-directed
current is seen to reduce rapidly seawards after having
reached some maximum. In fact, a small onshore-
directed drift (strongest close to the bed), is observed
in the outer region of the channel where the offshore-
directed rip current has disappeared. The offshore-
directed rip flow has a tendency to be stronger closer
to the bed, but as a first approximation the profile is
relatively uniform especially around the location where
the current is maximum. On the bar crest and around
the point where the bar, the trough and the rip channel
meet, the orientation of the flow is seen to be very
dependent on the vertical position, suggesting that
three-dimensional effects like helical motion and/or
undertow are important for the dynamics.
Fig. 6 shows the development of the vertical
profiles of cross-shore mean velocity (at 30 cm from
the side-wall) down the rip channel for test 1d (note
 N. Drønen et al. / Coastal Engineering 45 (2002) 223–238 231

Fig. 5. Three-dimensional distribution of mean horizontal velocity profiles, test 1c.

that the vertical scale in the figure is grossly exagger- channel, but as the offshore-directed current weakens,
ated). The same tendencies as in test 1c are recognized it is ‘‘separated’’ from the bed by an onshore-directed
in this test. The rip channel flow has a tendency to be flow component. The observed onshore flow in the
slightly stronger near the bed in the start of the

Fig. 6. Cross-shore velocity profiles at several locations in rip Fig. 7. Cross-shore mean velocity 2 cm from bed in rip channel,
channel, test 1d. test 1e.
232 N. Drønen et al. / Coastal Engineering 45 (2002) 223–238

outer region is likely to be connected to drift and/or
streaming in the wave boundary layer. The effect of
the rip current being slightly stronger near the bed in
the start of the channel, may possibly be due to the
following three-dimensional effect. In the start of the
channel, the rip current is being built up by the lateral
(along-shore) flow from the bar. This lateral flow is
not uniformly distributed over the vertical, but stron-
gest in the upper part of the water column. We expect
this vertical non-uniformity in the lateral velocity
profile mainly because of the sudden increase in water
depth from the bar into the channel. As the lateral
flow moves closer to the ‘imaginary’ symmetry line of
the rip channel (the wall), a relatively higher pressure
will thus be build up in the upper part of the water
column in order to curve the along-shore streamlines
downwards. The lower part of the rip current therefore
is accelerated slightly which results in a rip current
profile with relatively higher velocities in the lower
part. This effect is, e.g. analogous to the mechanism
that generates a horseshoe vortex around a vertical
pile placed in a steady current.

Fig. 8. Particle trajectories, tests 2a – d. (a) Large waves — regular waves. (b) Small waves — regular waves. (c) Low water level — irregular
waves. (d) High water level — irregular waves.
 N. Drønen et al. / Coastal Engineering 45 (2002) 223–238 233

Fig. 8 (continued ).

4.3. Near-bed flow in rip channel in plan view
Fig. 7 is a plan view of the cross-shore mean
velocity at 2 cm from the bed in the rip channel, test
1e. The figure shows that the offshore-directed veloc-
ity in the rip channel has its largest value close to the
wall. The figure also shows how the onshore-directed
flow is ‘competing’ with the offshore-directed rip
current. As the mean offshore-directed rip current
weaken seawards, the onshore-directed flow close to
the bed becomes more dominant. The separation line
between the two flow components is indicated by the
dotted line, and shows how the region where the bed
can feel the rip current becomes increasingly narrow
seawards. The results for the near bed velocities
combined with the ‘‘lift’’ or ‘‘separation’’ of the rip
current from the bed (Fig. 6), leave the impression of a
highly three-dimensional flow structure in this region.
The near bed flow seems to converge seawards, but at
the same time the flow (taken at some distance from
the bed) also creates a circulation pattern in the
horizontal plane, where the flow after having traveled
some distance in the rip channel tends to move back
into the bar region again (Fig. 4c). Hence, the picture
is that in the region where the rip current strength
decreases the near-bed flow tends to converge, but the
234 N. Drønen et al. / Coastal Engineering 45 (2002) 223–238
‘‘separated’’ upper flow tends to diverge in the hori-
zontal plane.
4.4. Particle trajectories
Fig. 8a –d shows the results from the four particle
trajectory tests (tests 2a –d). Fig. 8a and b shows the
particle trajectories corresponding to tests 2a and 2b
(regular waves, for different wave heights). Fig. 8c
and d shows the trajectories corresponding to tests 2c
and 2d (irregular waves, for different water levels).
In all four cases, it is seen how the trajectories of
the ball released from a variety of positions on the bar
tend to merge as they leave the bar (either going into
the rip channel directly or passing the trough first).
Notice furthermore how all trajectories are trapped in
a stagnation area down the channel. This area repre-
sents a position where the mean cross-shore current in
the rip channel was observed to ‘‘separate’’ from the
bed, as seen in previous tests.
From Fig. 8a and b, it is seen how particles
released on the bar, for the low wave height (Fig.
8b), tend to move from the bar into the trough and
along the shore in the trough, before entering the rip
channel. For higher waves (Fig. 8a), the particle
moves directly into the rip channel from the bar.
From Fig. 8c and d, it is seen that the pattern for
the low water level is similar to the case of high wave
height in the regular test (the trajectories tending not
to reach the trough, but to enter the rip channel
directly from the bar, Fig. 8b), and that the pattern
for the high water level is similar to the low wave
height in the regular test (the trajectories going into
the trough before reaching the rip channel, Fig. 8a).
These observations show that the flow pattern is
very much dependent on how far from the bar crest
the waves break. The set-up difference, and thereby
the forcing, between bar and rip channel is controlled
by the cross-shore distribution and the intensity of the
wave breaking. The farther from the shore the waves
start to break, the larger water masses are driven into
the rip channel directly from the bar.
4.5. Rip current intensity
The rip current intensity was examined for differ-
ent test conditions (tests 3a– k). But due to the change
in flow structure for different test conditions (e.g., as
illustrated by the bed particle trajectories, Fig. 8a– d)
some considerations had to be made on what defini-
tion of ‘rip current intensity’ should be used, that is,
where in the rip channel to measure the current.
For a given test configuration, the strength of the
rip current was found to increase in the seaward
direction from where the rip channel meets the trough
to some position down the channel where the current
reached a maximum before ceasing further offshore
(see Figs. 4c, 5 and 6). For the following tests it was
found natural to define ‘the intensity’ of the rip
current as the value of the rip current velocity at its
maximum. In test 3*, the cross-shore position of the
maximum rip current velocity was determined, and at
this position (x = 1 m) the along-shore variation of the
cross-shore velocity was measured (at one third of the
depth over the bed). The result is plotted in Fig. 9. It is
seen how the cross-shore velocity increases almost
linearly towards the side-wall ( y = 0 m). This test
indicated that measurements taken at 10 cm from
the side-wall would give a good measure of the real
maximum velocity (which could be located even
closer to the wall) for other test conditions as well.
Assuming the flow distribution close to the wall for all
other test conditions to be similar to test 3*, the
deviation from the real value would be less than
20% (Fig. 9) in all cases.
Notice that the largest velocities also were found
close to the side-wall in the near bed case, test 1e (Fig.
6), but here the variation, due to the proximity of the bed
(z = 2 cm), was not as linear as in the present test case.
Fig. 9. The cross-shore velocity as function of long-shore position at
x = 1 m, at one third of the depth from the bed, test 3*.
 N. Drønen et al. / Coastal Engineering 45 (2002) 223–238
Fig. 10 shows the cross-shore rip current velocity
at one third of the depth above the bed as a function of
cross-shore position for different wave heights (10 cm
from the side-wall). The maximum cross-shore rip
current velocity for each condition is easily identified.
The position of the peak shifted in the offshore
direction for increasing wave height, and that the
maximum velocity increased for increasing wave
height (except the largest wave heights where the
velocities are the same). Similarly, for a decrease in
water level it was found that the rip channel velocity
peaked further offshore, and that the magnitude of the
maximum velocity increased. The shift corresponds to
the findings in the particle tracking tests, i.e. as the
waves on the bar break farther offshore, also the flow
is forced further offshore. Different (peak) periods did
not seem to have a significant effect on the intensity of
the rip current.
Irregular and regular waves gave similar results for
the maximum velocity with respect to increasing wave
height and decreasing water level, although the cross-
shore variation of the current in the rip-channel for
irregular waves, was different from the regular wave
case. Due to the individual waves in a wave train
breaking at different distances from land, the phase-
averaged forcing and thereby the velocity was dis-
Fig. 10. Cross-shore velocity at one third of the depth from the bed
in rip channel ( y = 0.10 cm), as function of cross-shore position, for
different deep-water wave heights H. Test 3g.
235
tributed over a larger cross-shore distance compared
with regular waves.
To summarize, the tests 3a –k produced a rather
extensive data set where the maximum rip current
intensity Vmax was determined for many different
wave conditions and water levels. These data were
then used as the basis for a dimensional analysis.
4.6. Dimensional analysis
In the case of a fixed topography, the magnitude of
the maximum rip-current velocity Vmax depends in
principle on four variables: a wave height (the deep
water wave height H0 was chosen), a characteristic
wave length (here the deep water wave length L0), a
characteristic water level (here the still water depth at
the bar crest Dc) and the acceleration of gravity g.
These variables are grouped into three dimensionless
quantities
Vmax H0 Dc
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi , and
gDc Dc L0
The first parameter is in the form of a Froude number
(although the velocity Vmax and the depth Dc are not
found at the same position), the second is a normal-
ized wave height and the third is depth to (deep water)
wave length ratio. The deep water wave length is
given as L0 = g/2pT 2.
The normalized velocity is plotted against the deep
water wave height to water depth ratio for different
wave steepness in Fig. 11. In the case of irregular waves,
H0 in the plot is the root mean square water height. The
plot shows that the points tend to group around a sin-
gle monotonic curve independent of the crest depth
to wave length ratio. The following functional rela-
tionship was found to fit the measurements well
 
Vmax H0 =Dc H0
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 0:30ln for 0:4 < <3
gDc 0:4 Dc
with a coefficient of determination of r2 = 0.94. Notice
that for small Vmax the curve approaches H0/Dc = 0.4.
This is mainly an effect of the curve — for small
values of Vmax — being composed by measurements
from the irregular test cases. In the case of regular
waves, the value of Vmax would decrease to almost
zero at the limit for wave breaking over the bar (H0/
Dc f 0.8). For small wave heights, we can thus
236 N. Drønen et al. / Coastal Engineering 45 (2002) 223–238

Fig. 11. Non-dimensional maximum rip current velocity as function of non-dimensional wave height.
 N. Drønen et al. / Coastal Engineering 45 (2002) 223–238
expect the curve to depend on the degree of irregu-
larity of the incoming waves.
The second aspect to notice is the relative insig-
nificance of the crest depth to deep water wave length
on the rip current intensity, and thus of the forcing.
This is an expected result, because the normal onshore
radiation stress component for a shallow water wave
in the surf zone does not depend on the wave period,
but only on the wave height and the local depth.
Although the use of a deep water wave height has
proven to be the dominant quantity describing the rip
current intensity, a very small dependency of Dc/L0
can be seen in Fig. 11. The larger the Dc/L0, the more
the rip current intensity tends to decrease. This minor
tendency is believed to be due to the deep water
waves shoaling before breaking, but the effect is so
small compared to the main trend (and the scatter) that
it can be neglected.
5. Conclusion
A series of laboratory tests has been performed for
a physical model of a bar/rip-channel system attacked
by regular and irregular normally incident waves.
Tests showed that a circulation cell on the bar
appeared due to the along-shore non-uniformity of
the bar. The cell was found to be driven by differences
in set-up over the bar and in the channel.
Dye injections indicated a second cell on the
beach, rotating in the opposite direction.
The distribution of mean velocity in 3D space was
examined, and several three-dimensional character-
istics were found. Around the bar crest, the flow
direction was very dependent on the vertical position,
whereas the flow in the strong rip current-region in the
start of the rip channel was more uniformly distributed
over the water column. Farther down (offshore) the rip
channel measurements showed that an onshore-direc-
ted drift separated the rip current from the bed as the
rip current weakened. The structure of this phenom-
enon was furthermore measured in the near bed
region.
Ball trajectories illustrated the flow from a Lagran-
gian point of view. The trajectories were trapped in the
rip channel where the mean rip current started to cease
offshore. The effect of different wave conditions indi-
cated that the distance from where the waves break to
237
bar crest was important for the trajectory pattern. When
the waves broke close to the bar crest, the water tended
to move over the bar and into the trough, then flow
along the shore before it reached the rip channel. For
waves breaking at some greater distance from the bar
crest, the flow pattern changed. In this case, the on-
shore flow over the bar tended not to reach the trough
but enter the rip channel more directly from the bar.
Finally, the variation of the rip current intensity
with the water level and wave conditions was studied.
Different test conditions were examined. It was found
that the position of the rip current velocity peak moved
offshore and that the intensity of the current increased
with increasing wave height and decreasing water
level, corresponding with the findings in the trajectory
tests. A dimensional analysis revealed a monotonic
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
relationship between Vmax = gDc and H0/Dc.
Acknowledgements
This study has been partially supported by the
project SASME (Surf and Swash Zone Mechanics)
funded by the Commission of the European Union,
Directorate General for Science, Research and Devel-
opment under contract No. MAS3 CT97-0081, by the
project Intermediate Scale Coastal Behaviour: Meas-
urement, Modeling and Prediction in the NICOP
programme sponsored by the US Navy, Office of
Naval Research — Grant No. N00014-97-1-0792, by
the programme ‘‘Coasts and Tidal Inlets’’ funded by
the Danish Technical Research Council (STVF) and
by the European Commission Research Directorates’
FP5 specific programme ‘‘Energy, Environment and
Sustainable Development’’ Contract No. EVK3-CT-
2000-00041, Environmental Design of Low Crested
Coastal Defence Structures (DELOS).
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