CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

In every research undertaking, the process of perusing the existing bodies of knowledge
through looking into the literature of certain fields and disciplines is very essential as it serves as
a guide to direct the course of the study, and as a map which puts the study into context.

Our study is rooted on the tenets of sustainable development – on how economic growth
and environmental protection can go hand in hand without one aspect surmounting or
dominating the other. Our mark is to understand how the public sector and its interventions –
mainly through policy-making, administrative and market regulation, among others – attain
sustainable development.

The Concept of Development

Development, as a concept, is relatively new. Throughout history, imperialism and

colonialism has dominated the global political and economic spheres beginning in the sixteenth
century up to the early twentieth century. According to Jonathan Harris (2000), in his paper
Basic Principles of Sustainable Development, “prior to the second half of the twentieth century,
the idea of development as we know it today barely existed.” The colonial experiences of
nations provided little for their social and economic advancement.

After the Second World War and during the ensuing years of the Cold War, “economic
and social improvement for the majority had become a major preoccupation of governments.”
(Harris, 2000) This drastic paradigm shift occurred in the face of the disintegration of colonial
power relations along with the nationalist and independence movements which swept through
former colonies. Thus, newly-created nation-states began to adapt development policies with
the ultimate goal of raising their standards of living while sufficiently providing basic public good
and services.

Therefore, the prevailing notion of development goes beyond the traditional thinking of
economic growth alone. As economies have experienced recent rapid economic growth, a
myriad of factors – globalization, climate change, and among others – come into play rendering
our understanding of development a wider perspective and with more complexity. Hence, we
should thoroughly look into development not just as a mere numbers game but also an in-depth
examination of the abstractions of happiness, freedom, equity, and social justice.

5
Research Problems

This study seeks to provide an answer to a fundamental question that we are all facing
today: What is the bottom line of development? Is sustainable development really attainable? Is
it merely about the accumulation of material wealth and fostering economic security of nations?
Is it inclusive of the improvement of the general well-being of the populace? To give a sufficient
answer is the main goal of sustainable development: to hit both marks without putting the other
factors into compromise.

To deduce these general problems, the group specifically wants to know if government
intervention through policy-making will then achieve sustainable development. Acknowledging
its tourism potential, the group will use the case of San Antonio, Zambales.

This chapter gives an account on the basic concepts of 1) Sustainable Development, its
framework and implications; 2) the relationship between Tourism and Economics, on how
tourism acts a tool for economic growth; 3) the interdependence of Tourism and the
Environment, on how we could devise a sustainable tourism framework vis-à-vis environmental
protection; and 4) the interaction between Economics and the Environment, and the role of the
public sector in striking a balance between the two.

On Sustainable Development
To clearly understand sustainable development, we should give a brief historical
explanation on how it came about. It owes its beginnings from the environmental movement
which began to enter the mainstream platform of global and social issues in the 1960s,
especially after the controversial book, Silent Spring, by American author Rachel Carson was
initially published in 1962. This was compounded by a number of environmental catastrophes
which took place during that decade such as the oil spills in southern California and
Massachusetts, and the threats of species extinction which were highlighted in the mainstream
media (Botkin and Keller, 2011).
In 1987, the World Commission on Environment and Development presented a report
entitled Our Common Future as a response to the discordances between the environment and
development goals of countries. Thus, the definition of sustainable development was
operationalized:
“Sustainable development is development which meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs.” (United Nations, 1987)

6
 The aforementioned definition puts an emphasis on the idea of intergenerational equity
by providing a mindset of prudence on current consumption and rethinking the ways in which
anthropogenic activities are being conducted. We could see the three basic dimensions of
sustainable development which interplay: economic, environmental, and social.

7
 Environmental

Sustainable
Social Equitable Economic

Economic: this aspect concerns itself with the achievement of continuous

growth in domestic product involving both cost minimization and profit
maximization by the different sectors; the production of basic goods and
services into the economy; and the management of macroeconomic
fundamentals such as inflation and interest rates to avoid the occurrences
of imbalances among the the different economic sectors (agricultural,
industrial and services).
Environmental: this aspect involves the upkeep of a stable resource base
through employing resource management and environmental protection
policies as well as habitat restoration and preservation. This also implies
the maintenance of biodiversity, and other ecosystem functions.
Social: this aspect involves the improvement of the quality of life through
giving equal access to basic social services such as health and education
and; ensuring social equity through welfare policies, income distribution
and community development, and enshrining laws that would ensure
equal opportunities for everyone.

Figure 2.1. Three Dimensions of Sustainability

(Adapted from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers)

8
 According to Soubbotina (2004), sustainable development can also be characterized as
being equitable and balanced. She pointed out that, “in order for development to continue
indefinitely, it should balance the interests of different groups of people, within the same
generation and among generations.” She noted that the two huge challenges in the pursuit of
sustainable development are the eradication or minimization of poverty incidence, and the
preservation of peace among nations and regions. Both can become serious impediments if not
properly addressed because they are “inherently destructive of all economic as well as social
and environmental goals of development.”
Soubbotina's propositions are supported by the pronouncements of United Nations
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon (2013) in his annual report to the UN General Assembly as he
stated that, “sustainable development, enabled by the integration of economic growth, social
justice and environmental stewardship, must become our global guiding principle and
operational standard.” He described it as humanity’s “pathway to the future.” He further
explained that “poverty eradication is an indispensable requirement of sustainable
development.” Therefore, countries and regional economic blocs cannot achieve sustainability
without addressing the problem of poverty through inclusive growth efforts. He stressed and
demanded a renewed commitment from member states to international cooperation in acting
upon these common challenges. As his conclusion, he encouraged the nations of the world to
be united in rallying behind a common programme: that to achieve the Millennium Development
Goals is also achieving sustainable development.

The Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development

To concretize the pursuit of sustainable development, the United Nations crafted the
Millennium Development Goals in 2000 as part of its adoption of the United Nations Millennium
Declaration. The eight-point declaration was set to be achieved by the year 2015. These are:
Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.
Achieve universal primary education.
Promote gender equality and empower women.
Reduce child mortality.
Improve maternal health.
Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases.
Ensure environmental sustainability.
Global partnership for development.

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 These goals have made sustainable development more vivid and quantifiable.
Economist Jeffrey Sachs (2012) said that, “the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) mark a
historic and effective method of global mobilization to achieve a set of important social priorities
worldwide.” He has cited that notable progress was achieved against poverty, hunger, and
disease as perceived and measured by official policy-makers and the civil society. Therefore, he
stressed out that in order to continue the momentum of progress, Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) must be carved out of the existing MDGs following their 15-year period pattern
and timespan. The formulation of SDGs is currently a work in progress and up until it is fleshed
out and ready for adoption, the world’s focus must continue to be in the attainment of the MDGs.

Measuring Sustainable Development

To quantify the measurement of sustainable development across and among countries,

the United Nations (2007) pointed out a total of fourteen indicators namely: poverty,
governance, health, education, demographics, natural hazards, atmosphere, land, oceans,
seas, and coasts, freshwater, biodiversity, economic development, global economic partnership,
and consumption and production patterns. Under each indicator are several sub-themes which
further delineate more clearly the dimensions of the indicators the researchers wish to measure.

Income
Poverty

Income
Inequality Poverty Sanitation

Living
Conditions

Figure 2.2. Poverty Indicator and its sub-themes

For example, under poverty, sub-themes include income poverty, income inequality,
sanitation, access to energy, and living conditions. Each sub-theme gauges the different
dimensions of poverty.

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 Another example is economic development. It is further divided into the sub-themes of
macroeconomic performance, sustainable public finance, employment, information and
communication technologies, research and development, and tourism.

Moreover, the sub-theme of macroeconomic performance is further decoupled into a

number of indices which include gross domestic product per capita, gross savings, and inflation
rate. Looking closer, we can conclude that the indicators for measuring sustainable
development are a concoction of social, economic, and environmental factors so as to equally
judge the importance, value, and the extent of each category. The aforementioned indicators
were selected on the basis of their national scope, relevance in assessing the progress of
sustainable development, soundness, representativeness of the international consensus, and
dependence on cost-effective data of known quality.

It is important that the measurement of sustainable development is operational and

quantifiable so that it can provide public policies as well as policy-makers a way out of a
quandary and give them a yardstick to use. Stevens (2005) said that, “without indicators or a
quantitative framework, sustainable development policies lack a solid foundation on which to
advance.” She further noted that frameworks are of great importance because they provide
structure for work and on underlying statistics.

Sustainable Development and Global Governance

To effectively inject the attainment of sustainable development to all countries of the
world, the primary manner is through the intervention of a governing body by means of policy-
making, performance monitoring, and evaluation. In this post-modern era, governance plays a
role in and through different levels of involvement: global, national, and local. Bevir (2013) refers
to governance as the:

“…processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market

or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or
territory and whether though laws, norms, power, or language.”

Francois (2009) pointed out that world or global governance is the “latest and most
developed form of governance,” and it “rose to the political level and put forward the need for
political cooperation among states.” He cited four major actors in world governance namely the
1) international government organizations (IGOs) which is further subdivided into three sub-
categories: first, the United Nations and its attached agencies; second, the international
institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (WB); and third,

11
the multilateral organizations and regional entities such as the Organisation for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the European Union. 2) The civil society
representatives such as the Doctors without Borders and Greenpeace; 3) the economic and
international finance actors which include multinational corporations (MNCs), market authorities,
and private institutions contributing to the development of common norms and standards; and
finally 4) states and informal groups which include individual states and grouping such as the
G20 and G7 informal groups.

In the light of this new global order, the United Nations is in the pedestal and in the
frontline of global governance and in ensuring the attainment of sustainable development. To be
of aid to this undertaking, the Global Sustainable Development Report was crafted by the same
organization which outlines a set of alternative approaches and various ways of effectively
linking the scientific community to policy-makers. The scientific community is vital in providing
the necessary information that shapes evidence-based policies. This approach aims to produce
empirically-sound policies which are not governed by political whims. Thus, these policies
become appropriate, responsive and adequate in addressing the problems specific to certain
countries (United Nations, 2007).

Throughout the years, several assessments were already made and are making strides
in shaping public policy. Some examples are the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment which was
first published in 2005, the International Assessments on Agricultural Science and Technology
for Development in 2008, and the Global Energy Assessment in 2012. These reports have
shown that there are ambivalent views on whether or not progress is achieved in attaining
sustainable development.

One perspective has exclaimed that “the elements of a sustainable future are already
visible.” An opposing view posits that there exists an implementation gap in terms of finance,
technology, and capacity and that there is a need for a considerable amount of political will to
religiously implement the appropriate policy alternatives that are available to countries. Also,
another view states that in order to achieve sustainable development, there should be a global
move to control population growth and to extensively restore ecosystems in a large-scale
manner to “restore global biotic regulation and prevent collapse of ecosystems, including the
human species.” Finally, these reports have come up with scenarios sketching future
sustainable development pathways for countries to adapt to as the bottom line is the attainment

12
of a global sustainability transition period by the year 2050 to change the course of the present
deteriorating condition of the planet and of mankind (United Nations, 2007).

The problem of global governance can be augmented through employing both national
and local governance frameworks consistent with the principles, practices and goals of the
United Nations. The large scope brought about by the global jurisdiction of the United Nations
poses a limitation on its reach. Therefore, national and local governments should work hand in
hand in order achieve the ideals that are being aspired and agreed upon.

Sustainable Development in the Philippines

Through legislation and institutionalization, sustainable development was brought into

the mainstream in the Philippines. As early as 1987, the formulation of a Philippine Strategy for
Sustainable Development (PSSD) was initiated by the Philippine government mainly by the
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR). By June 1988, a formal resolution
to adopt and implement PSSD was passed by both former President Corazon Aquino and the
Congress of the Republic of the Philippines. And on November 29, 1989, the Cabinet
Resolution No. 37 was passed approving the Conceptual Framework of the PSSD.

This landmark framework has been the guiding formula for the formulation of strategies
concerning population, environment and natural resources, agriculture, industry, infrastructure,
and energy since its adoption. Inscribed in the PSSD are general implementing strategies which
are “aimed at resolving and reconciling the diverse and conflicting environmental, demographic,
economic, and natural resource use issues arising from the country’s development efforts.”
These strategies include the integration of environmental consideration in decision-making,
proper pricing of natural resources, property rights reform, the establishment of an integrated
protected areas system, rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems, the strengthening of residuals
management in industry, the integration of population concerns and social welfare in
development planning, inducing growth in rural areas, promotion of environmental education,
and strengthening of citizens’ participation and constituency building (DENR, 1990).

Another milestone was reached when the Philippine Council for Sustainable
Development (PCSD) was established on September 1, 1992 by virtue of Executive Order No.
15 during the Ramos administration. The council was further strengthened in 1996 when
Executive Order No. 370 was passed vesting it the authority to expand its Council membership
to other government agencies. Akin to the creation of the PCSD was the adoption of the
Philippine Agenda 21 (PA 21) on September 26, 1996 upon the issuance of Memorandum

13
Order No. 399. Sto. Domingo (2010) described Philippine Agenda 21 as “the nation’s blueprint
for sustainable development.” He further explained what PA 21 is:

“…a path grounded on respect and active advocacy for the empowerment of the
various social groupings of society to manage the economy, critical resources,
society and culture, politics and governance and in the arena of foreign relations.”

The agenda has three emphases in achieving sustainability namely: an area-based

scale of intervention, applicable integrated island development approaches, and development
initiatives that are people-centered and focused on the integrity of nature.

Sustainable Development and Local Governance

Local government units (LGUs) are of primary significance when it comes to policy,
program, and project implementations. Being in the lowest tier of governance, they are the
nearest and the most accessible units to individual constituents and to the grassroots levels.
Therefore, it is important to include all LGUs in the implementation of sustainable development
efforts of both national governments and supranational bodies.

Atkinson (2002) pointed out three factors which makes local governments vital. The first
factor is that local government is “intrinsically multi-sectoral.” Second, it is ‘closest to the people.’
And the third one is its spatial dimension. The first factor pertains to the aggregation of all
existing sectoral issues into a single developmental policy, program, or project. Thus, it tries to
hit the needs of a number of sectors with only one stone. The second one spells out two
aspects: the geographical proximity of the municipal officers and the smaller constituency size.
With these conditions, accountability along with the provision of basic public goods and services
are relatively easier and more viable. Lastly, as connected to the geographical proximity aspect
of the second factor, the quest for development requires continuous involvement and face-to-
face interactions with one’s beneficiaries taking place in their very own communities.

Copus (2012) has identified two main functions of local governments: the first one being
providers of services themselves or as facilitators or regulators of services via different modes.
Bello and Dola (2014), in their conduct of a case study in Malaysia, found out that “at the level of
local governance, explicit policy direction for participatory processes can be provided.” They
also pointed out that grass root participation is initiated at the local level. With these findings, it
is prudent to conclude that the local government unit is well poised to become the last piece of
the entire sustainable development framework puzzle as it is the one who applies the finishing
touches. It is within this framework that the researchers chose to conduct our study in a chosen

14
local government unit which is the Municipality of San Antonio located in the Province of
Zambales.

On Tourism and Economics

Aside from international trade, foreign and local investments, and public sector spending
which all inject a certain rate of growth into the economies of countries, tourism – both
international and domestic – has become one of the effective tools for national economic
development as it contributes to income generation, employment and foreign-exchange
earnings of economies (Taleghani, 2010). Tourism is a driving force in achieving economic
growth and development as it rakes in income from a gamut of economic transactions ranging
from the purchase of airline tickets, booking of travel tours and packages to hotel
accommodations and dining and shopping expenditures.

According to the United Nations World Tourism Organization, tourism has grown
exponentially over the past six decades and has since become one of the leading and fastest-
growing economic sectors of the world. Most recent data from the World Travel and Tourism
Council (2010) show that current global tourism contributions to GDP amounts to US$ 7 trillion
which accounts for 9.4% of the total global gross domestic product; the industry accounts for 8.7%
of global employment with an estimated annual growth rate of 2.4%.

Taleghani (2010) further reported that tourism has become the most important economic
activity for many third world countries. This claim is backed up by numerous studies which
demonstrated that “tourism can play a significant role in balanced sustainable development, and
that it can be effectively harnessed to generate benefits for the poor” (UNWTO, 2002). Also,
tourism has become the principal export for 83% of developing countries (Mbanefo, 2014).

Therefore, to ensure the future gains from tourism, the over-all sector must be
contextualized to the framework of sustainable development. The converging point between
economics and tourism is the concept of efficiency. To inject efficiency into our examination of
tourism, we should examine and come up with efficient means of using the resource base
required by the tourism sector to bring about economic gains without the expense of
environmental detriments.

One of the issues that Dwyer and Forsyth (2010) wish to address is to create a
mechanism that would accurately measure the contribution of the tourism sector to the overall
economy. This sentiment holds true as Davidson (2004) said that “given the complexity of
tourism consumption, its economic impact is felt widely in other production sectors.” Thus, the

15
tourism sector faces a major difficulty in defining its boundaries to ascertain what investment
costs must be ascribed to its development. Another setback is that tourism is not treated by
international agencies as a “sector” in national accounting terms (Taleghani, 2010). It has been
said earlier that the tourism industry is “hidden” in that spending in this sector is accounted to
other industries such as telecommunications, transportation and communication (Dwyer and
Forsyth, 2010).

These difficulties stem up from the fact that the tourism sector is highly dependent on the
other sectors of the economy. To address these issues, Taleghani (2010) recommended the
creation of a system to accurately measure statistical data that will show tourism’s economic
contribution to correctly identify the mechanisms by which tourism generates growth and also its
potentials for further development. Hence, Dwyer and Forsyth (2010) constructed the tourism
satellite account (TSA) which is extracted from the national accounts to trace the contribution of
tourism to all the other sectors and to exact an accurate measurement and not just to estimate
its total contribution to the gross domestic product of countries. To achieve this, the
measurement of tourism’s contribution is identified from the demand side by simply measuring
the demand for various commodities. From there, the demand is linked to the supply side of the
available tourism commodities in the market or to certain industries which are related to the
tourism sector.

Dwyer and Forsyth (2010) went on with their discussion to look into the economic impact
of tourism aside from just the measurement of its value to the overall economy. This can be
done by looking at the specific events and activities which constitute “tourism demand.”
Therefore, in the employment of an effective impact assessment, one needs the utilization of
economic models. For instance, the assumptions that an individual possesses pertaining to the
economy are directly related to the level of visitor spending. Therefore, a positive consumer
outlook on the economy encourages spending and consumption as opposed to having a
negative assumption when the economy is in the downturn. In recent times, the determination of
tourism’s economic impacts experienced a paradigm shift. The framework that is currently used
is the computable general equilibrium (CGE) model which is constructed as a series of markets
(for goods, services and factors of production), production sectors and demand groups (firms
and households. To gain better understanding of tourism’s economic contribution and impacts,
we will look at the most recent tourism statistics of the Philippines.

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 According to the Tourism Research and Statistics Division of the Office of Tourism
Planning, Research and Information Management of the Department of Tourism (2014), there
were 2,433,428 tourist arrivals in the Philippine in the six-month period of January to June this
year. This figure is 52,835 more than the number recorded the previous year at the same time
period registering a 2.22% growth. The data shows that the Philippines experienced an increase
of tourist arrivals year-on-year since 2010.

Table 2.1. International Arrivals

(January-June)
2014 2,433,428
2013 2,380,593
2012 2,143,506
2011 1,919,400
2010 1,713,286

Source: Department of Tourism, 2014

For the period of January to June 2014, tourists from the Asian region comprise the bulk
of visitor arrivals accounting for about three-fifths of the total tourists at 58.78% with South
Korea, China, and Japan being the leading countries of origin. The Americas come in second
place comprising about a fifth of arrivals at 19.28% then by Europe at 10.64%. Australia and the
Pacific come in fourth place at 5.88% and those who come from Africa only registered 0.94%.
Also, Overseas Filipinos returning home for vacation, furlough, or repatriation account for 4.36%
of the total arrivals.

Examining the arrivals by sub-region, ASEAN-member states achieved significant

growth in arrivals with an increase of 11.21%; arrivals from Southern Europe which grew by
13.35%, and by Eastern Mediterranean Europe garnering an increase of 13.58% (DOT, 2014).

17
 Table 2.2 Top Five Visitor Markets

= (January-June)

South Korea 547,971

USA 389,432
China 226,163
Japan 220,366
Australia 111,687

Source: Department of Tourism, 2014

South Korea remained on top of the list of international visitors contributing 547,971
arrivals which comprise more than a fifth of the total number of visitors at 22.52%. The South
Koreans are followed by those coming from the United States of America which supplied an
influx of 389,432 arrivals comprising 16.00% of the total. This is followed by China supplying
226,163 visitors at 9.29%; then by Japan at 9.06% amassing 220, 366 visitors. Australia is in 5th
place with 111,687 visitors and a share of 4.59% (DOT, 2014).

Additionally, a total of Php 109.77 billion was raked in by the economy coming from
inbound tourists in the first six months of this year. South Korea grabs the first place with a total
tourist spending of roughly Php 29.11 billion followed by tourists from the United States with a
total expenditure of Php 22.64 billion; then by Australia contributing Php 7.38 billion. Japan is in
fourth place giving out Php 5.48 billion and lastly, tourists from China spent Php 4.88 billion in
total (DOT, 2014).

Table 2.3. Top Five Visitor Receipts

(January-June)
South Korea Php29.11B
USA Php22.64B
Australia Php7.38B
Japan Php5.48B
China Php4.88B

Source: Department of Tourism, 2014

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 The Philippine experience has proved that tourism is an effective tool in national
economic development but the growth that is being achieved does not come without a price. On
the other side of the coin are the detrimental effects that the tourism phenomenon spells out.
Pollution and exploitation of natural resources by both tourists and locals are some primary
examples in which too humongous an industry can effectuate to the environment. Thus,
applying the concepts and models of sustainable development to the overall tourism framework
is a prudential move towards perpetuating the economic gains derived from the tourism sector.

On Tourism and the Environment

Tourism, as a driver of economic growth, uses environmental resources in the course of

the various activities that are being undertaken. A very obvious example is the use of land, in
which, tourism facilities such as hotels, casinos, resorts, beaches, restaurants, and souvenir
shops are built upon and where transactions akin to tourism are being conducted. In the case of
ecotourism, tours in and around nature sites increase the exposure and vulnerability of the
ecosystems – specifically the ecological community, and also the non-living component of the
environment such as the chemical composition of the soil – to the detrimental effects of
anthropogenic activities. Therefore, to achieve sustainability in both sides of the coin, a
continuous economic growth and a thoroughly protected and maintained environment,
responsible and ethical tourism must be espoused and practiced both by the providers of the
tourism services and also the tourists themselves.

As attested by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), tourism activities

have environmental impacts at the global level. One of the negative impacts is the loss of
biological diversity in ecosystems. This in turn foments a domino effect as it disrupts food
supplies through interfering with the food chains and food webs of certain organisms. It also
reduces the productivity of ecosystems as it brings in destabilization, weakening their ability to
withstand and cope with natural disasters and other environmental disturbances such as
wildfires, soil erosion, flooding, and earthquakes, among others.

Another impact is the depletion of the ozone layer through the release of certain
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere due to economic activities related to tourism such as the
construction and development of tourism facilities and their day-to-day operations which use
energy from fossil fuels, and other sources, contributing to atmospheric emissions. Lastly,
tourism could also effectuate climate change as it involves mobility of people via different
transportation mechanisms. A certain study has found out that half of traffic movements involve

19
people moving from their homes to their vacation destinations. Passenger airlines are the major
contributors of greenhouse gas emissions according to the research conducted by World
Wildlife Fund. These evidences concretize the need to think of ways on how to achieve
sustainable tourism.

A study undertaken by Farajirad and Aghajani (2010) closely examined how tourism is
connected with the environment. They looked at the relationship between the two by
establishing the premise that “tourism is an environmentally dependent activity.” They have
presented that negative impacts begin to accrue when the number of visitors has exceeded the
maximum carrying capacity of the environment for accommodation. Simply put, the environment
could only support a certain number of people given its finite base of resources. It is for a fact
that resource usage is a necessary condition to enable tourism expansion and further
development but unhampered and unwise utilization of tourism facilities – which owes its
existence to the environment – would pose potential threats as well as put enormous pressure
on specific locations of interest. Uncontrolled usage coupled by weak regulation would result to
pollution in all forms. But these consequences are reversible with the aid of appropriate policies
and programs that are coupled with judicious planning and cooperation among different
organizations and sectors.

Tourism Policy Framework

Tourism, being a sector which propels the global economy, must be managed in a way
that would assure continuous economic gains even in future time periods. To administer inter-
state tourism affairs and relations, the World Tourism Organization (WTO), a United Nations
agency, was established as the primary international body in authority for promoting
“responsible, sustainable, and universally accepted tourism.” It achieves this goal through
offering technical know-how and support to individual countries in the development of
implementation of tourism policies around the world. To understand the international tourism
policy framework more clearly, we shall examine the Tourism Bill of Rights and Tourist Code,
and the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism which both spell out how tourism activities are ought
to be conducted to minimize potential negative impacts and also to maximize the gains from
tourism that would in turn result in economic growth, poverty reduction and the attainment of
sustainable development.

The Tourism Bill of Rights and Tourist Code. This legal document came into
existence and was adopted during the General Assembly of the World Tourism Organization in

20
Sofia, Bulgaria in September 1985. This code is composed of fourteen articles which recognize
the importance of tourism in the social, economic, cultural, and educational sectors of societies.
It has drawn its inspirations from the principles laid down in the Manila Declaration on World
Tourism in 1980 which put an emphasis on the human dimension of tourism. The first nine
articles constitute the Tourism Bill of Rights which spells out the right to tourism while the last
five articles comprise the Tourist Code. This document is the basis and the springboard of the
Global Code of Ethics for Tourism which is more detailed, up to date, and contextually relevant
to present exigencies of the modern world.

The Tourism Bill of Rights, at the very first instance, established the right of everyone to
rest and leisure and the exercise therein is a factor of social balance and enhances national and
universal awareness. The recognition of this right should then translate to the formulation and
implementation of policies which provides platforms for the practice of such right. It encourages
cooperation and integration of tourism policies which will spur growth and heighten the
participation of individuals and groups in domestic and international tourism through the
provision of access to host communities and the promotion of tourism awareness. It also
denounces any discriminatory measure that would bar tourists from participation, and ensuring
mobility for everyone.

The Tourism Code, on the other hand, consist of the obligations and responsibilities in
which tourists must take into account through warranting from them the appropriate attitude,
behavior, and practices which are sensitive to the local customs and traditions of the host
countries. The bottom line of this document is aimed at fostering understanding and forging
friendly relations among nations. Additionally, tourist must also be cognizant and compliant with
the national laws and governmental measures of the host countries.

The Global Code of Ethics for Tourism. It is a resolution adopted at the thirteenth
General Assembly of the World Tourism Organization in Santiago, Chile in 1999. This document
serves as a follow-up on both the Manila Declaration on World Tourism of 1980 and the Social
Impact of Tourism of 1997. It was adopted by the United Nations through a resolution in 2001 in
recognition of the vital role of tourism as a tool to improve the quality of life and a contributor to
socio-economic development. According to UN, this code expounds the principles which act as
the guide for different governments and stakeholders in framing their tourism policies in their
own jurisdictions and localities. Additionally, the UN has been encouraging countries to

21
introduce and adapt the contents of this code in their state laws and regulations. The code is
comprised of ten articles which covers the different dimensions of tourism:

Tourism as a contributor to mutual understanding and respect between peoples

and societies.
Tourism as a vehicle for individual and collective fulfillment.
Tourism as a factor of sustainable development.
Tourism as a user of the cultural heritage of mankind and a contributor to its
enhancement.
Tourism as a beneficial activity for host countries and communities.
The obligations of stakeholders in tourism development.
The right to tourism.
The liberty of tourism movements.
The rights of the workers and entrepreneurs in the tourism industry.
The implementation of the principles of the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism.

Pronounced in the articles are the principles on how tourism could be made responsible
and sustainable. They highlight how tourism promotes and fosters respect for cultural diversity
and tolerance through cultural exchange and exposure. It implies that tourists should acquaint
themselves with the culture of the countries that they visit to further deepen and broaden their
understanding and appreciation of the host country’s culture.

Furthermore, tourism activities that are being undertaken must also be in line with the
norms and values of the host country. Tourists must not commit any criminal or illegal act on the
duration of their visit to the host country including the exploitation of the host countries’
environment and natural resources. On the other hand, public authorities of host countries must
ensure health, food and hazard safety as well as accident prevention, and provide adequate
protection for tourists from criminals. Also, locals must also familiarize themselves with the
culture, values, and preferences of tourists to relate with them adequately and appropriately.

Furthermore, it states that tourism provides avenues and facilitates activities which are
related to leisure, rest and relaxation, sports, culture and nature appreciation, as well as
international travels that are religious, educational, linguistic and health-related in nature. Also,
tourism activities must recognize gender equality and foster the promotion of human rights
through combating the illegal acts and practices contrary to international law such as sexual
exploitation and child labor.

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 Tourism must ensure the inclusion of all tourism stakeholders in safeguarding the natural
environment and encouraging and giving priority to the conduct of tourism activities which are
geared towards natural conservation and preservation. It also supposes that tourism
infrastructure must be adequate to provide ample protection from destruction to natural and
cultural heritage sites and that strict limitations and regulations must be imposed at all times.
The utilization of cultural heritage is enhanced through the preservation and improvement of
cultural and historical sites such as monuments, shrines, and parks. It attributes the ownership
and gives rights to nations in which these sites are located. Furthermore, tourism activities must
preserve local traditions and protect them from standardization.

Local communities must be direct beneficiaries of the economic gains of tourism and this
must be translated to improved standards of living through the provision of skills training and
enhancement, profitable employment, and social inclusion. Also, tourism stakeholders must
provide adequate and complete information to tourists coupled with fair prices and quality
services at par with accepted international standards. Tourism professionals should conduct
research and studies that would contribute to the further improvement of the over-all tourism
sector as well as identify the impacts of development projects and current tourism activities to
the environment and devise ways to address them.

This code spells out the right of all human beings to engage in tourism activities and
there should be no hindrances placed in its way. The right to tourism, therefore, legally enables
the free movement of tourists from country to country and giving them access to communication
and local health, legal, and administrative services. Tourists are also given the right to privacy
concerning their personal data and information. On the other hand, the tourism labor force must
receive adequate salaries and must be protected from exploitation by their employers. They are
also entitled to receive continual training to further enhance their skills and allow them to
develop a professional activity within the field of tourism. Tourism enterprises, especially
multinational establishments which are located in overseas countries, must be barred from
exploiting their dominant market positions and from sending all of their profits back to their home
countries. Instead, they should contribute to the economies in which they are located.

The Tourism Act of 2009. This Act views tourism as a means to further the progress of
national economic growth and stability, and establish a substantial foundation in pursuit for
national interests, industry, and significance. Moreover, tourism is also a driver for cultural
recognition – an instrument in exposing different ways of life in various areas in the Philippines;

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a means for attracting local investments, foreign trade, and livelihoods. Consequently, all these
modes of progress and growth will branch out to form a sense of national pride for Filipinos.

In specific terms, the State, with its power to utilize its tourism capabilities, shall advance
the development of the Philippine tourism sector – that is to say for the Filipinos and by the
Filipinos and thus it shall advocate national identity as well as a concept of national unity; view
sustainable tourism development as a means in advancing national socio-economic
development and, in effect, improving the quality of life for Filipinos; develop a tourism industry
that can be self-sustaining, and socially perceptive to the wide array of existing Filipino cultures
as well as foreign cultures in order for it to be regarded as an entity that is equitable in the
societal stage; be able to pursue its significance to the world as a relevant site for tourist
destinations and therefore, paving the way for other benefits that may stem from the positive
outlook of the world toward the Philippines, Filipino culture, and Filipino tourism sector; and
finally, inviting the aid of the private sector and agri-tourism for further innovations and rural-life
security.

The objectives of the Act centers around its pursuit for economic progress. (I) it is set to
generate a national tourism action plan and consolidate the efforts from governments in both the
national and local levels. In view of this, there will be an assurance of action from the
departmental level to the localized offices to ensure work development and stability. (II) It is
tasked to encourage the preservation of Filipino cultures and heritages and advocate historical
and cultural awareness to the whole population. Upon doing so, the tourism sector will be
prepared to shape the identities of various cultures in the Philippines by learning their histories,
backgrounds, and significance to the country and honing such knowledge to be shared to
tourists and locals alike. (III) It will deal with equality as a primary element in the treatment of
Filipino nationals in the employment level, specifically in tourism-related venues. (IV) It will
encourage the protection and well-being of the Filipino people in investment areas shaving off
detrimental implications for residential members as it will also promote the protection of women
and children residing in the areas. (V) It will maximize consumer choice by enticing tourism
industry competition. This will ensure continued feasible service in the industry. And (VI) to
cultivate a tourism strategy that is environmentally viable and will foster the participation of local
communities.

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 RA 9593 has a viable application to San Antonio, Zambales in light of tourism
development. It gives importance to human capital, national importance, and cultural
development as a means of fostering economic growth. With these elements at hand, industry
will not be far from happening. As long as the proper utilization of resources is performed, the
tourism industry will pave the way for economic sustainability.

Zambales Tourism Code of 2013. The Ordinance No. 2014-02 tackles sustainable
development for the main purpose of converting the province of Zambales into a venue for
global tourist destinations, significant assemblages, and even a settlement place for retirees.
Other aims include preserving the natural environment, promoting cultural awareness and the
rights of host communities, education for all stakeholders on the principles of responsible and
sustainable tourism, improvement of living securities for Zambales residents, enticing the
maximum utilization of natural and human capital for tourism development, proper
compensation for private entities involved, and develop the Philippine tourism industry into an
instrument of professionalism, human resource refinement, and cooperation between the public
and private sectors. It ultimately centers around the establishment of a Tourism Council that will
take charge in fostering the significance of regional economic progress in pursuit of the growth
of the nation's economy. It urges the concept that tourism is a very viable means to ensure the
security of the country given that advancements can be maintained economically.

To be competitively adept in the tourism industry and to be associated with both quality
services and standards constitute the vision and mission of the ordinance for the benefit of the
municipality of Zambales. In this light, competition within the industry will be encouraged to
maintain income flows, and quality standards and services at high levels will entail global
competitiveness as well as an improvement of lifestyles for the locals of the municipality. Global
competitiveness can also stem from a stable tourism industry. That is to say, being able to
compete with first-world tourism industries will have a great impact nationally in economic and
security terms.

The Tourism Council, being proposed in the Ordinance, will be the highest policy-making
and coordinating body for the province of Zambales. Its duties and responsibilities ultimately
focus on identifying potential tourism attractions to further expand the capabilities of tourism
offerings, create programs and projects for the community that will advance sustainable
development principles, coordinate with the Department of Tourism, Local Government Units,
and the private sector in attaining general welfare for stakeholders, tourists, and local

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communities, encourage other municipals in implementing tourism codes based on this
Ordinance, and other related activities approved by the Board of Directors.

This Tourism Code represents a very viable instrument in initiating the advancement of
tourism in Zambales. A council is needed to spearhead the actualization of the vision and
mission of the municipality's tourism industry. It will be the driving force behind every means to
attain general welfare of the community, economic security, economic growth, national identity,
cultural identity from the localities, and global marketability.

On Economics and the Environment

The state of the environment is an integral part of the economy inasmuch as the
economy is reliant on the environment. One cannot split the one from the other. As per the Rio
Declaration on Environment and Development, environmental protection cannot be divorced
with sustainable development as it is an integral part of the development process (UNCED,
1992).

In his book, Economics and the Environment, Goodstein (2011) presented four
questions that must be pondered about: How much pollution is too much? Is the government
committed enough to environmental protection? How can we do better? And can we find
collective and effective solutions for global environmental issues? To contextualize this study to
the theories narrated in this body of literature, we must zero in on the implications given by the
second question on whether or not the government, as a whole, is an effective and efficient
organization to carry out different functions of environmental protection: From the initiation,
formulation, implementation to the regulation and monitoring of various environmental policies.
Simply put, the issue at hand is whether government intervention through public policy
translates to environmental protection. Botkin and Keller (2011) described environmental
economics as:

“…about how to persuade people, organizations, and society at large to act in a

way that benefits the environment, keeping it as free as possible of pollution and
other damage, keeping our resources sustainable, and accomplishing these
goals within a democratic framework.”

Therefore, environmental economics concerns itself with the creation of public policies
which takes into account the viability of economic growth and sustainability of resources. It

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employs policy instruments which spell out “what we do, what we can do, and how we do it”
(Botkin and Keller, 2011).

It has been an established fact that private firms, especially the industrial and
manufacturing sector, are the biggest contributors of pollution and other hazardous impacts to
the environment. To address this issue, one of the interventions that the public sector wields is
the employment of regulations and bans emanating from the state’s inherent police power. For
example, different national governments have been implementing regulatory policies to control
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Botkin and Keller (2011) listed down three mechanisms. The
first mechanism to discourage CO2 emissions is through levying a tax on it which depends on
its quantity. Another mechanism is the implementation of legal emission limits in which various
sources from individual households to firms and companies are allowed to emit only a certain
amount and nothing beyond that. The final mechanism is called the “cap-and-trade.” Akin to
legal emission limits, this policy also gives a maximum allowance on the amount of CO2 that
can be emitted into the atmosphere but with a caveat. It differs with the legal emission limit
mechanism in that individual sources can trade their emission allowances as ration coupons
among each other either through buying more of it if one’s operations require more emissions
or through selling it when one did not exhaust his allowance.

These mechanisms, along with other policies in which the public sector is implementing,
require extensive attention and implicate costs mainly accrued in monitoring. The primary
purpose of any environmental policy is to reduce the over-all pollution but on the other hand
some mechanisms, like the levying taxes, actually hurt businesses. To avoid the direct
payment of taxes, businesses pass on the cost to consumers, and the end result is that
pollution is not controlled efficiently as firms were able to find a loophole to ensure the
continuity of their present economic activities and the continuous inflow of profits without being
bothered by the interventions of the government designed for sustainability. Therefore,
environmental protection through government intervention is an arduous task to execute.

Furthermore, Goodstein (2011) developed two basic premises on the theory of

government action. The first one is that environmental regulation is characterized as being
information-intensive. Policy-making must be empirically-based and scientific and not just
whimsical. This highlights the importance of research which reports accurate findings and
observations, and also the significance of scientific theories and methods to provide adequate
and accurate data to feed and shape environmental policies. On the other hand, to provide

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solutions with incomplete data before it’s too late is very essential. The Precautionary Principle,
which was laid out in 1992 at the Rio Earth Summit on Sustainable Development in Brazil,
states that we should not wait for enough scientific proof before taking precautionary steps in
the midst of potential harm, and even serious and irreversible environmental damage (Botkin
and Keller, 2011). Therefore, the government should be careful and prudent enough in the
accuracy, appropriateness, and even the timing of its policies. This implicates the importance
to build and maintain a functional linkage between the scientific community and the process of
legislation as the legal source of regulation.

The second premise states that the process of regulation has a potential for political
influence and interference (Goodstein, 2011). This highlights the presence of political disparities
vested with different interests by politicians and is compounded by the clamor of lobbyists and
advocacy groups in giving shape to the environmental legislation and policies of the state.
Public policies do not exist in a vacuum; in lieu, societal and environmental conditions highly
affect how they come to be. This premise emphasizes the interconnectedness of all social
factors which may both impede or expedite the formulation and implementation of policies. At
times, when politics overrule, market failures occur as a result of not attaining the desirable
social goal of a clean environment or an efficient government. The bottomline according to
Botkin and Keller (2011) is that in all environmental issues, there exists “a desire on the one
hand to maintain individual freedom of choice and on the other to achieve a specific social goal.”
Therefore, the government is not just in the business of aggregating the interests of individuals
but also ensures that society comes first, that the collective is superior to the individual without
undermining the value of individuality. This is main issue that must be addressed in the totality
of policy-making.

Sustainable Development and the Urgency for Balance

The emergence of the tourism industry engenders a conflicting balance between
development and conservation. The island of Boracay, located in the province of Aklan,
Northwest of Panay Island, boasts its grandeur of being one of the most famous tourist
destinations in the Philippines with its white-sand beaches extending across the island at four
kilometers. Dubbed as one of the best beaches in Asia, the island of Boracay has already been
a participant in the tourism industry for more than 30 years.

In the 1970s, tourism development has already been initiated with the Philippine Tourism
Authority backing the movement through its evaluation of the areas for tourism conduciveness.

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Boracay's "Tourism Land Use Plan" defined the initial stages of the island’s pursuit for tourism
development wherein it permitted tourism-related business owners to construct establishments
fifty meters from the beach's coastline.

In the 1980s, representatives from various enterprises have formed the "United Boracay
Island Business Association" in which it advanced its advocacies to reform the island's
infrastructure policies – changing the restrictions from fifty meters to thirty meters from the
coastline. Later during the decade, violations for building codes were passed by Boracay's
Tourism Board. Moreover, to pursue further the tourism industry's positive implications such as
economic development, the "Tourism Master Plan" was enacted whereby it proposes series of
establishments of tourism-related facilities.

During the 1990s, the Master Plan has experienced numerous additions and modifications.
The first Master Plan has actually been terminated to accommodate a new proposal that would
seek the participation of the Local Government and the enhancement of tourism structures –
from traditional bamboo arrangements to concrete formations – and the electrification of a
number of areas in the island. Furthermore, environmental policies were also introduced in the
process of development – focusing on beach erosion. In addition, another reform on
infrastructure policies was made, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development has forwarded an assistance program, labeled "The Boracay Environmental
Infrastructure Project Execution," that would develop wastewater and sewage disposal systems.

In recent years, more public and commercial infrastructures were authorized in order to
allow easier access to the island. The Alkan Master Plan, proposed in 2000, has paved the way
for the construction of additional tourism-related facilities as well as roads around Boracay
Island, and an adjacent international airport in Kalibo. Issues have stemmed from the newly built
buildings but were resolved shortly after their completion. Moreover, the Boracay Beach
Management Program has pushed for new environmental campaigns on anti-littering and anti-
smoking, the Boracay Island Water Company has instituted in 2010 a provision on reliable
quality water and efficient wastewater treatment. With regard to coral reef protection, the island
has been left with fragile conditions and has recommended the regulation of tourism activities
such as snorkeling. The government has resorted to implementing solid waste management
practices and treatment of sewage systems

In the advent of Boracay's tourism industry growth, statistics have shown that type of
tourists that mostly visit the island are Filipinos living in other countries, next are Local Filipinos,

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and the top third are Koreans. As with the different types of services rendered for tourists,
restaurants and bars are the most prominent in profit generation, the second largest type of
service is souvenir-selling, and the third pump boat rentals. By 2009, the island has already
yielded 1.2 billion pesos worth of revenue coming from tourism alone.

In contrast to the case of Boracay are the achievements of the local government of
Puerto Princesa City in its formulation and implementation of different programs and projects
which applies sustainable development principles. Therefore, this study desires to pattern its
sustainable tourism framework with the best practices of the aforementioned local government
unit.

In the case of Puerto Princesa, the issue solely lies on the industry's capabilities of
maintaining the commercial district's nature of being the "Green City" of Palawan. The literature
involved tackled the concepts of SD through the industry's challenges on tourism
accommodation, adjusting to the needs of the stakeholders, and providing a collective impact on
socio-economic development.

The piece on Challenges to Puerto Princesa as the Lone Green City by Ulsano provided
an emphasis on the city’s current status – a bouncing tourist spot with its charm of reeling in
more tourists and visitors. Essentially, this incremental flow of tourists implicates the emergence
of tourist lodging issues – whether to develop further the means of accommodating tourists or to
focus more on conservation in resolving the issue. If the former were to be tackled, what are the
trade-offs and how can these trade-offs be settled? Concerning the latter point, what are the
feasible conservation methods that can be applied to achieve sustainability?

Another problem would be the anthropogenic or the human impacts of tourism in the city
of Puerto Princesa, more specifically the effects on its underground river. Human-induced
activities such as mere breathing and respiration bring in more Carbon Dioxide (CO2) emissions
which lead to a decrease in the cave's bat population. The repercussions of swimming in the
river accumulate human lint and poses as detrimental effects to the cave's rock formations.

Ulsano recommended strict planning and zoning as key components to resolving the
problem of tourist accommodations as well as maintaining the status of Puerto Princesa City as
the "Last Frontier" when it comes to tourist spots in the Philippines. Furthermore, Ulsano stated
that strict implementation of a management plan will cater to not only short-term benefits but
also advantages for the long term.

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 Another case study entitled Creating a Model City in Sustainable Development through
Community Capacity-Building by Dmithri Devinda Jayagoda of the Sylff Research Board
contributes more means on how to generate an environment that can provide a sustainable
nature. Alternative livelihood projects, according to Jayagoda, is one of the first
recommendations for SD in which it emphasizes the importance of utilizing not just Puerto
Princesa but also the whole island of Palawan's resources to generate employable business
opportunities such as Cashew Processing - a project that is established in Roxas City - and the
Babuyan Weaving project - which is assumed to be a safer alternative to the livelihood of
fishing.

Moreover, Jayagoda also stressed the significance of community-based sustainable

tourism projects which is a concept that aims to involve the communities residing in Puerto
Princesa for their respective collective welfare and for eliminating the plight of unemployment.
Some of these projects include the Sabang Mangrove Paddleboat Tour, Ugong Rock Zipline (a
project that is said to generate a monthly income of 1.3 million pesos), and the San Carlos
Floating Restaurant, in which members of the community can serve as boatmen, dancers
performers, and cooks.

Finally, Jayagoda not only proposes community-welfare based projects for financial
security and employment issues, but also projects that attend to the urgency of environmental
protection. An example of these projects include the "Love Affair With Nature" - an event that
happens every 14th of February wherein couples can have the opportunity not just to express
their affection for each other but also toward the environment through planting mangrove trees.
Another project would include the "Feast of the Forest" project - another tree-planting project
that aims to solve the problem of water shortage.

The material Puerto Princesa City Tourism Situationer by Rebecca Labit focuses on
Puerto Princesa as a good example for development balance. Furthermore, its vision states that
the town has the duty of providing excellent quality service and strengthen partnerships with
stakeholders to ensure client satisfaction while moving toward a model of globally competitive
sustainable tourism.

Labit acknowledged tourism challenges as the main obstacle toward sustainable

conditions and these circumstances can be met through the following criteria for resolving such
issues: (i) it has to provide for a growing capacity since it's considered one of the New 7
Wonders of Nature - since tourism development attracts more tourists, it also has to cater to

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further increments -, (ii) there has to be an increase in the variation of tourism products - to
assure the elimination of trade-offs to development such as poverty, (iii) the need to upgrade on
tourist infrastructure - to make way for advanced means of delivering services, (iv) solutions on
abuse and exploitation of resources, and finally (v) security and safety of tourists and
residences.

In Stakeholder's Perspective: The Case of Palawan, the material puts emphasis on

Palawan's adoption to sustainable development though which a number of complexities with
stakeholders are taken into account such as underemployment and market development. In
addition to the problem, there should be immediate results with the recent application of the
tenets of sustainable development.

The literature goes on by stating that tourism and community involvement is partly the
solution to the complexities that plague SD. With this concept, there will be an assurance of
safety and security as it plays a crucial part in the community's planning and operations; other
points that could stem from the concept would be the strengthened collaboration between Non-
Government Organizations and government, the improving of infrastructure facilities, the
involvement of internet marketing, the development of more public services such as fire
departments, police stations and medical facilities.

With the concept of sustainable development, small and medium enterprises are also
included as a means to resolve the complexities of SD wherein it implicates the introduction of
new products in the tourism market: both short term and long term products. Short term
products would include the nature activities and tours that are easily availed by the tourists and
residences, whereas the long term products are the hotels, transportation providers and tour
operators.

Finally, large tourist companies are deemed essential to securing sustainable conditions
in Puerto Princesa. Implications such as market demand forecasting and future competitiveness
are accounted for and these concepts are manifested through expansions and upgrades of
services and infrastructure. Examples that stem from these expansions would be the
establishment of airlines, hotels and ferries.

The last piece of literature, Ecotourism in Palawan, talks about green productivity as a
branch of sustainable development. This concept of Green Productivity is defined as: enhancing
productivity and environmental performance to provide for overall socio-economic development.
The materialization of this kind of productivity can be met through realizing the following

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proposals: (1) Proper functioning of an Environmental Management System, (2) Enforcement
and preparation of zoning, (3) the upgrading of basic infrastructure by the public sector, (4) the
development of local manpower, and (5) involvement of the government, communities and
private entities in relation to investment and development.

It is unmistakable to notice that most of the materials involved overlap in terms of having
a common problem as well as the solutions proposed to these problems – though these
solutions differ specifically but they generally contain the same concepts of sustainable
development and tourism development.

Ultimately, the significance of using these materials for our research is their usefulness
in providing insights for the concept of sustainable development. As these insights are met,
potential considerations for policy-making will be made in the process.

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