ملزمة انتقال موائع الكورس الاول

Biochemical Engineering Department/2nd year/1stTerm
Al-Khwarizmi Engineering College

The subject: Fluid Flow
Fluid Flow
The vocabulary
 Type of fluids
 Friction in pipes and channels
 Shearing characteristics of fluid
 The drop in pressure for flow through a tube
 Types of flow
 Boundary Layer
 Measurement of fluid flow
 Pumping equipment for liquids
 Power requirements for pumping through pipelines for
liquids
Fluid Flow
Reference
1. Fluid Flow for Chemical Engineering, by: Pr.F.A.Holland &
Dr. R. Dragg 2nd Ed. 1995
2. Chemical Engineering " Volume 1" by Coulson &
Richardson 6th Ed. 1999
3. Bioprocess Engineering Principles "Chapter 7" by :P.M.Doran
Pub.:1995
4. Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics by: B.R.Munson &
D.F.Yong ,T.H. Okllshl . 4th Ed. 2002
1
Units and Dimensions :

Primary Units: Mass, Length, Time
Dimension: M, L, T
Examples of Dimensions:
Velocity = LT-1
Acceleration = LT-2
Area = L2
Volume =L3
Density =ML-3
Force (F)= MLT-2
System Length (L) Mass (M) Time (T) Force (F)
C.G.S. cm g s dyne (dyn)
S.I. m kg s Newton (N)
F.P.S. ft lb s lbf
e.g. Conversion of units
1 lb =0.4536 kg
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 lbf =4.44 N
1 m = 39.37 Inch
Viscosity=μ = Poise (c.g.s.)
1 Poise = g/cm.s = 0.0672 lb/ft.s = 0.1 kg/m.s =0.1 N.s/m2
Pressure
1 atm = 760 mmHg (torr)= 29.92 in Hg =14.7
lbf/in2(psi)= 2117 lbf/ft2= 33.93 ft water = 1.013ˣ106
dyne/cm2 = 1.013ˣ105 pa = 101.3 kpa
1 pa = 1N/m2 bar= 105 pa = 1000 kpa
Density
1 gm/cm3 = 62.34 lbm/ft3 = 1000 kg/m3 =8.34 lbm/gal
2
Energy, Heat
1 Btu = 252 cal = 773 ft.lbf
1 J =1 N.M =107 erg
1 erg = 1 dyne.cm
1 cal =4.184 J
Power
1 w = 1 J/sec
1 hp = 550 ft.lbf/sec =745.7w
1 kw =737.56 ft.lbf/sec =239 cal/sec
Temperature
T (˚K) =T (˚c) + 273
T (˚R) = T (˚F) +460
T (˚R) = 1.8 T (˚k)
T (˚F) = 1.8 T (˚c) +32
Viscosity
Poise = 1 gm/cm.sec =100 cp
1 cp = 2.42 lbm/ft.hr
1000 cp =1 N.sec/m2= 1 pa.sec
3
Definition of a fluid
Fluid: a fluid is a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an applied shear
stress. Fluids are a subset of the phase of matter and
include liquids, gases, plasmas and, to some extent, plastic solids. Fluids can be
defined as substances which have zero shear modulus or in simpler terms a fluid is
a substance which cannot resist any shear force applied to it.
Shear Force: Is the force component tangent to the surface in this force
divided by the area of the surface.
The formula to calculate average shear stress is force per unit area
where:
= the shear stress;
= the force applied;
= the cross-sectional area of material with area parallel to the applied
force vector.
There are two kind of fluid:
1. Incompressible fluid: A flow is said to be incompressible if the density of
a fluid element does not change during its motion. It is a property of the flow
and not of the fluid. So the volume of an element of a fluid is independent of
its pressure and temperature.
2. Compressible fluid: A flow is said to be compressible if the density of a
fluid element does change during its motion. (gas dynamics) is the branch
of fluid mechanics that deals with flows having significant changes in
fluid density. Gases, but not liquids, display such behavior.
Newton, s law of Viscosity:

Viscosity is the physical property that characterizes the flow resistance of
simple fluids. Newton's law of viscosity defines the relationship between the
shear stress and shear rate of a fluid subjected to a mechanical stress. The ratio
of shear stress to shear rate is a constant, for a given temperature and pressure,
and is defined as the viscosity or coefficient of viscosity. Newtonian fluids obey
Newton's law of viscosity. The viscosity is independent of the shear rate.
4
Consider a substance is placed between two closely spaced, the lower of parallel
plate is fixed, a force (f) is applied on the upper plate which exerts a shear stress (F/A)
on any substance between the plates.
Where H =thickness between two surfaces A = surface area u = velocity on the

surface μ = viscosity of the fluid
Shear stress = 𝜏 = 𝐹𝐴
𝑑𝑢𝑥
Shear rate = 𝛾 =
𝑑𝑦
Or deformation rate:
𝑑𝑢
𝜏 𝛼
𝑑𝑦
𝜏yx = 𝐹𝐴 = - 𝜇 (𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑦
𝑥
) (Newton's law)
5
Ex. A fluid of viscosity (𝜇 =0.01 gm/cm.sec) is rested between two plates. The area of
plate is 0.1 m2 and the plates is 0.01 cm. Find the force occurred, if the upper plate is
pulled with velocity of 30 cm/sec.
Solution: 𝜏yx = 𝐹𝐴 = - 𝜇 (𝑑𝑢

𝑑𝑦
𝑥
) = - 0.01(
30
0.01
) = -30 N/m2
𝜏yx = 𝐹𝐴 𝐹 = 𝜏yx.A = 30N/cm2× 0.1 × 104 cm2

→
=3× 104 𝑁
Types of Flow:
1. Laminar flow is one in which the fluid particles move in layers or laminar with
one layer sliding with other. There is no exchange of fluid particles from one layer to
other. Thousands molecules gliding smoothly over adjacent layer.
Laminar flow is governed by Newton's law: τ =- μ (𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑦)
τα
2. Turbulent flow if the fluid particles (small molar masses) move in very irregular
paths causing an exchange of momentum from one portion to another. When
velocity of the fluid is increased the thread of the colored fluid disappears and mass
of the fluid gets uniformly colored, indicates complete mixing of the solution and
the flow of the fluid is called as the
6
velocity at which the fluid changes from laminar flow to turbulent flow that velocity
is called as critical velocity. In turbulent flow the losses vary as the square of velocity
(τ α u2). Newton's law for turbulent flow τ = y 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 the factor (y)is not a fluid
property but depends upon fluid motion and called (eddy viscosity) in many practical
law situations both viscosity and turbulent is contribute to shear stress.
τ = (μ + y) 𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑥
Reynold Number (Re): In Reynolds experiment the flow conditions are affected by
Diameter of pipe Average velocity Density of liquid Viscosity of the fluid This four factors
are combined in one way as Reynolds number. Reynolds number is obtained by the
following equation Inertial forces are due to mass and the velocity of the fluid particles
trying to diffuse the fluid particles viscous force if the frictional force due to the viscosity
of the fluid which make the motion of the fluid in parallel.
𝜌𝑑𝑢
Re = (dimensionless)
𝜇
ρ = density of fluid
di = inside pipe diameter
u = average velocity
𝜇=𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 of fluid
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
Re= 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
Re< 2000 the flow is laminar or streamline
Re> 4000 the flow is turbulent
2000< Re < 4000 the flow is critical or transition region
1×102 Blood flow in brain
1×103 Blood flow in aorta
7
Example 1
ρUd
The accepted transition Reynolds number for flow in a circular pipe is, Re= ≈
𝜇
2,300. For flow through a pipe, at what velocity will this occur at 20 ₒ C for?
(a) Oil flow (ρoil=861 kg /m3, μoil = 0.01743 Ns/ m3) with diameter of 19mm;
(b) Water flow (ρwater = 998 kg/m3, μwater= 0.001003Ns m) with diameter of 17mm?
Solution:
𝑅𝑒𝜇𝑜𝑖𝑙 2300∗0.01743
(a) U = = = 2.451m/s
𝑑𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 0.019∗861
𝑅𝑒𝜇𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 2300∗0.001003
(b) U = = = 0.136 m/s
𝑑𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 0.017∗998
Fluid Kinematic
Fully developed region:
8
9
Velocity Distribution in Streamline Flow of Newtonion fluid in a Circular Pipe
Force over AB = P𝜋r2

𝑑𝑃
Force over CD = (P+ 𝑑𝑙) 𝜋r2
𝑑𝑙
Force over the cover = (2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑙) τ

𝑑𝑃
Force balance: P𝜋r2 = (P+ 𝑑𝑙) 𝜋r2+(2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑙) τ ----------------------------(1)
𝑑𝑙
From equation (1):

𝑑𝑃
0= 𝑑𝑙 r + 2 𝑑𝑙 τ ---------------- (2)
𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑃
r=2τ
𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑢𝑥
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟e τ =- μ , ∴ r=2μ
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝑃 1 𝑑𝑃
∫ 𝑑𝑢𝑥 = ∫ 2µ 𝑑𝑙 r dr → 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑟 2 + C ----------- (3)
4µ 𝑑𝑙
𝑑
Boundary Conditions (B.C.) for eq.(2): at r= → 𝑢𝑥 = 0
2
1 𝑑𝑃 𝑑 2
∴ Constant C =- ( ) , substitute in eq. (3)
4µ 𝑑𝑙 2
𝑑2 𝑑𝑃 2𝑟
𝑢𝑥 = 16µ 𝑑𝑙 [( )2 − 1] -------------- (4) where 𝑢𝑥 at any point in pipe
𝑑
B.C. (2) at r=0 , 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥

10
𝑑2 𝑑𝑃
𝑢max=− ----------------------- (5)
16µ 𝑑𝑙
Where 𝑢max the velocity in the center
Substitute into eq. (4)
𝑢x 2𝑟
= 1 − ( 𝑑 )2 ------------------- (6)
𝑢max
Average velocity ŭ:
𝑄 𝑄
Ŭ = =
𝐴 𝜋𝑅 2
For Volumetric flow rate and average Velocity (annulus), the volumetric flow rate (dQ).
dQ = 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑢x ---------------------------------- (7)
Sub. equ. (6) in (7)
4𝑟 2
dQ =2𝜋 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑟(1 − )𝑑𝑟
𝑑2
𝑄 d⁄ 4𝑟 3
∫0 𝑑𝑄 = 2π 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∫0 2(𝑟 − ) 𝑑𝑟
𝑑2
𝑟2 4𝑟 4
𝑄 = 2π 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 ( 2 − 4𝑑2 )
(𝑑/2)2 4(𝑑/2)4
𝑄 = 2π 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 ( − )
2 4𝑑2
π
∴𝑄 = 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑 2 ----------------------- (8)
8
The average velocity (Ŭ) is given by:
11
π 2
𝑄 𝑄 d umax
8
Ŭ= = π 2 = π 2
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠−𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 d d
4 4
∴ Ŭ= 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 /2 ------------------------- (9) For laminar flow

𝑢x 2𝑟
But = 1 − ( 𝑑 )2 eq. (6)
𝑢max
Sub. for 𝑢max 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞. (6) into eq(9).

𝑢x 2𝑟
= 2[ 1 − ( )2 ] ----------------------- (10)
Ŭ 𝑑
Velocity Distribution in Turbulent flow of

Newtonian fluid Circular
𝑢x 2𝑟
= (1 − 𝑑 )1/7 ------------ (1) (Prandtl one-seventh power w)
𝑢max 𝑖
Ŭ
= 0.82 ------------------------ (2)
𝑢max
Thus the velocity profile in turbulent flow is more flatter than in laminar
flow
𝑄 = 0.2 𝑢max 𝑑𝑖2 𝜋
Example 2: A fluid flow in a pipe at a rate of 2.2 m3/hr. For the following data:
∆𝑝
= 515 𝑁/𝑚2 , d = 0.0526 m, 𝜇 = 0.01 𝑁𝑆/𝑚2 , 𝜌 = 1200 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
∆𝐿
a) Determine the velocity at r=0.33R, o.5R, 0.75R, R

12
b) Maximum velocity.
c) If the flowrate is increased to 9.08 m3/hr. determine: ux at r=0, 0.33R,
0.5R, 0.74R
d) The maximum velocity.
Solution: At beginning determine the kind of flow

a- Q = 2.2 m3/hr = 2.2/3600 = 6.1× 10−4 m3/sec
𝜋 𝜋
A= d2 = (0.0526)2 = 2.17× 10−3 m2
4 4
𝜌𝑑𝑢 1200×0.28×0.0526
Re = = = 1767 < 2100
𝜇 0.01
∴ The flow is laminar
𝑑2 𝑑𝑃 2𝑟 1 𝑑𝑃 𝑟
𝑢𝑥 = 16µ 𝑑𝑙 [( )2 − 1] =
𝑑 4µ 𝑑𝑙
[1 − ( )2 ] ---------------- 1
𝑅
𝑎𝑡 𝑟 = 0
1
𝑢𝑥 = (51.5)(0.02632 )[1 − 0] = 8.9 m/sec
4∗0.01
𝑎𝑡 𝑟 = 0.33𝑅 𝑢𝑥 = 7.9 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

at r = 0.5R 𝑢𝑥 = 6.679 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
at r = 0.75R 𝑢𝑥 = 3.896 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
at r = R 𝑢𝑥 = 0.0
b- 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 8.9 m/sec
9.08
c- = 2.522 × 10−3 m3/sec
3600
𝑄 2.522× 10−3
ŭ= = = 1.16 m/sec
𝐴 2.17× 10−3
𝜌𝑑𝑢 1200×1.16×0.0526
Re = = = 7322 > 2100 ∴ The flow is turbulent
𝜇 0.01
ŭ 1.16
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.8 = 0.8 =1.45 m/sec
𝑢x 2𝑟 1/7
= (1 − )
𝑢max 𝑑𝑖
at r= 0 𝑢x = 𝑢max
at r= 0.33R = 1.36 m/sec
at r= 0.5R =
at r= R
13
Chapter 2
Pressure Balance
The U tube manometer is connected across two pipes (A) and (B) carrying fluid
as shown. Calculate the pressure deference (PA-PB)?
Pressure balance:
PA- 𝜌𝐴 g h2 - 𝜌𝐵 g h3 + 𝜌𝐵 g h3 + 𝜌𝐵 g (h1+ h2) = PB
∴ PA- PB = 𝜌𝐴 g h2 - 𝜌𝐵 g (h1+ h2) = 1.1(1000)(9.8)(0.2) – 1000(9.8)(0.3)
= −784 𝑃𝑎
Energy of fluid in motion:
1- Internal Energy: This is the energy associated with the physical state, i.e. the energy
of the atoms and molecules resulting from their motion and configuration u is a
function of temperature (u α T).
2- Potential Energy : This is the energy that the fluid has because of its position in the
earth ,s field of gravity the work required to raise a unit mass of a fluid to height Z
about base level is(Z*g), where g is gravitational acceleration.
3- Pressure Energy: This is the energy or work required to introduce the fluid into the
system without change in volume. It equal (PV/m). Where P is pressure, V is the
volume of the fluid, m is the mass of the fluid.
14
4- Kinetic Energy: This is the energy of the fluid motion, fluid that is in motion can
perform work in coming to rest. This is equal to the work required to bring a body
from rest up to the same velocity, which can be calculated from the basic equation
Where u (m s-1) is the final velocity of the body, a (m s-2) is the acceleration
and s (m) is the distance the body has moved.
𝑝 𝑢2
The total energy E = U + gZ + 𝜌 + --------- (1)
2
Consider unit mass of a fluid flowing from point (1) to point (2) between
these two points let in amount of heat energy be added to a fluid, let amount of
work ∆𝑤1 done on the fluid and let the fluid do an amount of work ∆𝑤2 on its
surrounding. The energy balance can be written as:
E1 + ∆𝑤1 + ∆𝑞 = E2 + ∆𝑤2
or
∆𝐸 = E2 - E1 = ∆𝑞 +∆𝑤1 -∆𝑤1 --------------- (2)
Flow of fluid is required to do work in order to overcome the viscous
Friction forces, it is only zero theoretical case or ideal fluid has zero viscosity.
The work done ∆𝑤, may be done on the fluid by pump situated between point 1, 2.
If a fluid temperature remains constant ∆𝑈 = 0

b) If no heat is added to a fluid ∆𝑞 = 𝑜
Equations (1) and (2) can be written as:
𝑝2 𝑢22 𝑝1 𝑢12
(Z2g + + ) – (Z1g+ + ) = ∆𝑤 1 - ∆𝑤 2 ------------------- (3)
𝜌2 2 𝜌1 2
𝑝2 𝑢22 𝑝1 𝑢12 ∆𝑤1 ∆𝑤2

(Z2 + + 2𝑔) – (Z1 + 𝑔𝜌 + 2𝑔) = - -------------------- (4)
𝑔𝜌2 1 𝑔 𝑔
= ∆ℎ - ∆ℎf ------------------- (5)
Bernoulli equation:
𝑝2 𝑢22 𝑝1 𝑢12 ∆𝑤1 ∆𝑤2

(Z2 + + ) - (Z1 + + )= - = ∆ℎ - ℎf
𝑔𝜌2 2𝛼2 𝑔 𝑔𝜌1 2𝛼1 𝑔 𝑔 𝑔
----------------- (6)
This equation at constant temperature ∆𝑞 = 0

15
The term (∆ℎ) is head imparted by the pump to the fluid and (ℎf) is the head loss due to
friction.
If no pump, the right hand side of the equation is zero, where
𝑝 𝑢2
Z2 , , are potential, pressure and velocity heads respectively.
𝑔𝜌 2𝑔
Where (u) is the mean linear velocity in the pipe and (𝛼) is dimensionless correction
1
factor, for a pipe of circular cross-section (𝛼 = ) for laminar for and (𝛼 = 1) for
2
turbulent flow.
Continuity equation:
Mass flow rate in (Kg/s)= mass flow rate out (Kg/s)
Gin = Gout
u1 A1 𝜌1 = u2 A2 𝜌2 or Q1 𝜌 = Q2 𝜌
Q1 = Q2 → u1 A1= u2 A2 m3/s
For incompressible fluid and gas.
Example (1): Calculate Q, u2, u1
water u1
d1=10 cm
G =3 kg/s
d2= 50 cm
𝐺 3
G = 𝜌Q , Q= = = 0.003 m3/s
𝜌 1000
𝜋
Q = u1 A1 = u2 A2 → 0.003 = u1 ( (0.01)2 )
4
16
∴ u1= 38 m/s
𝜋 𝜋
u1 A1 = u2 A2 → 38* (0.01)2 = u2* (0.05)2
4 4
∴ u2 = 1.52 m/s
Example (2):
If the flowrate through the pump is 0.1 m3/sec of water find the pump head. The
manometer reading is 100 cm Hg. The diameter of in and out pipes are 0.2, 0.013m
respectively.
𝑝1 𝑢12 𝑝2 𝑢22
(Z1 + + 2𝑔) + Hp = (Z2 + 𝑔𝜌 + 2𝑔)
𝑔𝜌1 2
𝑝2 𝑝1 𝑢22 𝑢12
Hp= (
𝑔𝜌2
− 𝑔𝜌 ) + (2𝑔 − )
1 2𝑔
∆𝑃 𝑢22 𝑢12
Hp= +( − )
𝑔𝜌 2𝑔 2𝑔
∆𝑃
= 100 cm Hg = 1 m Hg
𝑔𝜌2
𝜌1 ℎ1 = 𝜌2 ℎ2
𝜌1 13.6
ℎ2 = ℎ1 = (1) = 13.6 m Hg
𝜌2 1
𝜋 𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.2)2 = 0.0314 m2, 𝐴2 = (0.13)2 = 0.0176 m2
4 4
𝑢1 = Q/A1= 0.1/0.0314 = 3.18 m/s, 𝑢2 = Q/A2= 5.68 m/s
𝑢22 𝑢12 5.682 −3.182

− = = 1.37 m H2O
2𝑔 2𝑔 2∗9.8
∴ 𝐻𝑝 = 13.6 + 1.137 = 14.73 m H2O

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝜌𝑔𝐻𝑝 Q = 1000× 9.8 × 14.73 × 0.1 = 14406 𝑊
Shear Stress in a pipe:

Consider steady fully developed flow in a straight pipe of length (L) and internal
diameter (di), a force balance on a cylindrical element of the fluid:
17
𝜋ri2(P1- P2) = 2 𝜋riLτw -------------(1) ,where τw Shear stress at wall

𝜋r2(P1- P2) = 2 𝜋rLτr --------------(2) ,where τr Shear stress at radial
∆P= (P1- P2) frictional component of the pressure drop over pipe length (L)
∆P 𝑟𝑖 ∆P 𝑑𝑖
∴ τw =( ) =( ) ------------------ (2)
𝐿 2 𝐿 4
∆P 𝑟
τr = ( ) -------------------------------- (3)
𝐿 2
𝐿
or ∆P = 4 τw ---------------------------------- (4)
𝑑𝑖
From equation (2), (3), the shear stress distribution can be written as:
τr 𝑟
=𝑟 --------------------------------------- (5)
τw 𝑖
The shear stress varies linearly from zero at the center line to a maximum
value (τw) at the pipe wall.
Equation (1) & (5) are true irrespective of the nature of the fluid. They are
also valid for laminar and turbulent flow.
The mean shear stress (τm)

𝑑𝑖/2
∫0 τr 𝑑𝑟 τr
τm= 𝑑𝑖/2 r= 𝑟
τw 𝑖
∫0 𝑑𝑟
at r=o τr =0 , r=di/2 τr = τ w
𝑑𝑖/2 𝑟𝑖 𝑟τw
∫0 τr 𝑑𝑟 ∫0 𝑑𝑟 τw
∴ τm= 𝑑𝑖/2 = 𝑟
𝑟𝑖
∫0 𝑖 𝑑𝑟
, τm=
2
------------------(6)
∫0 𝑑𝑟
18
Friction factor and pressure drop as a function of Reynolds no. in a pipe

𝐿 𝜌𝑢2
∆P = 4 τw *(
𝜌𝑢2
) ------------------ (7)
𝑑𝑖
τ𝑤
𝑗𝑓 = , where 𝑗𝑓 is the dimensionless basic friction factor.
𝜌𝑢2
𝐿 𝜌𝑢2
∆P = 8𝑗𝑓 ( ) ----------- (8)
𝑑𝑖 2
𝐿 𝜌𝑢2
∆P = 4f ( ) ----------- (9) where f is the Fanning friction factor and f =2𝑗𝑓
𝑑𝑖 2
8
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤: 𝑗𝑓 = ----------------------- (10)
𝑅𝑒
𝑠𝑢𝑏. Eq. (10) into eq. (8)

∆P 𝑑𝑖2
𝑢 =( ) --------------- (11) called the Hagen-Poiseuille equation
𝐿 32𝜇
∆𝑃 8𝑢 8𝑢
∴ 4𝐿⁄ =𝜇 or τw= 𝜇 ----------- (12)
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
0.0396 0.079
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤: 𝑗𝑓 = 0.25 , f = 0.25 ------------- (13) called Blasias
𝑅𝑒 𝑅𝑒
equation for smooth pipe
For pipes which are not smooth, the friction factors f and jf for turbulent flow are
function not only of Re no. but also of a dimensionless roughness factor 𝜀/𝑑𝑖
where 𝜀 is linear quantity representing the roughness of the pipe surface. Values of
𝜀 for various kinds of pipes
Table 1. Average roughness of commercial pipes, Streeter and Wylie (1983)
Material ε mm
Cast iron 0.26
Galvanised iron 0.15
Asphalt cast iron 0.12
Commercial steel
0.046
or wrought iron
Concrete
.03-3.0
0
0.0015
Drawn tubing
Glass Smooth
19
For rough pipes, f for turbulent flow is related to 𝜀/𝑑𝑖 by:

1 𝑑
= 4.06 log ( 𝑖 ) + 2.16 ------ (14) This is called von Karman
𝑓 1/2 𝜀
equation
20
Example 3: Calculate the pressure drop in (pa) for the following system:
L= 30.48 m commercial steel, di= 0.0526 m, ∈= 0.000045 𝑚
Q = 9.085 m3/hr, 𝜌 = 1200 𝑘𝑔/𝑓𝑡 3 , 𝜇 = 0.01𝑃𝑎. 𝑠
Solution:
𝑄
𝜌𝑑𝑢 𝜌𝑑 1200∗1.16∗0.0526
𝐴
Re = = = = 7322 (the flow is turbulent)
𝜇 𝜇 0.01
𝜀 0.000045
Roughness factor = = = 0.000856
𝑑𝑖 0.0526
From the graph Jf = 0.0042
𝐿 𝜌𝑢2 30,48 1200∗1.162

h1∴ ∆P = 8𝑗𝑓 ( ) = 8*0.0042( )
𝑑𝑖 2 0.0526 2
∆P= 15720 pa
21
22
23
Chapter 3
Pipe Fittings:
Most pipes are made from steel. Tubes With diameters of (6-50 mm) are frequently made
non-ferrous metals such as copper, brass or aluminum. For Special purposes material used
are glass, plastics, rubber and ceramics. The normal metal piping is supplied in standard
lengths of about (6 m) and these are joined to give longer lengths. Such joining is by screw
flanging or welding and small diameter copper or brass tubes are often soldered or jointed
by compression fitting. Valves to regulate the flow of the fluid are used such as gate, globe
and needle valves. Gate valves give coarse control, globe valves give finer and needle valves
give the finest control of the flow rate. Diaphragm valves are also widely used for handling
of corrosive fluids.
𝜀𝐿𝑒 𝑢2 𝑢2
hL = 8 j f ( 𝑑
) (2𝑔)+ 𝜀 𝐾 (2𝑔)
Pressure drop in fitting: An elbow is installed between two lengths of pipe (or
tubing) to allow a change of direction, usually a 90° or 45° angle; 22.5° elbows are also
available. ... The radius of curvature of a long-radius (LR) elbow is 1.5 times
the pipe diameter, but a short-radius (SR) elbow has a radius equal to the pipe diameter.
The equation used to find the pressure drop as a friction losses:

𝜀𝐿 𝜌𝑢2
∆P = 8𝑗𝑓 ( )
𝑑𝑖 2
𝜀𝐿 𝑢2
 hf = 8𝑗𝑓 ( ) (used when there are the same material of pipes as above figure)
𝑑𝑖 2𝑔
𝑢2 𝐿 𝑢2
 hf = K + 8𝑗𝑓 ( ) (used when there are different joints or device)
2𝑔 𝑑𝑖 2𝑔
24
Losses at Sudden Enlargement

Consider the flow in the sudden enlargement, shown in figure 6 below, fluid flows from
section 1 to section 2. The velocity must reduce and so the pressure increases (this follows
from Bernoulli). At position 1' turbulent eddies occur which give rise to the local head
loss.
Apply the momentum equation between positions 1 and 2 to give (The net force):
P1A2- P2A2 = ρ Q (u2 - u1) = (ρ2A2u2) u2 - (ρ2A2u2) u1
Now use the continuity equation to remove Q. (i.e. substitute Q = A2u2)
𝑃1− 𝑃2
= u22 – u1 u2 ------------------ (1)
𝜌
Now apply the Bernoulli equation from point 1 to 2, with the head loss term hL.
ΔP Δu2
ΔZ + + = hL , ΔZ=0
ρg 2𝑔
P1− P2 2 𝑢2
𝑢2− 1
∴ hL = ( )+( ) ------------------ (2)
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
Sub. Equation (1) in eqn(2)

2 𝑢2
u22 – 𝑢1 𝑢2 𝑢1− 2
hL = ( 𝑔 ) + ( )
2𝑔
(𝑢1 −𝑢2 )2
hL= ------------------ (3)
2𝑔
25
1 𝑢12 − 2𝑢1 𝑢2 + 𝑢22

From equation (3) : hL = ( )→
2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑢12 𝑢2 𝑢2 𝑢12 𝑑12 𝑑12
hL = 2𝑔 [1-2𝑢 + ( 𝑢 )²] = 2𝑔 [1-2𝑑2 + (𝑑2 )²]
1 1 2 2
𝑢12 𝑑
∴ ( hL)exp. = 2𝑔 [ 1 − (𝑑1)2 ]2
2
𝑑1 2
Where [ 1 − ( )] = Kexp.
𝑑2
Example: Water flows at 2000 cm3/s through a sudden enlargement from 40 mm to 50

mm pipe. What is the loss in a head?
Solution:
𝑢12 𝑑
( hL)exp. = 2𝑔 [ 1 − (𝑑1)2 ]2
2
2000∗10−6
u1=Q/A =𝜋 =1.59m/s
(40∗10−3 )2
4
1.592 40
( hL)exp. = [ 1 − ( )2 ]2 = 0.0167 m H2O
2𝑔 50
Losses at Sudden Contraction
In a sudden contraction, flow contracts from point 1 to point 1', forming a vena
contraction. From experiment it has been shown that this contraction is about
40% (i.e. A1' = 0.6 A2). It is possible to assume that energy losses from 1 to 1' are
negligible (no separation occurs in contracting flow) but that major losses occur
between 1' and 2 as the flow expands again.
From equation (3).
26
(𝑢1 −𝑢2 )2
hL= ------------------ (3)
2𝑔
(𝑢𝑐2 − 2𝑢𝑐 𝑢2 + 𝑢22 )

→ hL = 2𝑔
2 𝑢
→hL = 𝑢2𝑔2[(𝑢𝑢𝑐 ) − 2𝑢𝑐 + 1]
2
2 2
2
𝑢2 2
𝑢𝑐
→ ( hL) = 2𝑔
[ (𝑢 ) − 1]
2
𝑢 𝐴 𝐴2 1
𝐴2 𝑢2 → 𝐴𝑐 𝑢𝑐 → 𝑢𝑐 = 𝐴2 = 𝐶 =𝐶
2 𝑐 𝑐 𝐴2 𝑐
Where Cc = coefficient of contraction
2 1 1
( hL)cont.= 𝑢2𝑔2 [ ( ) − 1]2 where [ ( ) − 1]2 = Kcont.
𝐶𝑐 𝐶𝑐
Cc varies from about (0.6-1.0) as the ratio of the pipe diameter varies
from (0-1)
For common value of Cc =0.67
𝑢22
∴ ( hL)cont.=
80.9
Other Local Losses

Large losses in energy in energy usually occur only where flow expands. The
mechanism at work in these situations is that as velocity decreases (by continuity) so
pressure must increase (by Bernoulli).
When the pressure increases in the direction of fluid outside the boundary layer has
enough momentum to overcome this pressure that is trying to push it backwards. The
fluid within the boundary layer has so little momentum that it will very quickly be
brought to rest, and possibly reversed in direction. If this reversal occurs it lifts the
boundary layer away from the surface as shown in Figure 1. This phenomenon is
known as boundary layer separation.
Boundary Layers
(Recommended extra reading for this section: Fluid Mechanics by Douglas J F,
Gasiorek J M, and Swaffield J A. Longman publishers. Pages 327-332.) When a fluid
flows over a stationary surface, e.g. the bed of a river, or the wall of a pipe, the fluid
touching the surface is brought to rest by the shear stress 𝜏o at the wall. The velocity
increases from the wall to a maximum in the main stream of the flow.
27
Figure1
Looking at this two-dimensionally we get the above velocity profile from the wall to
the center of the flow. This profile doesn't just exit, it must build up gradually from the
point where the fluid starts to flow past the surface - e.g. when it enters a pipe.
If we consider a flat plate in the middle of a fluid, we will look at the build up of the
velocity profile as the fluid moves over the plate. Upstream the velocity profile is
uniform, (free stream flow) a long way downstream we have the velocity profile we
have talked about above. This is the known as fully developed flow. But how do we
get to that state?
This region, where there is a velocity profile in the flow due to the shear stress at the
wall, we call the boundary layer. The stages of the formation of the boundary layer
are shown in the figure below:
28
We define the thickness of this boundary layer as the distance from the wall to the point
where the velocity is 99% of the "free stream" velocity, the velocity in the middle of the
pipe or river. Boundary layer thickness, 𝛿 = distance from wall to point where u = 0.99
umainstream .The value of 𝛿 will increase with distance from the point where the fluid
first starts to pass over the boundary - the flat plate in our example. It increases to
a maximum in fully developed flow. Correspondingly, the drag force D on the fluid
due to shear stress 𝜏o at the wall increases from zero at the start of the plate to a
maximum in the fully developed flow region where it remains constant. We can
calculate the magnitude of the drag force by using the momentum equation. But
this complex and not necessary for this course. Our interest in the boundary layer
is that its presence greatly affects the flow through or round an object. So here we
will examine some of the phenomena associated with the boundary layer and
discuss why these occur.
2. Formation of the boundary layer
Above we noted that the boundary layer grows from zero when a fluid starts to flow
over a solid surface. As is passes over a greater length more fluid is slowed by friction
between the fluid layers close to the boundary. Hence the thickness of the slower layer
increases. The fluid near the top of the boundary layer is dragging the fluid nearer to the
solid surface along. The mechanism for this dragging may be one of two types:
The first type occurs when the normal viscous forces (the forces which hold the fluid
together) are large enough to exert drag effects on the slower moving fluid close to the
solid boundary. If the boundary layer is thin then the velocity gradient normal to the
surface, (du/dy), is large so by Newton's law of viscosity the shear stress, 𝜏 = 𝛾 (du/dy),
is also large. The corresponding force may then be large enough to exert drag on the
fluid close to the surface.
As the boundary layer thickness becomes greater, so the velocity gradient become
smaller and the shear stress decreases until it is no longer enough to drag the slow fluid
near the surface along. If this viscous force was the only action then the fluid would
come to a rest.
It, of course, does not come to rest but the second mechanism comes into play. Up to
this point the flow has been laminar and Newton's law of viscosity has applied. This
part of the boundary layer is known as the laminar boundary layer
The viscous shear stresses have held the fluid particles in a constant motion within
layers. They become small as the boundary layer increases in thickness and the velocity
gradient gets smaller. Eventually they are no longer able to hold the flow in layers and
the fluid starts to rotate.
29
This causes the fluid motion to rapidly becomes turbulent. Fluid from the fast moving
region moves to the slower zone transferring momentum and thus maintaining the fluid
by the wall in motion. Conversely, slow moving fluid moves to the faster moving
region slowing it down. The net effect is an increase in momentum in the boundary
layer. We call the part of the boundary layer the turbulent boundary layer.
At points very close to the boundary the velocity gradients become very large and the
velocity gradients become very large with the viscous shear forces again becoming
large enough to maintain the fluid in laminar motion. This region is known as the
laminar sub-layer. This layer occurs within the turbulent zone and is next to the wall
and very thin - a few hundredths of a mm.
3. Surface roughness effect
Despite its thinness, the laminar sub-layer can play a vital role in the friction
characteristics of the surface.
This is particularly relevant when defining pipe friction - as will be seen in more
detail in the level 2 module. In turbulent flow if the height of the roughness of a
pipe is greater than the thickness of the laminar sub-layer then this increases the
amount of turbulence and energy losses in the flow. If the height of roughness is
less than the thickness of the laminar sub-layer the pipe is said to be smooth and
it has little effect on the boundary layer.
In laminar flow the height of roughness has very little effect
4. Boundary layers in pipes
As flow enters a pipe the boundary layer will initially be of the laminar form. This
will change depending on the ration of inertial and viscous forces; i.e. whether we
have laminar (viscous forces high) or turbulent flow (inertial forces high).
From earlier we saw how we could calculate whether a particular flow in a pipe
is laminar or turbulent using the Reynolds number.
𝜌= density u = velocity 𝜇 = viscosity d = pipe diameter)
Laminar flow: Re < 2000
Transitional flow: 2000 < Ren < 4000
Turbulent flow:
30
Friction head is the amount of energy loss due to friction caused by fluid movement
through pipes and fittings. It takes a force to move the fluid against friction, in the same
way that a force is required to lift a weight. The force is exerted in the same direction
as the moving liquid and energy is expended. In the same way that head was calculated
to lift a certain weight, the friction head is calculated with the force required to
overcome friction times the displacement (pipe length) divided by the weight of fluid
displaced.
The laminar boundary is a very smooth flow, while the turbulent boundary layer contains swirls or
"eddies." The laminar flow creates less skin friction drag than the turbulent flow, but is less
stable. Boundary layer flow over a wing surface begins as a smooth laminar flow.
Pipes in Series & Parallel

a) Pipes in Series:
Q1= Q2 = Q3 = Q
31
hf = h1+ h2+ h3
b) Pipes in Parallel:
Q = Q1+ Q2 + Q3
hf1= hf2= hf12
Flow in Non-Circular Ducts:

For Turbulent flow in a duct of non-circular cross section, the hydraulic mean
diameter may use in a place of the pipe diameter the formula for circular pipes
can then be applied without introducing large error.
For stream line flow this method is not applicable and exact expressions relating
the pressure drop to the velocity can be obtained for ducts of certain shapes only.
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
Hydraulic mean diameter = dm = 4
𝑤𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜋 2
𝑑
4
For Circular Pipe, dm= 4 =d
𝜋𝑑
For annulus of center radius r and inner radius ri

(𝜋𝑟 2 −𝜋𝑟𝑖2 )
dm = 4 = 2 ( r-ri )
(2𝜋𝑟+2𝜋𝑟𝑖
For rectangular duct of cross section (a) & (b)

𝑎𝑏 2𝑎𝑏
dm = 4 =
2(𝑎+𝑏) (𝑎+𝑏)
32
Chapter 4
Flowmeters and flow measurement
The flow of fluids is most commonly measured using head h w meters. The operation of
these flowmeters is based on the Bernoulli equation. A constriction in the flow path is used
to increase the flow velocity. This is accompanied by a decrease in pressure head and since
the resultant pressure drop is a function of the flow rate of fluid, the latter can be evaluated.
The flowmeters for closed conduits can be used for both gases and liquids. The flowmeters
for open conduits can only be used for liquids. Head flowmeters include orifice and venturi
meters, flow nozzles, Pitot tubes and weirs. They consist of a primary element which
causes the pressure or head loss and a secondary element which measures it. The primary
element does not contain any moving parts. The most common secondary elements for
closed conduit flowmeters are U-tube manometers and differential pressure transducers.
1) Orifice Meter:
The orifice meter, in which the fluid is accelerated orifice) and the pressure developed
is then measured. This is a relatively cheap and reliable instrument though the overall
pressure drop is high because most of kinetic energy of the fluid at the orifice is wasted .
33
Applying Bernoulli equation:

𝑝1 𝑢12 𝑝2 𝑢22
+ 2𝑔 + z1 = 𝜌𝑔 + 2𝑔 + z2+∆ℎ - ℎ𝑓
𝜌𝑔
Where ∆ℎ , ℎ𝑓 = 0, z2= z1
∆𝑃 𝑢22 𝑢12
+( − ) =0
𝜌 2 2
𝑝1 −𝑝2 𝑢22 𝑢12

= (1 − )
𝜌 2 𝑢22
𝑢1 𝐴2
Quantity equation: Q = u1 A1 = u2 A2, → = ,
𝑢2 𝐴1
𝑝1 −𝑝2 𝑢22 𝐴22

∴ = (1 − )
𝜌 2 𝐴21
2(𝑝1 −𝑝2 )
𝑢2 = 2
√ 𝐴2
𝜌(1− 2 )
𝐴1
2(𝑝1 −𝑝2 )
Q = A2 2
√ 𝐴
𝜌(1− 22 )
𝐴1
𝐴2
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝜌 𝑔 ∆ℎ, u1 A1 = u0 A0, u2 A2 = u0 A0 , Cc=
𝐴0
2𝑔 ∆ℎ
Qact.= Cc A0
√(1− 𝐴20)
𝐴2
1
2) Venturi meter:
The venturi meter, in which the fluid is gradually accelerated to a throat and gradually
retarded as the flow channel is expanded to the pipe size. A high proportion of the kinetic
energy is thus recovered but the instrument is expensive and bulky. The theory is the
34
same as for the orifice meter but a much higher proportion of the pressure drop is
recoverable than is the case with orifice meters. The gradual approach to and the gradual
exit from the orifice substantially eliminates boundary layer separation. Thus, form drag
and eddy formations are reduced to a minimum. A series of tap connections in an annular
pressure ring gives a mean value for the pressure at point 1 in the approach section and
also at point 2 in the throat. Although Venturi meters are relatively expensive and tend
to be bulky. The coefficient of discharge Cd,for a Venturi meter is in the region of 0.98.
Venturies are more suitable than orifice plates for metering liquids containing solids.

𝑝1 𝑢12 𝑝2 𝑢22
+ 2𝑔 + z1 = 𝜌𝑔 + 2𝑔 + z2+∆ℎ - ℎ𝑓
𝜌𝑔
Where ∆ℎ , ℎ𝑓 = 0, z2= z1
∆𝑃 𝑢22 𝑢12
+( − ) =0
𝜌 2 2
𝑝1 −𝑝2 𝑢22 𝑢12

= (1 − )
𝜌 2 𝑢22
𝑢1 𝐴2
Quantity equation: Q = u1 A1 = u2 A2, → = ,
𝑢2 𝐴1
𝑝1 −𝑝2 𝑢22 𝐴22

∴ = (1 − )
𝜌 2 𝐴21
35
2(𝑝1 −𝑝2 )
𝑢2 = 2
√ 𝐴2
𝜌(1− 2 )
𝐴1
2(𝑝1 −𝑝2 )
Qact. = A2 2
√ 𝐴
𝜌(1− 22)
𝐴1
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝜌 𝑔 ∆ℎ,
2𝑔 ∆ℎ
Qact.= Cd A2
√(1− 𝐴22), where cd=0.98
𝐴2
1
3- Pitot Tube:
A pitot tube, also known as pitot probe, is a flow measurement device used to measure
fluid flow velocity. The pitot tube was invented by the French engineer Henri Pitot in the
early 18th century and was modified to its modern form in the mid-19th century by French
scientist Henry Darcy. Although the pitot tube is one of the simplest flow sensors, it is
used in a wide range of flow measurement applications such as air speed in racing cars and
Air Force fighter jets. In industrial applications, pitot tubes are used to measure air flow in
pipes, ducts, and stacks, and liquid flow in pipes, weirs, and open channels. While accuracy
and range ability are relatively low, pitot tubes are simple, reliable, inexpensive, and suited
for a variety of environmental conditions, including extremely high temperatures and a
wide range of pressures.
36

𝑝1 𝑢12 𝑝2 𝑢22
+ 2𝑔 + z1 = 𝜌𝑔 + 2𝑔 + z2+∆ℎ - ℎ𝑓
𝜌𝑔
Where ∆ℎ , ℎ𝑓 = 0, z2= z1, u2=0

∆𝑃 𝑢12
+ (− ) =0
𝜌 2
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝜌 𝑔 ∆ℎ,
𝑢1 = √2𝑔∆ℎ
37
38
39
Chapter 5
Dimensional Analysis:
1. Rayleigh method of index:
This method use algebraic method for dimensional analysis.

Example: use dimensional analysis to determine the pressure drop (Δ𝑃) in a pipe
in which a fluid is flowing as a function of the of the following variables, pipe
diameter (D), pipe length (l), fluid velocity (u), fluid density (𝜌) and fluid viscosity
(𝜇).
Procedure:
1- Δ𝑃 = f (D, 𝑙, u, 𝜌, 𝜇)
2- Δ𝑃 = const. (Da, 𝑙 b, uc, 𝜌𝑑, 𝜇𝑒)
3- ML -1 T-2 = const. (L) a (L)b (LT-1)c (ML-3)d (ML-1T-1)e

4- Mass: 1 = d+e ------------------------------ (1)
Length: -1 = a+b+c-3d-e ------------------------------ (2)

Time: -2 = -c – e ----------------------------- (3)
From eq. (1) d = 1 –e ----------------------------- (4)
From eq. (2) c = 2-e ----------------------------- (5)
Substitute eq. 4 & 5 in eq. 2
-1 = a + b + (2-e) - 3(1-e) –e
∴ a = -b – e ---------------------------- (6)
5- Δ𝑃 = const. (D)-b-e (𝑙)b (u)2-e (𝜌)1−𝑒(𝜇)𝑒
Δ𝑃 = const. (D)-b-e (𝑙)b (u)-e(u)2 (𝜌)(𝜌)−𝑒(𝜇)𝑒
𝛥𝑃 𝑙 𝜇
= ( )b ( )e
𝜌𝑢2 𝐷 𝜌𝐷𝑢
𝛥𝑃 𝑙 𝜌𝐷𝑢 -e 𝜌𝐷𝑢 𝛥𝑃
=( )b( ) where Re = , friction factor =
𝜌𝑢2 𝐷 𝜇 𝜇 𝜌𝑢2
40
2- Buckingham, s 𝝅 Theorem:
This method defined as:
[The number of dimensionless groups which is equal to the number of
variables – number of fundamental dimensions]
N=M–J
N = no. of dimensionless groups
M = no. of variables
J = no. of fundamental dimensions
Example: For the same above example

Δ𝑃 = f (D, 𝑙, u, 𝜌, 𝜇)
1- M = 6 variables
J = 3 fundamental quantities = L, M, T
∴ N = 6-3 = 3 dimension less groups
2- The variables (D, u, 𝜌) representing fundamental dimension
D=L
u = LT-1
𝜌 = ML-3
3- The dimension M, L, T can be obtained from :
L=D
M = 𝜌𝐷3
T = D u-1
4- The remaining variables Δ𝑃, , :
a. Δ𝑃 (ML -1T -2)
∴ Δ𝑃 * M -1L T 2 is dimensionless
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝜋1 = Δ𝑃 (𝜌𝐷3) (D) (Du-1)2
𝛥𝑃
∴ 𝜋1 = is dimensionless
𝜌𝑢2
b. (L)
𝑙∗𝐿−1 = is dimensionless
𝑙
∴ 𝜋2= 𝑙𝐷−1 → 𝜋2 =
𝐷
41
c. (𝑀𝐿−1𝑇−1)
𝜇∗ (𝑀−1𝐿𝑇) = is dimensionless
𝜋3 = 𝜇∗(𝜌𝐷3)-1 (D) (Du-1)

𝜇 𝜌𝐷𝑢 -1
∴ 𝜋3 = or 𝜋3 = ( )
𝜌𝐷𝑢 𝜇
42

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Biochemical Engineering Department/2nd year/1stTerm

Al-Khwarizmi Engineering College

Units and Dimensions :

Newton, s law of Viscosity:

Where H =thickness between two surfaces A = surface area u = velocity on the

Solution: 𝜏yx = 𝐹𝐴 = - 𝜇 (𝑑𝑢

𝜏yx = 𝐹𝐴 𝐹 = 𝜏yx.A = 30N/cm2× 0.1 × 104 cm2

Laminar flow is governed by Newton's law: τ =- μ (𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑦)

Velocity Distribution in Streamline Flow of Newtonion fluid in a Circular Pipe

Force over AB = P𝜋r2

Force over the cover = (2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑙) τ

From equation (1):

B.C. (2) at r=0 , 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥

Where 𝑢max the velocity in the center

Substitute into eq. (4)

dQ = 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑢x ---------------------------------- (7)

Sub. equ. (6) in (7)

The average velocity (Ŭ) is given by:

∴ Ŭ= 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 /2 ------------------------- (9) For laminar flow

Sub. for 𝑢max 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞. (6) into eq(9).

Velocity Distribution in Turbulent flow of

𝑄 = 0.2 𝑢max 𝑑𝑖2 𝜋

a) Determine the velocity at r=0.33R, o.5R, 0.75R, R

Solution: At beginning determine the kind of flow

𝑎𝑡 𝑟 = 0.33𝑅 𝑢𝑥 = 7.9 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

Energy of fluid in motion:

Flow of fluid is required to do work in order to overcome the viscous

If a fluid temperature remains constant ∆𝑈 = 0

Equations (1) and (2) can be written as:

𝑝2 𝑢22 𝑝1 𝑢12 ∆𝑤1 ∆𝑤2

= ∆ℎ - ∆ℎf ------------------- (5)

𝑝2 𝑢22 𝑝1 𝑢12 ∆𝑤1 ∆𝑤2

This equation at constant temperature ∆𝑞 = 0

Example (1): Calculate Q, u2, u1

𝑢1 = Q/A1= 0.1/0.0314 = 3.18 m/s, 𝑢2 = Q/A2= 5.68 m/s

𝑢22 𝑢12 5.682 −3.182

∴ 𝐻𝑝 = 13.6 + 1.137 = 14.73 m H2O

Shear Stress in a pipe:

𝜋ri2(P1- P2) = 2 𝜋riLτw -------------(1) ,where τw Shear stress at wall

The mean shear stress (τm)

Friction factor and pressure drop as a function of Reynolds no. in a pipe

𝑠𝑢𝑏. Eq. (10) into eq. (8)

For rough pipes, f for turbulent flow is related to 𝜀/𝑑𝑖 by:

𝐿 𝜌𝑢2 30,48 1200∗1.162

The equation used to find the pressure drop as a friction losses:

Losses at Sudden Enlargement

Sub. Equation (1) in eqn(2)

1 𝑢12 − 2𝑢1 𝑢2 + 𝑢22

Example: Water flows at 2000 cm3/s through a sudden enlargement from 40 mm to 50

Losses at Sudden Contraction

(𝑢𝑐2 − 2𝑢𝑐 𝑢2 + 𝑢22 )

Where Cc = coefficient of contraction

Other Local Losses

Pipes in Series & Parallel

Flow in Non-Circular Ducts:

For annulus of center radius r and inner radius ri

For rectangular duct of cross section (a) & (b)

Applying Bernoulli equation:

𝑝1 −𝑝2 𝑢22 𝑢12

𝑝1 −𝑝2 𝑢22 𝐴22

Applying Bernoulli equation:

𝑝1 −𝑝2 𝑢22 𝑢12

𝑝1 −𝑝2 𝑢22 𝐴22