UNIT-II

 Define perception, outline its features

 Enumerate how Attitude will form
 Summaries different motivation theories
 Examine some leadership theories

Perceptual Management: nature - Process – selection, organization and interpretation –

Influencing factors -Motivation – Concepts - Needs and Motives and theories. Leadership and
Motivating people - Leadership Theories. Attitudes and Values: formation - types –

Definition of perception

Perception means perceiving, i.e., giving meaning to the environment around us. It can be
defined as a process which involves seeing, receiving, selecting, organising, interpreting and
giving meaning to the environment.

Nature of perception

(1) Perception is the intellectual process.

(2) Perception is the basic cognitive or psychological process.

(3) Perception becomes a subjective process and different people may perceive the same event
differently.

Perception is much more complex and much broader than sensation. The perceptual process can
be defined as a complicated interaction of selection, organisation, and interpretation. Although
perception depends largely upon the sense for raw-data, cognitive process may filter, modify, or
completely change these data. A simple illustration may be seen by looking at one side of a
stationary object, for ex, a statue or a tree. By slowly turning the eyes to the other side of the
object, the person probably senses that the object is moving. Yet the person perceives the object
as stationary. The perceptual process overcomes the sensual process and the person “sees” the
object as stationary.
Perceptual Process

Perception is a process of receiving, selecting, organising, interpreting, checking and reacting to

stimuli. This is like an input-through put-output process in which the stimuli can be considered
as 'inputs' transformation of 'input' through selection, organization and interpretation as 'through
puts' and the ultimate behaviour/action as 'output'. The whole perceptional process can be
presented as follows: These are explained one by one

1. Receiving Stimuli: The first process in the perception is the presence of stimuli. The stimuli
are received from the various sources. Through the five organs. It is a physiological aspect of
perception process. Stimuli may be external to us (such as sound waves) and inside us (such as
energy generation by muscles).

2. Selection of Stimuli: After receiving the stimuli or data, some are selected. Others are
screened out. Two types of factors affect selection of stimuli for processing : external and
internal factors. External factors relate to stimuli such as intensity of stimuli, its size, movement,
repetition, etc. Internal factors, relate to the perceiver such as his/her age, learning, interest, etc.
Normally, he will select the objects which interest him and will avoid that for which he is
indifferent. This is also called 'selective perception'.

3. Organization of Stimuli: Organizing the bits of information into a meaningful whole is called
"organization". There are three ways by which the selected data, i.e., inputs are organized. These
are:

(i) Grouping, (ii) Closure and (iii) Simplification.

(i) Grouping: In grouping, the perceiver groups the various stimuli on the basis of their similarity
or proximity. For example, all the workers coming from the same place may be perceived as
similar on the basis of proximity.

(ii) Closure: When faced with incomplete information, people fill up the gaps themselves to
make the information meaningful. This may be done on the basis of past experience, past data, or
hunches. For example, in many advertisements, alphabets are written by putting electric bulbs
indicating the shape of the concerned alphabets but broken lines. In such cases, people tend to fill
up the gap among different bulbs to get meaning out of these.

(iii) Simplification: People identify main stimulus features and assesses how they are organized.
He interprets a stimulus situation, the perceiver simples the informat

External Factors:

Various external and internal attention factors affect perceptual selectivity. The external factors
consist of outside environmental influences such as intensity, size, contrast, repetition, motion
and novelty and familiarity.

1. Intensity: The intensity principle of attention states that the more intense the external
stimulus, the more likely it is to be perceived. A loud noise, or bright light will be noticed
more than a soft sound or dim light.

Advertisers use intensity to gain the consumers’ attention. Examples include bright
packaging and television commercials that are slightly louder than the regular programme.

2. Size: Closely related to intensity is the principle of size. It says that the larger the object,
the more likely it will be perceived. The maintenance engineering staff may pay more
attention to a big machine than to a smaller one, even though the smaller one costs as much
and is as important to the operation. In advertising, a full page spread is more attention-
getting than a few lines in the classified section.

3. Contrast: The contrast principle states that external stimuli which stand out against
background or which are not what people are expecting will receive their attention. The
following figure 11 demonstrates this perceptual principle.
The black circle on the right appears much larger than the one on the left because of the contrast
with the background circles. Both black circles are exactly the same size.

4. Repetition: The repetition principle states that a repeated external stimulus is more
attention-getting than a single one. Thus, a worker will generally “hear” better when
directions for a dull task are given more than once. Advertisers trying to create a unique
image for a product which is undifferentiated from its competitors – such medicine, soap and
deodorant – rely heavily on repetitious advertising.

5. Motion: The motion principle says that people will pay more attention to moving objects
in their field of vision than they will to stationary objects. Workers will notice materials
moving by them on a conveyor belt, but they may fail to give proper attention to the
maintenance needs of the stationary machine next to them.

6. Novelty and Familiarity: The novelty and familiarity principle states that either a novel
or a familiar external situation can serve as an attention getter. New objects or events in a
familiar setting or familiar objects or events in a new setting will draw the attention of the
perceiver. Job rotation is an example of this principle. Changing workers’ jobs from time to
time will tend to increase the attention they give to the task.

Internal factors:

The concept of set is an important cognition in selectivity. It can be thought of as an internal

form of attention-getting and is based largely on the individual’s complex psychological make
up. People will select out stimuli or situations from the environment that appeal to and are
compatible with their learning, motivation, and personality. A brief discussion of these factors
will help in the understanding of perception.

1. Learning and Perception: Although inter-related with motivation and personality, learning
may play the single biggest role in developing perceptual set. Read the sentence in the triangle
below. (Fig.12)

TURN OFF THE THE

ENGINE
It may take several seconds to realise there is something wrong. Because of familiarity with the
sentence from prior learning, the person is perceptually set to read “Turn off the engine”. This
illustration shows that learning affects set by creating an expectancy to perceive in a certain
manner. Such expectancies are a vital element in the cognitive explanations of behaviour. This
view states simply that people see and hear what they expect to see and hear. This can be further
demonstrated by pronouncing the following words very slowly.

M-A-C-T-A-V-I-S-H

M-A-C-D-O-N-A-L-D

M-A-C-B-E-R-T-H

M-A-C-H-I-N-E-R-Y

If the last word was pronounced “Mac-Hinery” instead of “Machinery”, the reader was caught in
a verbal response set.

2. Perceptual set in the workplace: Perceptual set has many direct implications for
organizational behaviour. In organizational life, some employees have learned to perceive the
world around them in the same way. For example, the single sentence “I cannot recommend this
young man too highly” was reproduced and distributed to several managers in the same
organization. Although this statement is ambiguous and unclear, without exception all the
managers interpreted this to be a positive recommendation. They had all learned to perceive this
statement the same way – positive and favourable.

3. Motivation and Perception: Besides the learned aspects of perceptual set, motivation also
has a vital impact on perceptual selectivity. The primary motives of sex and hunger could be
used to demonstrate the role that motivation plays in perception.

In traditional Amercian culture, the sex drive has been largely suppressed, with the result
being an unfulfilled need for sex. Accordingly, any mention of sex or a visual stimulus dealing
with sex is very attention-getting to the average American.

The secondary motives also play an important role in developing perceptual set. A person
who has a relatively high need for power, affiliation or achievement will be more attentive to the
relevant situational variables.

4. Personality and Perception: Closely related to learning and motivation is the personality of
the perceiving person, which affects what is attended to in the confronting situation. For
example,. Senior-level executives often complain that the new young “hot shots” have trouble
making the “tough” personnel decisions concerning terminating or reassigning people and
paying attention to details and paperwork. The young managers, in turn, complain about the “old
guard” resisting change and using rules and paper works as ends in themselves. The Senior – and
Junior-level executives personalities largely explain these perceptions. There is also a generation
gap that may contribute to differing perceptions. An example can be found in the perceptions of
modern movies. Older people tend either to be disgusted by or to not understand some of the
popular movies of recent years. Those in the 35-45 age group tend to perceive these movies as
“naughty but neat”. Young, college-age people tend to perceive them as “Where it’s at”.

Motivation – Concepts - Needs and Motives and theories

Meaning: Motivation is a basic psychological process, Technically, the term

‘motivation’ can be traced to the Latin word ‘movere’, which means “to move”. This
meaning is evident in the following comprehensive definition: “A motive is an inner state
that energizes, activates or moves (hence) motivation” and that directs or channels
behaviour towards goals”. The key to understanding motivation lies in the meaning of,
and relationship between, needs, drives, and goals.

NEEDS ------------------------ DRIVES -------------------------------- GOALS

(Deprivation) (Deprivation with (Reduction of Direction)

Drives)

1. Needs: The best one-ward definition of a need is deficiency. For example, a

need exists when a cell in the body is deprived of food and water.

2. Drives: Drives or motives are set up to alleviate needs. A drive can simply
be defined as a deficiency with direction. The examples of the needs for food and water
are translated into the hunger and thirst drives, and the need for friends becomes a drive
for affiliation.

3. Goals: At the end of the motivation cycle is the goal. A goal in the motivation
cycle can be defined as anything which will alleviate a need and reduce a drive. Food,
Water and Friends are the goals in our examples.
Theories of Motivation

. THE CONTENT THEORIES OF WORK MOTIVATION

The content theories of work motivation attempt to determine what it is that motivates people at
work. They are concerned with the types of incentives or goals that people strive to attain in
order to be satisfied and perform well. Now, let us discuss four important content theories of
motivation in the following section.

1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Abraham Maslow thought that a person’s motivational

needs can be arranged in a hierarchical manner. In essence, he believed that once a given level
of need is satisfied, it no longer serves to motivate. The next higher level of need has to be
activated in order to motivate the individual Maslow identified five levels in his need hierarchy.

Self - actualization

Esteem Needs

Love Needs

Safety Needs

Physiological Needs

Fig.14 Maslow’s hierarchy of Needs

1. Physiological needs: The needs of hunger, thirst, sleep and sex are physiological needs.
According to the theory, once these basic needs are satisfied, they no longer motivate.

2. Safety needs: Maslow stressed emotional as well as physical safety. The whole
organization may become a safety – seeking mechanism. For example, membership in a trade
union is a safety need. Once these safety needs are satisfied, they no longer motivate.

3. Love needs: Maslow’s use of the word love has many misleading connotations, such as
sex, which is actually a physiological need. Perhaps a more appropriate word describing this
level would be belongingness or affiliation. Membership in formal and informal work groups is
a belongingness need.
4. Esteem needs: The esteem level represents the higher needs of humans. The needs for
power, achievement, and status can be considered to be part of this level.

5. Needs for self – actualization: This level represents the culmination of all the lower,
intermediate, and higher needs of humans. People, who have become self – actualized, are self
fulfilled and have realized all their potential. Self – actualization is the person’s motivation to
transform perception of self into reality.

2. Herzberg’s Two – Factor Theory

According to Herzberg, there are satisfiers and dis-satisfiers in a job for the individuals.
Herzberg labeled satisfiers motivators, and he called the dissatisfies hygiene factors. Taken
together, they became known as Herzberg’s two – factor theory of motivation.
Herzberg’s theory is closely related to Maslow’s need hierarchy. The hygiene factors are
preventive and environmental in nature, and they are roughly equivalent to Maslow’s lower –
level needs.

Figure 15. Herzberg’s Two – factor theory:

Hygiene Factors Motivators

Company policy and Administration Achievement

Technical supervision Recognition

Salary Work itself

Inter-personal relations Responsibility

Working conditions Advancement

These hygiene factors prevent dissatisfaction, but they do not lead to satisfaction. By
themselves, the hygiene factors do not motivate. Only the motivators motivate humans on the
job. They are roughly equivalent to Maslow’s higher – level needs. According to the Herzberg
theory, an individual must have a job with a challenging content in order to be truly motivated.

3.Alderfer’s ERG Theory

The most recent extension of the Herzberg and, especially, the Maslow content theories of work
motivation come from the work of Clayton Alderfer. He formulated a need category model that
was more in line with the existing empirical evidence. Similar to Maslow and Herzberg, he does
feel that there is value in categorizing needs and that here is basic distinction between lower –
order needs and higher order needs.

Alderfer identified three groups of core needs; Existence, Relatedness, and Growth (hence ERG
theory). The existence needs are concerned with survival (physiological Well-being). The
relatedness needs stress the importance of interpersonal, social relationships. The growth needs
are concerned with the individual’s intrinsic desire for personal development.

Fig 16. Shows how these groups of needs are related to the Maslow and Herzberg categories.
Obviously, they are very close but the ERG needs do not have strict lines of democration.

Herzberg’s Maslow’s Alderfer’s

Two factors Hierarchy of Needs ERG Needs

SELF – ACTUALIZATION
GROWTH

MOTIVATORS
ESTEEM RELATEDNESS

HYGIENE EXISTENCE
FACTORS LOVE

Figure 16: The relationship between Alderfer’s ERG Needs, Maslow’s Five – level

Hierarchy, and Herzberg’s two SAFETY

– factor theory.

PHYSIOLOGICAL
Alderfer is suggesting more of a continuous of needs than hierarchical levels or two factors of
prepotency needs. Unlike Maslow and Herzberg, he does not contend that a lower level need has
to be fulfilled before a higher level need is motivating. For example, under ERG theory the
person’s background or cultural environment may dictate that the relatedness needs will take
precedence cover unfulfilled existence needs and that the more the growth needs are satisfied,
the more they will increase in intensity.

4. McGregor’s ‘Theory X’ and ‘Theory Y’

Douglas McGregor propounded two contrasting theories of human behavior which he called
theory X and theory Y.

Theory X: Theory X indicates the traditional approach to managerial motivation and control.
It represents old stereotyped and authoritarian management style of motivation. It suggests that
threats of punishment and strict control are the ways to manage people.

Theory Y: Theory Y indicates that if people are properly motivated, they could really be
creative. The main task of management is to unleash the potential in the employees. An
employee who is properly motivated can achieve his goals by directing his own efforts and, thus,
he can help in accomplishing the organizational goals. This theory emphasizes the satisfaction
of need of the workers. It does not rely heavily on the use of authority as an instrument of
command and control. It suggests that decentralization and delegation, job enlargement,
participation and consultative management style are the ways to motivate people.

Fig. 17 Comparison of Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X Theory Y

Based on the assumption that people are Based on the assumption that people like
basically lazy and so shirk work work as children like play

People do not take initiative. They like to People like to take initiative. They seek
be directed. self – direction.

People avoid responsibility whenever People assume responsibility gladly if

possible conditions are favourable.

For getting things done, people must be People do not require close and strict
supervised strictly. supervision for properly performing their
jobs.

Autocratic style of leadership is likely to Democratic or participative style of

be more effective leadership is likely to be more effective.

Applicable to illiterate, unskilled and Applicable to educated and skilled

lower – level workers employees who occupy high positions in
the organizations.

Believes in mental sickness and so Believes in mental health and so positive

negative motivation of employees and intrinsic motivation of employees

Appraisal of McGregor’s contribution

Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y represent extremes to draw the fencing within
which the organizational man is seen to behave. No man would belong completely to either
Theory X or Theory Y. He possesses the traits of both in varying degrees under different
situations. Thus, these theories are important tools in understanding the behaviour of human
beings and in designing the incentive schemes to motivate the employees. Neither of the two
theories is fully applicable in all the situations and to all types of human beings. Therefore, the
management should use an amalgamation of both the theories to motivate the different kinds of
employees at different levels in the organization.

EQUITY THEORY

Many employees are concerned not only with satisfying their own needs but also compare what
others receive. They feel satisfied or dissatisfied with comparative observations of their friends,
neighbours and colleagues. The equity theory was developed on this hypothesis. Employees
feel they are lacking with the comparison of others possessions. This lacking tension motivates
people to work hard to reach the levels of others. J. Stacy Adams has propounded that this
negative tension provides motivation to employees to exert themselves. People are motivated by
the inequity they note with others.

1. Person’s Outcomes < Other’s Outcomes

Person’s Inputs Other’s Inputs

→ Inequity due to being under rewarded

2. Person’s Outcomes = Other’s Outcomes

Person’s Inputs Other’s Inputs → Equity

3. Person’s Outcomes > other’s Outcomes

Person’s Inputs other’s Inputs

→ Inequity due to being over rewarded

Inputs refer to education, seniority, work experience, capacity to contribute, commitment, efforts
and job performance. Outcomes refer to direct pay, bonus, awards, rewards, fringe benefits,
recognition and socio – psychological satisfaction. The equity theory is a cognitive based
motivation theory. Perception plays a great role in motivating a person.

If a person is getting less than another, inequity exists because of being under rewarded. He tries
to improve himself so that he can reach the level of others. In case both the ratios are equal,
equity exists and the person is at a constant level. He is not motivated on this ground. On the
other hand, if a person’s outcome as compared to his input is more than others in terms of his
inputs, the person is over rewarded and tries hard to remain higher than those of others.

Leadership and Motivating people -

Motivation is a goal-oriented characteristic that helps a person achieve his objectives. It pushes
an individual to work hard at achieving his or her goals. An executive must have the right
leadership traits to influence motivation. However, there is no specific blueprint for motivation.

As a leader, one should keep an open perspective on human nature. Knowing different needs of
subordinates will certainly make the decision-making process easier.

Both an employee as well as manager must possess leadership and motivational traits. An
effective leader must have a thorough knowledge of motivational factors for others. He must
understand the basic needs of employees, peers and his superiors. Leadership is used as a means
of motivating others.

Given below are important guidelines that outline the basic view of motivation:

 Harmonize and match the subordinate needs with the organizational needs. As a leader,
the executive must ensure that the business has the same morals and ethics that he seeks
in his employees. He should make sure that his subordinates are encouraged and trained
in a manner that meets the needs of the business.
 Appreciation and rewards are key motivators that influence a person to achieve a desired
goal. Rewarding good/ exceptional behavior with a small token of appreciation,
certificate or letter can be a great motivator. If a certificate is awarded to a person, it
should mention the particular act or the quality for which the individual is being
rewarded.
 Being a role model is also a key motivator that influences people in reaching their goals.
A leader should set a good example to ensure his people to grow and achieve their goals
effectively.
 Encouraging individuals to get involved in planning and important issues resolution
procedure not only motivates them, but also teaches the intricacies of these key decision-
making factors. Moreover, it will help everyone to get better understanding of their role
in the organization. The communication will be unambiguous and will certainly attract
acknowledgement and appreciation from the leader.
  Developing moral and team spirit certainly has a key impact on the well-being of an
organization. The metal or emotional state of a person constitutes his or her moral fabric.
A leader’s actions and decisions affect the morale of his subordinates. Hence, he should
always be aware of his decisions and activities. Team spirit is the soul of the
organization. The leader should always make sure his subordinates enjoy performing
their duties as a team and make themselves a part of the organization’s plans.
 A leader should step into the shoes of the subordinates and view things from
subordinate’s angle. He should empathize with them during difficult times. Empathizing
with their personal problems makes them stronger-mentally and emotionally.
 A meaningful and challenging job accomplished inculcates a sense of achievement
among employees. The executive must make their employees feel they are performing an
important work that is necessary for the organization’s well-being and success. This
motivational aspect drives them to fulfill goals.

Leadership Theories

“To become an efficient leader, you must be self-motivated”. You must know your identity,
your needs and you must have a strong urge to do anything to achieve your goals. Once you are
self-motivated, only then you can motivate others to achieve their goals and to harmonize their
personal goals with the common goals of the organization.

Numerous studies have been conducted and considerable amount of research has been done to find out
how a leader becomes effective. Various theories have been postulated from time to time to zero in on the
factors that influence the effectiveness of leaders.

 Trait Theory
 Behavioral Theories.
 Likert’s Four systems of Management
 Hersey and Blanchard’s Life-cycle
 Fiedler’s Contingency Theories.
 Path- Goal Model
 Charismatic Leadership Theory

 Trait Theory.

Trait Theories emphasize upon the traits or qualities of leaders, which lead to their lead to their
effectiveness. The Trait Theories, however, could not establish the traits that should be common
to all leaders. Mahatma Gandhi, Subhas Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru were all great
leaders but their personalities had distinctly different characteristics. It also fails to explain the
instances of leadership failures, where leaders failed despite of possessing the required traits.

So while certain traits such as confidence, charisma, knowledge etc may help leaders to become
more effective, relying entirely on those traits may not always help them to motivate their people
to achieve the stated goal.
 Behavioural Theories.

The Behavioral Theories sought to identify the specific behaviours of leaders that lead to their
leadership success.Leaders may demonstrate task-oriented or people-oriented behaviours and
may make decisions using authoritarian, democratic, or laissez-faire styles. However it was seen
that the preferred behavioural styles of leaders produced varied result under different
circumstances. It appeared the Behavioural Theories overlooked the situational factors and the
environment in which behaviours are demonstrated.

The limitations of the Trait Theories and the Behavioural Theories led to the transition to the
Contingency Theories and development of contingency models.

 Ohio State University (1940s)

As leadership studies that were aimed at identifying the appropriate traits didn't yield any
conclusive results, a group of people from Ohio State University developed a list of 150
statements from their generated responses that included 1,800 hundred statements. The list was
designed to measure nine different behavioral leadership dimensions. The resulting questionnaire
is now well-known as the LBDQ or the Leaders Behavior Description Questionnaire.

 University of Michigan (1950s)

Lead by the famous organizational psychologist, Dr. Rensis Likert, the leadership studies at the
University of Michigan identified three characteristics of effective leadership; two of which were
previously observed in studies that had been conducted at Ohio State University. The study showed that
task and relationship-oriented behaviors weren't of major significance within the world of organizational
psychology. However it was the third observation that introduced a new concept, one of participative
leadership

 Likert’s Management System

Rensis Likert and his associates studied the patterns and styles of managers for three decades at
the University of Michigan, USA, and identified a four-fold model of management systems. The
model was developed on the basis of a questionnaire administered to managers in over 200
organizations and research into the performance characteristics of different types of
organizations. The four systems of management system or the four leadership styles identified by
Likert are:

 System 1 - Exploitative Authoritative: Responsibility lies in the hands of the people at the
upper echelons of the hierarchy. The superior has no trust and confidence in subordinates. The
decisions are imposed on subordinates and they do not feel free at all to discuss things about the
job with their superior. The teamwork or communication is very little and the motivation is based
on threats.
 System 2 - Benevolent Authoritative: The responsibility lies at the managerial levels but not at
the lower levels of the organizational hierarchy. The superior has condescending confidence and
trust in subordinates (master-servant relationship). Here again, the subordinates do not feel free to
 discuss things about the job with their superior. The teamwork or communication is very little and
motivation is based on a system of rewards.
 System 3 - Consultative: Responsibility is spread widely through the organizational hierarchy.
The superior has substantial but not complete confidence in subordinates. Some amount of
discussion about job related things takes place between the superior and subordinates. There is a
fair amount of teamwork, and communication takes place vertically and horizontally. The
motivation is based on rewards and involvement in the job.
 System 4 - Participative: Responsibility for achieving the organizational goals is widespread
throughout the organizational hierarchy. There is a high level of confidence that the superior has
in his subordinates. There is a high level of teamwork, communication, and participation.

The nature of these four management systems has been described by Likert through a profile of
organizational characteristics. In this profile, the four management systems have been compared
with one another on the basis of certain organizational variables which are:

Advantages

With the help of the profile developed by Likert, it became possible to quantify the results of the
work done in the field of group dynamics. Likert theory also facilitated the measurement of the
“soft” areas of management, such as trust and communication.

 Contingency Theories.

Contingency theories state that effectiveness of leadership is related to the interplay of a leader’s
traits, behaviours and other situational factors.

 Fred Fiedler Model assumes that performance of a group depends upon leadership style and
favorableness of the situation. Some leadership styles work better in certain situations.

For example, task-oriented leaders appeared to perform better in very favourable and very
unfavorable situations. In contrast, the relationship-oriented leaders tended to perform better in
moderately favourable situations.

When confronted by the Axis Forces during the Second World War, The British faced a tough
situation. Field Marshal Montgomery, a task – oriented leader instituted a regime of continuous
training, insisted on high levels of physical fitness and was ruthless in sacking officers he
considered would be unfit for command in action. He proved to be the best British Field
Commander in such an unfavorable situation.

In very favourable situations too, such as during the times of peace, the Armed Forces always
need a Task – oriented leader to keep the rank and file battle – ready.

Fiedler believed that since a person’s natural leadership style is fixed, and certain leadership
styles work better in certain situations, the most effective way to handle a changing situation is to
change the leader. So, Fed Fiedlers Model did not allow for flexibility in leaders.
 Hersey-Blanchard Situational Model suggests that leadership style should be matched to
the maturity of the subordinates. Depending on the subordinates’ level of maturity (from
highly immature to highly mature), a leader may adopt any of these styles:

 Telling (High Task-Low Relationship)

 Selling (High Task-High Relationship)
 Participating (Low Task-High Relationship)
 Delegating (Low Task-Low Relationship)

While dealing with new entrants to an organisation, a leader would need to adopt a Telling style
and Tell them exactly what to do and how to do. At the same time, the leader would need to
adopt a delegating style while interfacing with persons at the higher echelons

 Path- Goal Model (by Robert House) suggests that a leader can affect the motivation and
performance of a group by:

 Offering rewards for the achievement of performance goals

 Clarifying paths towards these goals
 Removing performance obstacles

The model identified four leadership behaviors (directive, supportive, participative and
achievement-oriented) and assumed that the leaders could be flexible to adopt any style
according to situations.

 Charismatic Leadership Theory.

A Charismatic leader commands authority not by the virtue of a formal position but by the virtue
of charismatic personality. Envisioning, empathy and empowerment are the three core
components of charismatic leadership. The Theory states that people would attribute heroic or
extra-ordinary qualities to the Charismatic Leaders who had an idealized goal and a strong
commitment.

 Transformational Leadership.

Transformational leaders are able to inspire followers with their vision and personality to change
expectations, perceptions, and motivations for working towards common goals. Four
components of Transformational Leadership are:

 Intellectual Stimulation
 Consideration for individuals
 Inspirational Motivation
 Idealized Influence

Transformational leaders…are those who stimulate and inspire followers to both achieve
extraordinary outcomes and, in the process, develop their own leadership capacity.
Transformational leader’s help followers grow and develop into leaders by responding to
individual followers’ needs by empowering them and by aligning the objectives and goals of the
individual followers, the leader, the group, and the larger organization.

Transformational leadership is best suited for knowledge workers, where leaders and followers
can take each other to a higher level of moral and motivation.

Every person has different values, but did you know there are different types of values? In this lesson, we
will look at the different types of values and explain their relation to the world around us.

What Are Values

Values are different for each person. While one person might value honesty, another might value
wealth. You see, values have been defined as ideals or beliefs that a person holds desirable or
undesirable. The variability in that statement is, first, what a person could value, and second, the
degree to which they value it. A person can value honesty and wealth but not to the same degree.
For example, a person might have to let their values towards honesty slip a little when it involves
increasing their wealth.

The Importance of Values

Values are part of the makeup of a person. They remind us as to what is important in our lives,
such as success or family, but also, by the virtue of their presence, they provide contrast to what
is not important. For example, if family is important, then potentially, achievement in a high-
powered job is not important. Since you value family, it would be hard to value a high-powered
job that might take you away from your family. Thus, all values exist in a balance within us.

That is not to say that, over time, values cannot change. As we grow and change as individuals,
we will begin to value different aspects of life. If we value family when we are younger, as our
children get older, we might start to value success in business more than family so we can pay
for things like college, cars, etc.

Regardless of what we value or why, the importance of values cannot be ignored. They are the
guideposts of our lives, and they direct us to who we want to be. By doing that, they help us
become who we are and are a huge part of our makeup, ethical compass, and, ultimately,
personality.

Types of Value

There are four basic value structures.

Terminal Values
These are values that we think are most important or most desirable. They are desirable states of
existence that we will work towards or try to reach. They include but are not limited to
happiness, self-respect, recognition, inner harmony, and professional excellence.
Instrumental Values
These refer to preferred types of behavior like honesty, sincerity, and ambition. These values are
more focused on personality traits and character.

Dominant Values
These are the main values that are stronger, or more present, in a person than other values. We
are all a mix of different values, but they are not all present in us at the same level. One has to be
dominant, or highest, on the list of values a person possesses.

Cultural Values
Cultural values are centered on what a culture believes is fair and just. In America, for example,
one of our cultural values is freedom.

Attitude: Nature, Components and Formation

There are many different definitions of attitude, however, that advanced by Schiff man and
Kanuk contains most of the major concepts: a learned predisposition to behave in a consistently
favorable or unfavorable way with respect to a given object (1996).

Following are the salient features which contribute to the meaning of attitudes:

1. Attitudes refer to feelings and beliefs of individuals or groups of individuals. For example “He
has a poor attitude”, “I like her attitude.”

2. The feeling’s and beliefs are directed towards other people, objects or ideas. When a person
says, “I like my Job”. It shows that he has a positive attitude towards his job.

3. Attitudes often result in and affect the behaviour or action of the people. Attitudes can lead to
intended behaviour if there are no external interventions.

4. Attitudes constitute a psychological phenomenon which cannot be directly observed.

However, an attitude can be observed indirectly by observing its consequences. For example, if a
person is very regular in his job, we may infer that he likes his job very much.

5. Attitudes are gradually acquired over a period of time. The process of learning attitude starts
right from childhood and continues throughout the life of a person. In the beginning the family
members may have a greater impact on the attitude of a child.

6. Attitudes are evaluative statements, either favourable or unfavourable. When a person says he
likes or dislikes something or somebody, an attitude is being expressed.

7. All people, irrespective of their status and intelligence hold attitudes.

8. An attitude may be unconsciously held. Most of our attitudes may be about those which we
are not clearly aware. Prejudice furnishes a good example.
Components of Attitudes:

Attitudes comprise of three basic components: emotional, informational and behavioural.

These three components are described below:

1. Informational or Cognitive Component:

The informational component consists of beliefs, values, ideas and other information a person
has about the object. It makes no difference whether or not this information is empirically correct
or real. For example, a person seeking a job may learn from his own sources and other
employees working in the company that in a particular company the promotion chances are very
favourable. In reality, it may or may not be correct. Yet the information that person is using is
the key to his attitude about that job and about that company.

2. Emotional or Affective Component:

The informational component sets the stage for the more critical part of an attitude, its affective
component. The emotional components involve the person’s feeling or affect-positive, neutral or
negative-about an object. This component can be explained by this statement.” I like this job
because the future prospects in this company are very good”.

3. Behavioural Component:

The behavioural component consists of the tendency of a person to behave in a particular manner
towards an object. For example, the concerned individual in the above case may decide to take
up the job because of good future prospects. Out of the three components of attitudes, only the
behavioural component can be directly observed. One cannot see another person’s beliefs (the
informational component) and his feelings (the emotional component). These two components
can only be inferred. But still understanding these two components is essential in the study of
organisational behaviour or the behavioural component of attitudes.

Formation/Sources of Attitudes:

Attitudes refer to the feelings and beliefs of “individuals or groups of individuals. But the
question is how these feelings and beliefs developed? The point which has been stressed by
many people are that attitudes are acquired, but not inherited. A person acquires these attitudes
from several sources.

The Attitudes are acquired but not important sources of acquiring attitudes are as
discussed below:

1. Direct Personal Experience:

A person’s direct experience with the attitude object determines his attitude towards it. The
personal experience of an individual, whether it is favourable or unfavourable, will affect his
attitude deeply. These attitudes which are based on personal experience are difficult to change.

For example, an individual joins a new job, which is recommended to him by his friend. But
when he joins the job, he find his work repetitive, supervisors too tough and co-workers not so
co-operative, he would develop a negative attitude towards his job, because the quality of his
direct experience with the job is negative.

2. Association:

Sometimes an individual comes across a new attitude object which may be associated with an
old attitude object. In such a case, the attitude towards the old attitude object may be transferred
towards the new attitude object. For example, if a new worker remains most of the time in the
company of a worker, who is in the good books of the supervisor, and towards whom the
supervisor has a positive attitude, the supervisor is likely to develop a favourable attitude
towards the new worker also. Hence the positive attitude for the old worker has been transferred
towards the new worker because of the association between the old and the new worker.

3. Family and Peer Groups:

Attitudes like values are acquired from parents, teachers and peer group members. In our early
years, we begin modeling our attitudes after those we admire, respect or may be even fear. We
observe the way our family and friends behave and we shape our attitudes and behaviour to align
with theirs. We do so even without being told to do so and even without having direct
experience. Similarly, attitudes are acquired from peer groups in colleges and organisations. For
example, if the right thing is to visit “Hot Millions”, or the “Domino’s”, you are likely to hold
that attitude. If your parents support one political party, without being told to do so, you
automatically start favouring that party.

4. Neighbourhood:

The neighbourhood in which we live has certain cultural facilities, religious groupings and ethnic
differences. Further, it has people, who are neighbours. These people may be Northerners,
Southerners etc. The people belonging to different cultures have different attitudes and
behaviours. Some of these we accept and some of these we deny and possibly rebel. The
conformity or rebellion in some respects is the evidence of the attitudes we hold.

5. Economic Status and Occupations:

The economic status and occupational position of the individual also affect his attitude
formation. Our socio-economic background influences our present and future attitudes. Research
findings have shown that unemployment disturbs former religious and economic values.
Children of professional class tend to be conservatives. Respect for the laws of the country is
associated with increased years of higher education.
6. Mass Communications:

Attitudes are generally less stable as compared to values. Advertising messages for example,
attempt to alter the attitude of the people toward a certain product or service. For example, if the
people at Hyundai Santro can get you to hold a favourable feeling toward their cars, that attitude
may lead to a desirable behaviour (for them)-your purchase of a Santro car.

All these sources can be illustrated with the help of the following figure:

Types of Attitudes
There are three types of attitudes. These are job related attitudes. They are:

1. Job Satisfaction: It refers to individual's general attitudes towards his/her job. A person with
high job satisfaction holds positive attitude about his job.

2. Job Involvement: It is the degree to which a person participates in his job and considers his
involvement is important. People with high job involvement care about what kind of work they
do.

3. Organizational Commitment: The degree to which an employee identifies with an

organization and its goals and wishes to maintain the membership in the organization. A person
with high organizational commitment exhibits low absertism.

Attitude Formation Definition

An attitude is a general and lasting positive or negative opinion or feeling about some person,
object, or issue. Attitude formation occurs through either direct experience or the persuasion of
others or the media. Attitudes have three foundations: affect or emotion, behavior, and
cognitions. In addition, evidence suggests that attitudes may develop out of psychological needs
(motivational foundations), social interactions (social foundations), and genetics (biological
foundations), although this last notion is new and controversial.

There are two major factors that formatted the attitude

1) Psychological factors
2) Personal Experience

Psychological factors

Operant Conditioning

Operant or instrumental conditioning is when an attitude forms because it has been reinforced
through reward or a pleasant experience or discouraged through punishment or an unpleasant
experience. For example, a parent might praise a teenager for helping out at an after-school
program with little kids. As a result, the teen may develop a positive attitude toward volunteer
work. Similarly, many people find that broccoli has a terrible taste, and so they dislike broccoli
because of its punishing flavor.

Classical Conditioning

Classical or Pavlovian conditioning happens when a new stimulus comes to elicit an emotional
reaction because of its association with a stimulus that already elicits the emotional response.
The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov took dogs, which naturally salivate to meat powder, and
trained them to salivate at the sound of a bell by continually ringing the bell as the meat powder
was presented. In humans, some of our attitudes have become conditioned in much the same
way. For example, some people have a negative attitude towards “dirty” words. Just the thought
of a taboo word will cause some people to blush. The words themselves have come to elicit an
emotional reaction because their use is frowned upon in our culture in most contexts.

Semantic Generalization

Not only can we become conditioned to a specific stimulus, but this initial conditioning can
generalize or spread to similar stimuli. For example, a bell higher or lower in pitch to the original
conditioned sound may elicit the same reaction. In humans, the initial conditioning can spread
even to words or concepts similar to the original stimulus. As a result, we can form attitudes
about an object or idea without having direct contact with it. When this kind of generalization
occurs, the process is called semantic generalization. For example, human subjects who have
been conditioned to the sound of a bell may also show a response to the sight of a bell or by the
spoken word bell. Semantic generalization can account for the formation of attitudes, like
prejudice, where people have formed an attitude without having direct contact with the object of
that attitude.
Evaluative Conditioning

An object need not directly cause us to feel pleasant or unpleasant for us to form an attitude.
Evaluative conditioning occurs when we form attitudes toward an object or person because our
exposure to them coincided with a positive or negative emotion. For example, a couple may
come to feel positive toward a particular song that was playing on the radio during their first
date. Their positive attitude to the song is a result of its association with the happy experience of
a date.

Mere Exposure

Finally, when we see the same object or person over and over, we will generally form a positive
attitude toward that object or person. This is true for an object or person we feel neutral or
positive about, so long as we are not overexposed to it. For example, many popular styles of
clothing seem bizarre at first, but then as we see more of them we may come to accept and even
like them.

NATURE OF ATTITUDE
Introduction
When someone verbalizes an attitude, it is called an opinion, and we hear words such as like
dislike¶, µreally don¶t care¶. In our next conversation with a friend or family member,
noticehow many times these words, or similar words, are used. They indicate that an attitude is
beingexpressed. As attitudes are µmental positions¶, they cannot be observed directly. Marketers
mustinfer attitudes through research methods that require consumers to express opinions.
Attitudetowards any object. A person's attitude is "the relatively stable overt behavior which
affects hisstatus"
Defining Attitude
There are many different definitions of µattitude¶, however, that advanced by Schiffman and
Kanuk contains most of the major concepts: a learned predisposition to behave in a consistently
favorable or unfavorable way with respect to a given object (1996). The main characteristics
of attitudes are indicated by the key words in the definition: learned, predisposition,
behave.Remember that attitudes occur within a situation and that the situation can, and will,
influencethe relationship between attitude and behavior. A consumer can have different attitudes
towardsthe same product depending on the situation.The main characteristics of attitudes are:
Attitudes are learned
from personal experience, information provided by others, and market controlled sources, in
particular exposure to mass media.
Attitudes are predispositions A predisposition is an inclination or tendency towards something;
attitudes have motivational qualities.
Attitudes have a relationship with behavior For marketers, the behavior of primary interest is
product purchase. Remember, however, that we are not suggesting or assuming a causal
relationship.
Attitudes are consistent. However, this does not necessarily mean that they are permanent;
attitudes can change.
Attitudes are directed towards an object and are very specific reactions to that object. For
example, you like x but you don’t like y The term object includes specific consumption- or
marketing-related concepts, such as product, product category, brand, service, possessions,
product use, advertisement, price, medium, or retailer (Schiffman and Kanuk,1996).
Social psychologists have given various definitions of the concept.

Most of them view attitudes as:

Y A complex mental state involving beliefs and feelings and values and dispositions to actin
certain ways; "he had the attitude that work was fun"
Y Position: The arrangement of the body and its limbs; "he assumed an attitude of surrender"
Y A theatrical pose created for effect; "The actor struck just the right attitude"
Y Attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's like or dislike for anitem.
Attitudes are positive, negative or neutral views of an "attitude object": i.e. a person, behavior or
event. ...
Y The position of the body or way of carrying oneself; Disposition or state of mind; Anegative,
irritating, or irritated attitude; The orientation of an aircraft or other vehiclerelative to the
horizon, direction of motion etcMental disposition, usual frame of mind. Attitudes are subsumed
into the abilities. For example, the ability to interact socially requires certain attitudes.
Y The way in which people think and behave towards each other and things.A personal
motivational predisposition to respond to persons, situations, or events in agiven manner that
can, nevertheless, be changed or modified through training as a sort of mental shortcut to
decision making.
Y An attitude is "a process of individual consciousness which determines real or possibleactivity
of the individual in the social world"Attitudes are evaluative statement favorable or unfavorable
related to person, object or event.They reflect that how one feel about something. For example if
someone says that I like my job.This statement expresses his attitude towards his job. Each and
every person has differentattitude at different conditions.
There are three components of attitude:
According to fieldman & carl Smith:³An attitude towards any object, idea or a person is an
enduring system with a cognitivecomponent, an affective component and behavioral tendency.´
1.

C
ognitive
C
omponent
W
hat you think.

2.

Effective
C
omponent
W
hat you feel.

3.
B
ehavioral
C
omponent
W
hat you do.
1: Cognitive Component:
It refers that's part of attitude which
is made up of the thoughts and beliefs people holdabout the object of the attitude.
for example, he says smoking is injurious to health. Such typeof idea of a person is called
cognitive component of attitude.

2: Effective component:

This part of attitude is related to the statement which affects another person. For example, in
anorganization a personal report is given to the general manager. In report he point out that the
salestaff is not performing their due responsibilities. The general manager forwards a written
noticeto the marketing manager to negotiate with the sale staff.
3: Behavioral Component:
The behavioral component refers to that part of attitude which reflects the intension of a personin
short run or in long run.For example, before the production and launching process the product.
Report is prepared by the production department which consists of there intention in near future
and long run and thisreport is handed over to top management for the decision.
FOR MATION OF ATTITUDE
Attitude is not be solid, it can be change with the passage of time, with the requirements of
theenvironment. The formation of attitude not be completed in one day, it is a slowly process.
Wehave many factors that formatted the attitudes.
There are two major factors these are:1)

Psychological factors
2)

P
ersonal Experience
1: Psychological factors
Psychological factors involved in Attitude Formation and Attitude Change1.

Direct Instruction
Direction instruction involves being told what attitudes to have by parents,schools, community
organizations, religious doctrine, friends, etc.
2.Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a simple form of learning. It is based on the ³Law of Effect´ and
involves voluntary responses.
Behaviors (including verbal behaviorsand maybe even thoughts) tend to be repeated if they are
reinforced (i.e., followed by a positive experience).
Conversely, behaviors tend to be stopped when theyare punished (i.e., followed by an unpleasant
experience). Thus, if one expresses,or acts out an attitude toward some group, and this is
reinforced by one¶s peers,the attitude is strengthened and is likely to be expressed again. The
reinforcementcan be as subtle as a smile or as obvious as a raise in salary. Operant conditioningis
especially involved with the behavioral component of attitudes.

Classical conditionings another simple form of learning. It involves

involuntaryresponses and is acquired through the pairing of two stimuli. Two
events thatrepeatedly occur close together in time become fused and before long
the personresponds in the same way to both events. Originally studied by
Pavlov, the process requires an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that produces an
involuntary(reflexive) response (U
C
R). If a neutral stimulus (NS) is paired, either verydramatically on one occasion, or
repeatedly for several acquisition trials, theneutral stimulus will lead to the same
response elicited by the unconditionedstimulus. At this point the stimulus is no
longer neutral and so is referred to as aconditioned stimulus (
C
S) and the response has now become a learned responseand so is referred to as a
conditioned response (
C
R). In
P
avlov¶s research theU
C
S was meat powder which led to an U
C
R of salivation. The NS was a bell. Atfirst the bell elicited no response from the
dog, but eventually the bell alonecaused the dog to salivate. Advertisers create
positive attitudes towards their products by presenting attractive models in their
ads. In this case the model is theU
C
S and our reaction to him, or her, is an automatic positive response. The product is
the original NS which through pairing comes to elicit a positiveconditioned
response. In a similar fashion, pleasant or unpleasant experienceswith members of
a particular group could lead to positive or negative attitudestoward that group.
C
lassical conditioning is especially involved with theemotional, or affective,
component of attitudes.
4
.

S
ocial (Observational) Learning
Social (observational) learning is based on modeling. We observe others. If
theyare getting reinforced for certain behaviors or the expression of certain
attitudes,this serves as vicarious reinforcement and makes it more likely that we,
too, will behave in this manner or express this attitude.
C
lassical conditioning can alsooccur vicariously through observation of others.
5
.

Unconscious
M
otivation.
Some attitudes are held because they serve some unconscious function for
anindividual. For example, a person who is threatened by his homosexual
feelingsmay employ the defense mechanism of reaction formation and become a
crusader against homosexuals. Or, someone who feels inferior may feel somewhat
better by putting down a group other than her own.
B
ecause it is unconscious, the person will not be aware of the unconscious
motivation at the time it is operative, but may become aware of it as some later
point in time.
6
.

Rational Analysis
Rational analysis involves the careful weighing of evidence for, and against,
a particular attitude. For example, a person may carefully listen to the
presidentialdebates and read opinions of political experts in order to decide which
candidateto vote for in an election.
2: Personal Experiences
P
eople also learnt attitude through their personal experience. They adopted good
attitude by their personal experience.

There are some factors that describe the personal experience. These are:
1.

Reducing Surplus Information

2.

P
ersonal Interest
3.

Needs satisfaction
4
.

Solution of problems
5
.

P
revious experience
6
.

Isolated events
7
.

Reliable personality
8
.

P
arent¶ s influence
9
.

Teacher¶ s influence
10.

Mass
C
ommunication
11.

Stereotype Attitude
Reducing
S
urplus Information
Every person has lot of information. Which some are necessary or some are
unnecessary. Some people reducing surplus information and format good attitude
with necessary information.
Personal Interest
P
eople learned attitude through pleasant and unpleasant thing by their personal
interest.
Needs
S
atisfaction
The things or person that fulfill our desire or needs us format a positive attitude
towards. Thething and person that not fulfill our desires and needs so we built
negative attitude towards.
S
olution Of Problems
Attitude also developed during solving problems because attitudes are relatively
stable andenduring disposition¶ so they are helpful to solving problems in future.
Previous Experience
Our previous experience provides us a base format good attitude for future.
Isolated Events
Some times¶ a single incident provide us a base for negative attitude.
Reliable Personality
When we know about liking and disliking of our favorite personality. We also
copied his likingand disliking. So¶ we can say that reliable personality influenced
on our attitude.

Parent¶s Influence
Early in our life parents are the source of our attitudes. As we grew up sources are
multiply.
Teacher¶s Influence
Teachers are role model for their students. Students copy their teachers. The
student¶s attitudeinfluenced by their teacher¶s talking style, dressing style, walking
style etc
M
ass Communication
Mass communication is also influenced on our attitudes. In modern age we have
two types of mass communications. These are:
1.

P
rint Media
2.Electric MediaMass communication is specially used in different categories for
changing and formatting
Attitude - There are various opinions expressed by psychologists about
understanding attitude. World of Psychology will be a little review of what's
called attitude? As said by psychologists Thomas WJ (in Ahmadi, 1999),
which imposes limits as a level attitude trends are positive and negative,
associated with the object of psychology. Object psychology here include:
symbols, words, slogans, people, institutions, ideas and so on.

Definition of Attitude
According to Sarnoff (in Sarwono, 2000) identifies the attitude of willingness
to respond (disposition to react) positively (Favorably) or negatively
(unfavorably) to the object - a particular object. D.Krech and RS Crutchfield
(in Sears, 1999) found that the attitude of the organization that is settled
from the motivational, emotional, perceptual, and cognitive aspects of the
world of the individual.

While La Pierre (in Anwar, 2003) gives the definition of attitude as a pattern
of behavior, tendencies or anticipatory readiness, predisposition to adapt in
social situations, or simply, the attitude is a response to social stimuli that
have been conditioned. Further Soetarno (1994) gives the definition of
attitude is the view or feelings that accompanied the tendency to act on a
particular object. The attitude is always directed to something means
nothing without an attitude. Attitude is directed to objects, people, peritiwa,
views, institutions, norms, and others.

Although there are some differences in terms of attitudes, but based on the
opinions of the above it can be concluded that the attitude is a state in which
man moves to act or do in social activities with certain feelings in response
to a situation or condition of the objects in the surrounding environment. In
addition it also provides readiness posture to respond to the positive or
negative nature of the object or situation.
Factors Affecting Attitude Formation

Social learning forms of social interaction. In social interaction, individuals

form different patterns of attitudes toward psychological object faces.
Among the various factors that influence the formation of attitudes are:

1. Personal experience. In order to be the basis of attitudes, personal

experiences have left a strong impression. Therefore, the attitude will
be more easily formed when personal experience involves emotional
factors. In situations involving emotions, appreciation will be more in-
depth experience and longer trace.
2. Culture. B.F. Skinner (in, Azwar 2005) emphasized the influence of
the environment (including culture) in shaping one's personality. No
other personality than a consistent pattern of behavior that illustrate
the history of reinforcement (reinforcement, reward) owned. The
pattern of reinforcement from the public to the attitude and behavior,
rather than to the attitudes and behavior of others.
3. Other people are considered important. In general, the individual
being conformist or the direction of the attitude of the people it deems
important. The trend is partly motivated by a desire for affiliation and
the desire to avoid conflict with the people considered important.
4. Media. As a means of communication, the mass media such as
television, radio, has a major influence in shaping people's opinions
and beliefs. There is new information on something that provides the
foundation for the emergence of new cognitive attitudes towards it.
Suggestive messages that carry information, if strong enough, will
provide basic affective in assessing something emepersiapkan and
forming attitudes toward certain.
5. Educational Institutions and Religious. As a system, educational
and religious institutions have a strong influence in shaping attitudes
because they lay the foundation of understanding and moral concepts
within the individual. Understanding the good and the bad, the dividing
line between something that can and can not do, is obtained from the
center of the educational and religious activities and teachings.
6. Emotional factors in themselves. Not all forms of attitude is
determined by environmental circumstances and personal experiences.
Sometimes, a form of attitude is a statement that is based on emotion
which serves as a sort of channeling frustration or transfer form ego
defense mechanisms. Such an attitude is temporary and goes away so
 frustrating was lost but could also be more persistent attitude and
more durable. example form attitudes based on emotional factors are
prejudice.

Attitudes and Factors Influencing the Development Of Attitudes

Attitudes involve some knowledge of a situation. However, the essential aspect of

the attitude is found in the fact that some characteristic feeling or emotion is
experienced and, as we would accordingly expect, some definite tendency to
action is associated. Subjectively, then, the important factor is the feeling or
emotion.

Objectively it is the response, or at least the tendency to respond. Attitudes it is

the response, or at least the tendency to respond. Attitudes are important
determinants of behaviour. If we are to change them we must change the
emotional components. All port has defined attitude as a mental and neutral
state of readiness organised through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic
influence upon the individual's response to all objects with which it is related.

A farmers may vote for a particular political party because he has been brought
up to believe that it is "right" party. In the course of experience he may learn
some thing about the policies of that party. In that case his attitude will probably
change. As a result, he may be expected to vote in a different way. Knowledge,
attitude and behaviour are then very closely linked.
Measuring attitudes

Attitude scales: It is meant for scientific studies. Scales have been developed for
measuring a great number of attitudes. Each scale consists of a group of
statements related to a particular attitude. Each scale consists of a group of
statements related to a particular attitude. Some scales ask the person to respond
by indicating whether he agrees or disagrees with each statement. Other scales
ask the person to specify the degree of his agreement with a statement. The
degree of agreement or disagreement will be given predetermined values.

Public opinion poll: A large number of people are asked only a question or two
because they don't have much time to respond to many items.

There are two major problems in public opinion poll (i) wording of questions and
(ii) sampling. For the poll be accurate, the sample must be representative. For this
we have to use stratified sampling. In stratified sampling, the polling agencies set
quotas for certain categories of people based on census data. The most common
categories are age, sex, socio-economic status, and geographical region, all of
which are known to influence opinions. By seeing to it that the quotas in the
sample are in proportion to the categories in the general population, the sample
is made more representative.
 Attitude change

Well established attitudes tend to be resistant to change, but others may be more
amenable to change. Attitudes can be changed by a variety of ways. Some of the
ways of attitude change are as follows.

1) By obtaining new information from other people and mass media, resulting in
changes in cognitive component of a person's attitudes.

2) Attitudes may change through direct experience.

3) Attitudes may change through legislation.

4) Since person's attitudes are anchored in his membership group and reference
groups, one way to change the attitude is to modify one or the other.

5) Attitude change differs with reference to the situation also.

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DEVELOPMENT OF ATTITUDES

I. MATURATION

The young child has only a very limited capacity for understanding the world
about him and he is consequently incapable of forming attitudes about remote, or
complex, or abstract things or problems.
At about a mental age of twelve years the child begins to understand abstract
terms such as pity and justice, and his capacity for both inductive and deductive
reasoning shows a marked and continuous increase during adolescence. As a
result of this growth in capacity, he becomes able to understand and react to
more abstract and more generalized propositions, ideas and ideals.
At the age of four or five years, three characteristics especially deserve mention.
These are curiosity, centra-suggestibility, and independence. The child at this age
is likely to express his curiosity by asking an endless series of questions.
 Adolescence is marked especially by the maturation of sex emotions and by the
development of altruism and co-operativeness. These in large measure furnish
the basis for the formation of attitudes that differentiate adults from children.
Boys at the age of twelve years may have a distant interest in girls and they may
even have crushes on particular girls, but their interest is quite different from
what it will be some years later.

2. PHYSICAL FACTORS

Clinical psychologists have generally recognised that physical health and vitality
are important factors in determining adjustment, and frequently it has been
found that malnutrition or disease or accidents have interfered so seriously with
normal development that serious behaviour disturbances have followed.

3. HOME INFLUENCES

It is generally accepted that attitudes are determined largely by social

environment and that home influences are especially important.

4. THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT

The home environment is of primary importance in the formation of early

attitudes, but friends, associates and the general social environment come to
have an increasing influence as the child grows older and has wider social
contacts.
5. GOVERNMENT

The form of the government seems to be an important factor in

determining attitudes both towards government itself and towards other things.

6. MOVIE PICTURES

Attendance at movie pictures constitutes another important possible

influence in determination of attitudes. Thurstone concluded that films definitely
change social. One of the categories in Brown's study was "manner of
presentation" of subject matter. This was judged to have a favourable effect by
8.0 per cent of the students and an unfavourable effect by 17.7 per
cent. attitudes, although only about 10 per cent of the attitudes studied seemed
to be affected by movie attendance.

7. THE TEACHER

Brown asked 300 graduate and undergraduate students in educational

sociology to evaluate the various factors in their school experience that had been
influential in the formation of personality and character traits. According to their
judgement, the personalities of their teachers had been the most important single
factor, 65.3 per cent thought this influence had been good, but 33.3 per cent
thought it had been unfavourable. Only about 10 per cent did not consider, the
teacher's influence important.
8. THE CURRICULUM

Thorndike asked 155 teachers to rate eleven subjects and activities on the
basis of what they considered the value of these to be or the training of character.
Teaching has the highest rank, but athletic sports come next. English literature
and history have the best ranks for the regular school subjects; mathematics and
foreign languages are ranked much lower. This indicates that, in the opinion of
this group of teachers, literature and the social sciences have more influence than
other subjects on the determination of attitudes. This seems a reasonable view
and it suggests that the units of work and the readings in these areas should be
selected with particular reference to their probable influence on the attitudes
formed by the students.

Development of Attitude
Attitudes are not mere accidents of individual experience. They result from day-
to-day living in the home, in the school, and in the community. Whatever attitude
children develop can be traced, in part atleast, to the effect upon them, of
teacher precept and example. The challenge to teacher is that of helping the
learner retain his identity, develop his individuality and absorb a background of
democratic culture. Theoretically all education is aimed at helping learners
develop to the full extent of their ability and those attitudes that fit them for
living constructively in a democratic society.
Attitudes are formed without direction and also by direction as the result of
careful planning by a person or persons who desire to encourage the
development of certain attitudes in others. One function of school is that of
stimulating young people towards acquisition of attitudes that are individually
and socially desirable. It is through initiation, emotional experience and deliberate
efforts on the part of the individual himself, teacher, and other and new attitudes
arise.

Child is a great initiator and builds its most of attitudes in that way. Adolescent
develops attitude by his enlarging adjustment problems with expanding groups.
The environment to which he is exposed influences the attitude either desirable
or undesirably. Radio, television, film and printed matter contribute to the
attitude development. Thus, there are so many factors that influence the adults
to develop attitudes.

Factors Responsible for Development of Attitudes

Article Shared by Aman Sharma

The factors which lead to development of attitudes are: a. Family b. Peers c. Conditioning d.
Social adjustment functions e. Direct instruction f. Modelling g. Satisfaction of wants and h.
Prejudices!

a. Family:

Family is the most powerful source for formation of attitudes. The parents, siblings provide
information about various things.

Attitudes developed by an individual, whether positive or negative are the result of family
influence, are very powerful and difficult to undo.
b. Peers:

As the individual develops, he comes in contact with outer world and peers in first place. Peers
include same age friends, neighbours, classmates, etc. The child tries to internalise the attitudes
of these people.

c. Conditioning:

When we are conditioned or adjusted to a certain set up of people, situation, etc., we will be
influenced by that. Hence, our associations lead to develop attitudes. Many times the kind of
reinforcement we get from environment also leads to develop attitudes.

On the other hand, negative reinforcement like punishment, teasing, criticizing, troubling may
lead to develop negative attitude.

Examples: when a patient’s life is saved by a particular hospital at critical moments, he will
develop a favourable attitude about that hospital (classical conditioning). Similarly, in
instrumental conditioning, reward consequences of any behaviour will shape our attitude. For
example, if you express an attitude to a friend, who then reinforce your behaviour in the form of
smiling, your attitude is likely to be strengthened, otherwise gets weakened.

d. Social adjustment functions:

This is otherwise called balance theory. Every society has majority of people who prefer to lead
a harmonious life. They try to avoid unnecessary friction of conflicts with people. Naturally, they
are inclined to develop positive attitudes towards most of the people and issues. Our attitudes
may facilitate and maintain our relationships with members of positively valued groups. Usually
we want to go with significant others to us, and rebel against those unwanted.

e. Direct instruction:

Sometimes direct instruction can influence attitude formation. For example, somebody gives
information about a hair dye or usefulness of some fruit, we develop an attitude about that
product, may be positive or negative.

f. Modelling:

This has been influential in developing attitudes toward a wide range of issues from alcohol to
various kinds of dress, shoes, etc.

g. Satisfaction of wants:

Individual develops favourable attitudes towards those people and objects which satisfy his
wants and unfavourable attitudes towards those who do not satisfy.
h. Prejudices:

Prejudices are preconceived ideas or judgments where one develops some attitudes on other
people, objects, etc., without proper information. For example, disliking a doctor or a nurse
without knowing their abilities, just because of their caste, religion, region, nationality, etc.

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