Experiment#

Objective:
Deflection in simply supported beam.

Apparatus:

A bench mounted beam apparatus .

The three load cells.

Theory:
1. Fig: simply supported beam a)Cut to the left of the load b) Cut to the right
of the load M+F*( 𝐿 2 − 𝑥)- 𝐹 2 ( 𝐿 − 𝑥) = 0 Where clockwise moments are defined
as being positive.
2. 3. We shall evaluate the deflection of a simply supported beam. Dividing the
bending-moment distribution by EI, we obtain the distribution of curvature. 𝑑2 𝑣
𝑑𝑥2 = 𝐹𝑥 2𝐸𝐼 for 0<x< 𝐿 2 Integrating this function, 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹𝑥2 4𝐸𝐼 + θ Where θ
is a constant of integration representing the slope at the left end. Because the
slope should be zero at mid span, we have 𝜃 = − 𝐹𝐿2 16𝐸𝐼 Integrating this
equation with the boundary condition v = 0 at x = 0 leads to 𝑣 = − 𝐹𝑥3 12𝐸𝐼 + 𝜃𝑥
for 0<x< 𝐿 2 𝑣 = − 𝐹𝑥(4𝑥2−3𝐿2) 12𝐸𝐼 The deflection at mid span (x = L/2) is 𝑣 = −
𝐹𝐿3 48𝐸𝐼

Procedure:
Load kept at center of simply supported beam is varying, but distance
between applied load and fixed end is same) A mid steel bar is clamped on steel
structure with the help of knife edge bolts and movable clamped. Using the load hanger
mass is added at the center of beam. The deflection of beam is noted using the digital
dial. Zero correction is noted using the digital dial before adding any weight. Now load is
increased as per the table and the deflection of beam is noted. The process is repeated
again and again for different weight

Observations and Calculations:

y=PL3/48EI

l=60mm
b=20mm

d=5mm

E=210Gpa I=208.33

Sr Load(N) Theoretical Experimental

deflection deflection
1 1 1.02x10^-10 0.14
2 2 2.04x10^-10 0.32
3 4 4.11x10^-10 0.61

Graph

Conclusion:
Linearity observed in both experiment between the mass and deflection, as
increases the deflection of beam decreases.
 Experiment#
Objective:
To determine the deflection in a cantilever beam.

Apparatus:

A bench mounted beam apparatus .

The three load cells.

Theory:

1. cantilever beam We shall evaluate the deflection of a cantilever beam.

Dividing the bending-moment distribution by EI, we obtain the distribution of
curvature. 𝐸𝐼 𝑑2 𝑣 𝑑𝑥2 = −𝑀 Boundary condition 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 0
2. . Therefore, we obtain the solution as 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = −(𝑃 ∗ 𝐿)𝑥 Integrating this
equation with the boundary condition v = 0 at x = 0 leads to v= −𝑃𝑥2 6𝐸𝐼 (3𝐿 − 𝑥)
Now calculate deflection for x = 𝐿 2 v= −𝑃𝐿3 3𝐸𝐼

Procedure:

Load kept at center of cantilever is varying, but distance between applied

load and fixed end is same. Mild steel is clamped at one end and the other end left free.
At a distance of 200mm from the fixed end a load is applied . The deflection at the point
of application of load is noted. The load is varied as per mention in table. b)Load at
center of cantilever is kept constant i.e. 500gm, distance between dial indicator and
clamped end is changing Mild steel is clamped at one end and the other end left free.
Keep the dial indicator exactly at the fixed end of mild steel beam. Make the reading of
dial indicator ‘zero’

Observations and Calculations:

y=fl3/3EI

b=20mm l=60mm

d=5mm

E=210Gpa I=208.33

Sr Load Theoretical Experimental

 deflection deflection
1 1 1.65x10^-9 0.58
2 2 3.29x10^-9 1.79
3 4 6.58x10^-9 3.45

GRAPH:

Conclusion:
Linearity observed in second experiment between the position of dial
indicator from the fixed end to the deflection , as the dial indicator shifted toward left
side its deflection increases.
 Experiment#

Objective:
Deflection in curved bars.

Apparatus:
1. Curved bar apparatus 2. Load hangers and 'C' hook 3. Dial gauges 4. Wrench 5.
Weight set

Theory:
The Castigliano’s theorem can be used as a method to estimate deflections in
curved bars(sem i ci rcul ar, quadrant and davit shape) or beams. It i s also a way
for det ermi ni ng the deflections of a structure through its strain energy. The
Castigliano’s theorem is valid whenyielding has not yet occurred in the support of the
structure and the temperature of the structureis fixed.For a linearly elastic structure, the
integral energy is equal to the strain energy when deformationis caused by external
forces. Castigliano’s theor em states that when a body is elasticall y deflected by any
sequence of loads, the deflection at any point and in any direction is equal to thepartial
derivative of strain energy (computed with all loads acting) with respect to a load locatedat that
point and acting in that direction.The basic expression of the Castigliano’s theorem is as
follows:∆=∂ U ∂ P (1)Where, ∆is the deflection of the beam in the direction of the load P,
Uis the strainenergy and Qis the load.

Assume that the material obeys Hooke’s law and invoking the principle of superposition,
the work done by the external forces is given by

Work done by the external forces is stored in the structure as strain energy in a
conservative system. Hence, the strain energy of the structure is,
Now, differentiating the strain energy with any force P1 gives,

Observation And Calculations

FOR RING

Sv=0.149PR3/2ei Sh=0.136pr3/2ei

R=75mm

b=10mm

d=2mm

E=207Gpa

sr load Theoretical Theoretical Experim Experim Percenta Percenta

deflection deflection ental ental ge eror ge eror
Sv Sh defelecti deflectio Sv Sh
on n Sh
Sv
1 2 3.86x10^-7 3.53x10^-7 0.23 0.06 99% 99%
2 3 5.80x10^-7 5.29x10^-7 0.26 0.08 99% 99%
3 4 7.3x10^-7 7.06x10^-7 0.32 0.22 99% 99%

For Semi Circle:

R=100mm

d=3.175

E=207Gpa b=12.7
sr load Theoretical Theoretical Experimental Experimental Percentage Percentage
deflection deflection deflection deflection error error
Sv Sh Sv Sh %
1 2 6.09x10^-6 7.76x10^-6 0.21 0.08 99% 99%
2 3 9.13x10^-6 1.16x10^-6 0.27 0.09 99% 99%
3 4 1.21x10^-6 1.55x10^-6 0.38 0.23 99% 99%

For Quadrant

R=100mm

b=12.7mm

d=3.175mm

E=207Gpa

I=1.24mm4

sr load Theoretical Theoretical Experimental Experimental %age %age

delection deflection deflection deflection error error
Sv Sh Sv Sh
1 2 6.11x10^-6 3.89x10^-6 0.21 0.13 99% 99%
2 3 9.17x10^-6 5.84x10^-6 0.36 0.22 99% 99%
3 4 1.22x10^-6 7.79x10^-6 0.48 0.31 99% 99%
 Experiment#
Objective:
To study the working and operation performed by polariscope.

Apparatus:
Polariscope apparatus.

Theory:

The polariscope is an optical inspection device used to detect internal stresses in

glass and other transparent materials such as plastics, synthetic resins, etc. A
polariscope is composed chiefly of a light source and two crossed polarized lenses such
as Polaroid {{Registered Trademark}}. The polariscope light source is mounted beneath
one lens, and is powered by either self-contained batteries or an external power source.
Material to be examined is placed between the two polariscope lenses and viewed
through the lens opposite the light source lens. Polariscopes are manufactured in
configurations that very from standard portable units, ordinarily carried in stock, to
instruments custom made for specific applications. The Bethlehem model P5 shown
in Figure 1 is manufactured by Bethlehem Apparatus Company, Inc., Hellertown,
Pennsylvania, and is a good representative of a commercially available portable
polariscope. The model P5 consists chiefly of two crossed Polaroid {{Registered
Trademark}} lenses, is lightweight (1 3/4 pounds), fairly inexpensive ($118 each), and
requires no operating supplies. The light source is a 15 watt, 115 volt lamp, and is
mounted beneath the lower Polaroid {{Registered Trademark}} lens in a reflective
enclosure. The adjustable frame provides a five inch field between the Polaroid
{{Registered Trademark}} lenses for material inspection. The model P5 is constructed of
aluminum and steel with a baked hammertone gray finish.

Operation of the polariscope and possible observations

With the polarizer and analyzer in crossed position, turn on the light source and place the gemstone
on the rotating platform just above the polarizer (this platform might not always be present, in which
case you use your tweezers).
Observing the gemstone through the analyzer while slowly turning the stone will give you 4
possibilities.
1. The stone appears dark throughout a 360° rotation.
The stone is isotropic (single refractive).
2. Throughout a 360° rotation the stone blinks 4 times, light and dark.
 The stone is anisotropic (double refractive).
3. The stone will appear light all the time.
The stone is a microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline aggregate (like, for instance, chalcedony).
4. The stone will show anomalous double refraction (ADR).
It is isotropic (single refractive).

Conclusion:

By polariscope we can check stress in material by observing different

colours in a material.
 Experiment#
Computerized Thin Cylinder Experiment

Objective:

Dermination of circumferential stress under open condition, and analysis of combined and
circumferential stress.

Introduction:

This experiment gives students an opportunity to experiment with a cylinder that has a
diameter/thickness ratio of more than 10, making it thin-walled. The cylinder will undergo
pressure loading that will introduce hoop and longitudinal stresses on the surface of the material.
The fact that the cylinder is thin-walled allows for the assumption that the hoop and longitudinal
stresses are constant throughout the wall thickness or area. Two different conditions of pressure
loading will be tested : “open end” and “close end”. The open end condition can be seen as
studying a portion of a long pipeline, while closed end conditions can be imagined as looking at
an enclosed gas tank that holds a certain amount of pressure. Using this computerized thin
cylinder experiment we will introduce varying amounts of pressure into the cylinder and utilizing
strain gage readings on the surface of the cylinder to determine Young’s modulus (E), Poisson’s
ratio, ν, and to study the strain Mohr’s circles of the two different end conditions.

Apparatuses:
1) TQ SM1007 Computerized Thin Cylinder. The cylinder is made of aluminum (E = 69 GPa)
and has strain gages attached as shown below : 2) Dell Computer with the SM1007 program
installed 3) Printer (as a backup device) 2

Procedure

: DETERMINATION OF YOUNG’S MODULUS (E) 1) Ensure that the cylinder is at zero

pressure by checking that the pressure relief valve on the hand pump is open. 2) Adjust the screw
on the right hand side of the cylinder so that it simulates an “open end” condition. 3) Close the
pressure relief valve by screwing it fully in. 4) Press F4 to zero the pressure and strain signals. 5)
Press F2 to take one reading at zero pressure. 6) Then increase the pressure in 0.5 MPa
increments. At each step allow a couple of seconds for the pressure and strain readings to
stabilize and then press F2 to copy the current readings to the data table. If a mistake is made,
use F3 to go back. 7) Students should take these readings down as the experiment proceeds along
because the data table keeps scrolling. 8) Repeat steps 6 and 7 until 7 readings at have been
reached at the pressure of 3 MPa.
 OPEN END CONDITION

Ensure that the cylinder is at zero pressure by checking that the pressure relief valve on the
hand pump is open. 2) Adjust the screw on the right hand side of the cylinder so that it
simulates an “open end” condition. 3) Close the pressure relief valve by screwing it fully in.
4) Press F4 to zero the pressure and strain signals. 5) Increase the pressure until it reaches 3
MPa and then allow a couple of seconds for the pressure and strain readings to stabilize.
Then press F2 to copy the current readings to the data table. If a mistake is made, press F2
again. Copy down this data table for the lab report.

CLOSED END CONDITION

Ensure that the cylinder is at zero pressure by checking that the pressure relief valve on the
hand pump is open. 2) Adjust the screw on the right hand side of the cylinder so that it simulates
a “closed end” condition. 3) Close the pressure relief valve by screwing it fully in. 4) Press F4 to
zero the pressure and strain signals. 5) Increase the pressure until it reaches 3 MPa and then
allow a couple of seconds for the pressure and strain readings to stabilize. Then press F2 to copy
the current readings to the data table. If a mistake is made, press F2 again. Copy down this data
table for the lab report.

CALCULATION OF POISSON’S RATIO 1)

Once the open end condition experiment is completed simply run the Poisson’s ratio
experiment off the pull down menu. 2) Copy down the results from the screen.

PRINCIPLE STRAINS

Once all of the above experiments are completed, run the Principle Strains experiment from
the pull-down menu. 2) Note down all the results on the screen

Analysis:
What is the difference between the “Open End” and “Closed End” conditions? Which case
experiences “uniaxial state of stress” and which case experiences “biaxial state of stress”?
Explain each case in detail including equations if necessary. 2) Using the strains, Poisson’s
ratio and Young’s modulus obtained from the experiment read the Dowling textbook and
come up with the hoop stress, σH, and the longitudinal stress, σL, for both cases (open and
closed ends). There should be four results reported. (Hint : Look around section 5.3.2 in the
Dowling textbook or section 7.5 in the Gere & Timoshenko textbook, and since this is a
plane stress condition, neglect σz. Assume εx is in the longitudinal direction and εy is in the
hoop direction.) 3) With the data obtained in the Young's Modulus experiment, plot on ONE
GRAPH the hoop stress (in MPa) versus hoop strain (in με) for gauges 1 and 6. With these
two straight line fits, find the Young's Modulus E for both gauges (which are the slopes for
the curves). Use these E values to determine an average E. 4) For the Open End condition
experiment, use the theoretical gauge readings given by the program to draw a strain Mohr's
circle like the one below. Then apply the experimental data points within the circle of the
theoretical data and compare the results (use dotted and solid lines to distinguish between the
two). For both the theoretical and experimental data, find their respective γ values at points
N and M. Comment on any differences that may be present.
 Experiment#
OBJECTIVE

 To obtain the values of stress, strain and determination of minimum and maximum principal
stress of the thick cylinder.
 To compare experimental value with theoretical value.

INTRODUCTION

Thick walled cylinders are widely used in chemical, petrochemical and military industries as well as
nuclear power plans. They are usually subjected to high pressure and temperature to analyze the stress
distribution in a thick cylinder. Another important aspect of this experiment is to give the ability to
students to calculate the principal stress and strain in thick walled cylinders.

Some terms related to this experiment are defined as follow;

Young’s Modulus
 It is the ratio of stress to strain in a particular direction.
 It has a constant value for a wall material.
 For this experiment, the cylinder wall is made by aluminum which value of Young’s Modulus, E
= 73.1 GN/m2.

Poisson Ratio
 The ratio of the strain in a direction of right angles to the applied load to the strain in the direction
of the applied load.
 One strain is compressive, the other is tensile and a minus sign is used in the mathematical
statement.
 The Poisson Ratio for this cylinder (aluminum), υ = 0.33.

Principal Stresses
 The greatest direct stress in the material (σ1) is the ‘maximum principal stress’ and the ‘minimum
principal stress’ (σ2).
 In a ‘thick’ cylinder these are the hoop and radial stresses.
 There is also a maximum shear stress, τmax.
  The greatest stresses are on the inside wall of the cylinder.

Figure1. Thick cylinder used in lab

This apparatus enables the student to investigate the distribution of radial and hoop stresses and strains
throughout the wall of a thick cylinder and to compare experimental results with the theoretical results.

The cylinder is made from duralumin in two halves cemented together. One face of the joint has an
eccentric shallow groove containing ten strain gauges at carefully determined radii and orientation. These
measure radial and hoop strains from which the corresponding stresses are calculated. The groove is
completely filled with jointing cement.

Additional strain gauges on the inner and outer walls enable the measurement of longitudinal and
circumferential strains.

The cylinder is mounted in a sturdy frame and the whole unit complete with a hydraulic hand pump for
applying pressure is fitted to a modular steel base.

All strain gauges are temperature compensated forming a full bridge high stability circuit for each
channel. Cylinder pressure is measured by an internal transducer and also by a Bourdon gauge. This
provides a possible instrumentation based experiment in checking the calibration of the Bourdon gauge.
An on-board micro-controller and ADA interface with full signal conditioning and an RS232 socket
facilitates connection to the users.

Theory
Consider a thick cylinder subject to internal pressure p 1 and an external pressure p2. Under the action of
radial pressures on the surfaces the three principal stresses will be σ r compressive radial stress, σ t tensile
tangential stress and σ a axial stress which is generally also tensile. The stress conditions occur throughout
the section and vary primarily relative to the radius r. It is assumed that the axial stress σ a is constant
along the length of the section. This condition generally applies away from the ends of the cylinder and
away from discontinuities.

Figure2. Distribution of pressure in thick walled cylinder

Consider a microscopically small area under stress as shown. u is the radial displacement at radius r. The
circumferential (Hoop) strain due to the internal pressure is;
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝜀 t=
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

RESULTS & CALCULATIONS

Experiment 1 results: Strain Distribution through Wall

Experimental theoretical
Gauge Nature of Error
Radius (mm) Strain Strain
Number Strain Difference
(x 10-6) (x 10-6)

28.0 1 εH 39.44 36.24 -3.20

28.0 2 εR -41.50 -31.48 10.01

36.0 3 εH 23.55 22.86 -0.69

 36.0 4 εR -20.93 -18.11 2.83

45.0 5 εH 2.24 15.49 13.24

45.0 6 εR 1.87 -10.73 -12.60

56.0 7 εH 11.03 10.84 -0.18

56.0 8 εR -7.85 -6.09 1.76

63.0 9 εH 9.16 9.07 -0.09

63.0 10 εR -6.36 -4.31 2.04

18.5 11 εH 78.13 79.95 1.82

75.0 12 εL 0.56 -2.34 -2.90

75.0 13 εH 5.98 7.10 1.12

graph of hoop strain against radius

90
80
70
hoop strain (x 10-6)

60
50 Series1
40 Series2
30 Power (Series1)
20
Power (Series2)
10
0
0 20 40 60 80
radius (mm)
 graph of radial strain against radius
5
0
-5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
radial strain (x 10-6)

-10
-15 Series1
-20 Series2
-25 Poly. (Series1)
-30 Poly. (Series2)
-35
-40
-45
radius (mm)

Experiment 2 results: Stress Distribution through Wall

Internal cylindrical pressure= 4.00 MN/m2

Radius, r 18.5 28 36 45 56 63 75
(mm)

Calculated 4.5 2.1 1.4 1.0 0.7 0.6 0.5

𝜎𝐻
(MN/m2)

Derived 𝜎𝐻 4.4 2.1 1.4 0.2 0.7 0.6 0.4

(MN/m2)

Calculated -4.0 -1.6 -0.9 -0.5 -0.2 -0.1 0.0

𝜎𝑅
 (MN/m2)

Derived 𝜎𝑅 - -2.3 -1.1 0.2 -0.3 -0.3 -

(MN/m2)

graph of stress against radius

5
hoop stress (MN/m2)

4
3
2 Series1
1 Series2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
radius (mm)

graph of stress against radius

1
radial stress (MN/m2)

0
-1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

-2 Series1
-3 Series2
-4
-5
radius (mm)

Conclusion:
The table above shows the percentage of discrepancy of strains for each gauge number. It is
observed that most of the measured strains are very close to the calculated strains with
percentage difference less than 10% and these strains are considered to agree with the theory.
The smallest percentage difference obtained is 0.99%. However, there are some of the measured
strains that give extremely large percentage of discrepancy, which is over than 100%. The largest
percentage of discrepancy is 123.93%.
 Experiment#
Objective:
To study deflection behavior of unsymmetrical beam.

Theory :
A member may be subjected to a bending moment which acts on plane inclined to the
principal axis (say). This type of bending does not occur in a plane of the cross section, it is
called unsymmetrical bending. Since the problem related to flexure in general differs from
symmetrical bending, it may be termed as skew bending. One of the basic assumptions in
deriving the flexural formula I MY f is that the lane of the load is perpendicular to the neutral
axis. Every cross section has got two mutually perpendicular principal axis of inertia, about one
of which the moment of inertia is the maximum and about the other a minimum. It can be
shown that a symmetric axis of crow section is one of the principal axis and one at right angles
to the same will be the other principal axis. For beams having unsymmetrical cross section such
as angle (L) or channel (i) sections, if the lane of loading is not coincident with or parallel to one
of the principal axis, the bending is not simple. In that case it is said to be unsymmetrical or
nonuniplanar bending. In the present experiment for a cantilever beam of an angle section, the
lane of loading is always kept vertical and the angle iron cantilever beam itself is rotated
through angles in steps of 450 . Considering the position of angle iron wherein the plane of
loading makes an angle ø with V-V axis of the section. The components of the vertical load P
along V-V and U-U axis are Pcosϕ and Psinϕ respectively. The deflection ∆U and ∆V along U-U
and V-V axis respectively are given by EIuu P L U 3 sin .

APPARATUS
Apparatus consist of an angle of size 1”x1”x1/8” of in equivalent metric units of length 80cm is
tied as a cantilever beam. The beam is fixed at one end such that the rotation of 450 intervals
can be given and clamped such that the principal axis of its crosssection may be inclined at any
angle with the horizontal and vertical lanes. Also arrangement is provided to apply vertical load
at the free end of the cantilever and to measure horizontal and vertical deflection of the free
end. A dial gauge with magnetic base is supplied with the apparatus. 4.0

SUGGESTED EXERIMENTAL WORK

Step 1: Clamp the beam at zero position and put a weight of 500gms (5N) on the hanger and
take the zero loading on the beam to activate the member. Step 2 : Set the dial gauges to zero
reading to measure vertical and horizontal displacement at the free end of the beam. Step 3 :
Load the beam in steps of 1kg. (10N) up to 4kg. and note the vertical and horizontal deflections
each time. Step 4 : Repeat the steps (1) to (3) turning the beam through 450 intervals. Problem
of unsymmetrical bending will arise only in those cases where the legs of the angle section are
in horizontal and vertical positions. In those case both vertical and horizontal deflections need
to measure. 5.0

TABLE

Head angle=0

sr load Left dial Right dial U=left+right/2 V=left-

right/2
1 0 0 0 0 0
2 5 0.08 0.01 0.063 0.049
3 10 0.22 0.06 0.197 0.113
4 15 0.34 0.11 0.318 0.162

Head angle=22

sr load Left dial Right dial U=left+right/2 V=left-

right/2
1 0 0 0 0 0
2 5 0.06 0.01 0.049 0.035
3 10 0.13 0.01 0.098 0.084
4 15 0.22 0.00 0.148 0.148

Head angle=45

sr load Left dial Right dial U=left+right/2 V=left-

right/2
1 0 0 0 0 0
2 5 0.05 0.01 0.042 0.028
3 10 0.13 0.05 0.127 0.056
4 15 0.22 0.1 0.226 0.084

Head angle=67.5
sr load Left dial Right dial U=left+right/2 V=left-
right/2
1 0 0 0 0 0
2 5 0.17 0.13 0.212 0.028
3 10 0.26 0.2 0.325 0.042
4 15 0.32 0.23 0.388 0.063

Head angle=90

sr load Left dial Right dial U=left+right/2 V=left-

right/2
1 0 0 0 0 0
2 5 0.14 0.12 0.183 0.014
3 10 0.3 0.2 0.353 0.070
4 15 0.46 0.3 0.537 0.113

Head angle=157

sr load Left dial Right dial U=left+right/2 V=left-

right/2
1 0 0 0 0 0
2 5 0.28 0.18 0.325 0.070
3 10 0.36 0.01 0.261 0.247
4 15 0.54 0.09 0.445 0.318

Head angle=180

sr load Left dial Right dial U=left+right/2 V=left-

right/2
1 0 0 0 0 0
2 5 0.09 0.02 0.077 0.049
3 10 0.2 0.06 0.183 0.098
4 15 0.32 0.1 0.296 0.155
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS :
Compute the theoretical deflection and compare with those measured experimentally.
 Experiment#

Objective:
 1. To show how the time of vertical oscillation depends on the load
 2. To determine the spring constant
 3. To determine the effective mass of the spring

Introduction:
Let the force constant of the spring, i.e. the force to produce unit extension, be k. Consider the
spring in equilibrium under a load m. If, now, the spring is pulled down a further down a further
distance x, the extra restoring force called into play is, by Hooke’s Law, equal to kx. When the
spring is released, the equation of motion is therefore

kx= -mx

Where x represent the acceleration towards the equilibrium position

Hence the motion is simple harmonic and the periodic time T is

pp

Thus, the graph of T2 against the straight line.

At first sight it would appear that this straight line ought to go through the origin, whereas the
actual line obtained in the experiment does not. This is because the effective mass (mo) of the
spring has been neglected and the above equation ought to be written

Apparatus
Spiral spring, stands and clamps, slotted masses and hanger, stop watch.

Method:
 1. The spring is suspended from a firm support and is loaded, by means of slotted masses is attached to
the free lower end, until it is possible to measure the time taken by the suspended load to execute 20
complete vertical oscillations.
 2. The timing for two times is repeated to get the mean time of the oscillations.
 3. The load of 50g is increased and repeated for 20 oscillations.
 4. Continue until the times for five different loads have been taken.
 5. The reading is recorded and the result is tabulated into the table below.
Plot a graph with values of T²/s² as ordinates against the corresponding values of m/kg
From which it follows
Slope from which l may be calculated

Since when T=0, the magnitude of m0 is equal to be the negative intercept OC on the load axis
of the graph

Discussion:
The definition of spring constant is characteristic of a spring which is defined as the ratio of the
force affecting the spring to the displacement caused by it. The value of spring constant that we
can get from the calculation above is,The definition of effective mass is a quantity that is used to
simplify band structures by constructing an analogy to the behaviour of a free particle with that
mass. The value of effective mass can be determined from plotting graph where x-intercept is
equal to the value of effective mass. The value of effective mass of the spring that we get from
the graph is kg.

Observation and Calculations

b=19mm

d=0.96mm I=1.40mm4

E=207Gpa

sr weight Angular Ktheo=EI/L Kexp=wR/d %age error

deflection

1 0 0 0 12.5M 10%

2 1 8 6 12.5M 15%

3 2 16 9 12.6M 12%

4 4 24 14 12,6M 20%
Conclusion:
The value of spring constant,k=14.