Heat and Mass Transfer Lab Manual PDF

ME-243L Heat and Mass Transfer Lab
PRACTICAL HANDOUTS
DEPARTMENT OFMECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Contents
1. Free & Forced Convection Heat Exchanger ....................................................................................... 10
1.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 10
1.2. Description .................................................................................................................................. 10
1.3. Experimental Capabilities ........................................................................................................... 10
2 Theoretical background....................................................................................................................... 11
2.1 Free Convection .......................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Forced Convection ...................................................................................................................... 11
2.3 Extended Surface ........................................................................................................................ 12
2.4 Temperature Distribution along an Extend Surface .................................................................... 12
2.5 Horizontal and Vertical Flat Plane in Free Convection .............................................................. 13
3 Experimental procedures..................................................................................................................... 13
3.1 Start-up Procedures ..................................................................................................................... 13
3.2 Shut Down Procedures ................................................................................................................ 14
4 Experiment .......................................................................................................................................... 15
4.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................................... 15
4.2 Equipment Set-Up:...................................................................................................................... 15
4.3 Procedures: .................................................................................................................................. 15
4.4 Obervations: ................................................................................................................................ 15
5. Experiment ........................................................................................................................................... 16
5.1 Objectives: .................................................................................................................................. 16
5.2 Equipment Set-Up:...................................................................................................................... 16
5.3 Procedures: .................................................................................................................................. 16
5.4 Observations ............................................................................................................................... 16
6. Experiment ............................................................................................................................................ 17
6.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 17
6.2 Equipment Set-Up:...................................................................................................................... 17

6.3 Procedures: .................................................................................................................................. 17
6.4 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 17
7 Experiment .......................................................................................................................................... 19
7.1 Objectives: .................................................................................................................................. 19
7.2 Equipment Set-Up: ...................................................................................................................... 19
7.3 Procedures: .................................................................................................................................. 19
7.4 Observations and Calculations: ................................................................................................... 19
8 Experiment .......................................................................................................................................... 21
8.1 Objectives: .................................................................................................................................. 21
8.2 Experiment Set-Up: .................................................................................................................... 21
8.3 Procedures: .................................................................................................................................. 21
8.4 Observations and Calculations: ................................................................................................... 21
1 Heat Conduction Unit ......................................................................................................................... 23
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 23
1.2 General description ..................................................................................................................... 23
1.21 Unit Assembly ............................................................................................................................ 23
1.22 Specifications .............................................................................................................................. 23
1.23 General Requirements ................................................................................................................. 24
2 Linear Module ..................................................................................................................................... 24
3 Radial Module ..................................................................................................................................... 25
3.1 Control Panel .............................................................................................................................. 25
4.1 Linear Conduction Heat Transfer .............................................................................................. 25
4.2 Radial Conduction Heat Transfer (Cylindrical) .......................................................................... 27
4.3 Heat Conduction with Insulation ................................................................................................ 27
4.4 Unsteady State Heat Conduction ................................................................................................ 28
5 Experimental procedure ...................................................................................................................... 28

5.1 General Start-up Procedures ....................................................................................................... 28
5.2 General Shut-down Procedures ................................................................................................... 29
6 Experiment 1: ...................................................................................................................................... 30
6.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 30
6.3 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 30
7. Experiment 2 ....................................................................................................................................... 31
7.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 31
7.2 Procedure: ................................................................................................................................... 31
7.3 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 31
B .............................................................................................................................................................. 31
8 Experiment 3 ....................................................................................................................................... 32
8.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 32
8.2 Procedure: ................................................................................................................................... 32
8.3 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 32
9 Experiment 4 ....................................................................................................................................... 33
9.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 33
9.2 Procedure: ................................................................................................................................... 33
9.3 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 33
10 Experiment 5 ................................................................................................................................... 34
10.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 34
10.2 Procedure: ................................................................................................................................... 34
10.3 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 34
11 Experiment 6 ................................................................................................................................... 35
11.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 35
11.2 Procedure: ................................................................................................................................... 35
11.3 Obervations: ................................................................................................................................ 35

1. Radiation Heat Transfer and Exchange............................................................................................... 37
1.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 37
1.2. General description ..................................................................................................................... 37
1.3. Unit Assembly ............................................................................................................................ 37
1.4. Experimental Capabilities ........................................................................................................... 38
2. Installation and commissioning .......................................................................................................... 40
2.1. Temperature Sensors and Metal Plate ......................................................................................... 40
2.2. Commissioning Procedures......................................................................................................... 40
3. Theory ................................................................................................................................................. 41
3.1. Inverse Square Law For Heat: .................................................................................................... 41
3.2. Stefan-Boltzmann Law ............................................................................................................... 41
3.3. Area Factors ................................................................................................................................ 41
3.4. Inverse Square Law For Light .................................................................................................... 42
3.5. Lambert’s Cosine Law ................................................................................................................ 42
4. General operating procedures ............................................................................................................. 42
5. Experimental procedure ...................................................................................................................... 43
5.1. General Start-up Procedures ....................................................................................................... 43
6. Experiment: ......................................................................................................................................... 44
6.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 44
6.2 Procedure: ................................................................................................................................... 44
6.3 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 44
7. Experiment .......................................................................................................................................... 45
7.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 45
7.3 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 45
9. Experiment .......................................................................................................................................... 46
8.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 46
8.2 Procedures:.................................................................................................................................. 46
8.3 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 46
9 Experiment .......................................................................................................................................... 47
9.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 47
9.2 Procedures: .................................................................................................................................. 47
9.3 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 47
10 Experiment ...................................................................................................................................... 48
10.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 48
10.2 Procedures: ................................................................................................................................. 48
11 Experiment ...................................................................................................................................... 50
11.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 50
11.2 Procedure: ................................................................................................................................... 50
11.3 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 50
12 Experiment ...................................................................................................................................... 51
12.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 51
12.2 Procedure: ................................................................................................................................... 51
12.3 Observations ............................................................................................................................... 51
13 Experiment ...................................................................................................................................... 52
13.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 52
13.2 Procedure: ................................................................................................................................... 52
13.3 Observations ............................................................................................................................... 52
14 Experiment ...................................................................................................................................... 53
14.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 53
14.2 Procedure: ................................................................................................................................... 53
14.3 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 53

15 Experiment ...................................................................................................................................... 54
15.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 54
15.2 Procedure: ................................................................................................................................... 54
15.3 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 55
1. Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger .......................................................................................................... 57
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 57
1.2 Description .............................................................................................................................. 57
2. Theory ................................................................................................................................................. 58
2.1 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger: ................................................................................................. 60
2.2 Experiment#1 (Parallel Flow) ..................................................................................................... 61
2.3 Experiment#2 (parallel flow) ...................................................................................................... 62
2.4 Experiment#3 (Counter Flow) .................................................................................................... 63
2.5 Experiment#4 (Counter Flow) .................................................................................................... 64
1 General description: ............................................................................................................................ 66
1.1 Unit Assembly ............................................................................................................................ 66
1.2 Experiment Capabilities .............................................................................................................. 67
1.3 Specifications .............................................................................................................................. 67
2 Installation and commissioning .......................................................................................................... 68
2.1 Assembly..................................................................................................................................... 68
2.2 Temperature Sensors ................................................................................................................... 68
2.3 Heating Element & Circulating Pump ........................................................................................ 68
2.4 Water Bath .................................................................................................................................. 68
2.5 Test Shape ................................................................................................................................... 68
3. Commissioning Procedures................................................................................................................. 68
4. Theory ................................................................................................................................................. 69
4.1 Transient Heat Conduction in Various Geometries .................................................................... 70

4.2 General operating procedures ..................................................................................................... 73
5. Test Shape .......................................................................................................................................... 73
5. Experimental procedures..................................................................................................................... 73
5.1 General Start-up Procedures ....................................................................................................... 73
6. Experiment .......................................................................................................................................... 74
6.1 Objectives: .................................................................................................................................. 74
6.2 Procedures: .................................................................................................................................. 74
6.3 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 74
7. Experiment .......................................................................................................................................... 75
7.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 75
7.2 Procedures: .................................................................................................................................. 75
7.3 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 75
8. Experiment .......................................................................................................................................... 76
8.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 76
8.2 Procedures: .................................................................................................................................. 76
8.3 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 76

Free & Forced Convection Heat Exchanger
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ME-243L Heat and Mass Transfer Lab IST-MECH-CHE-EXP01/00
1. Free & Forced Convection Heat Exchanger

1.1. Introduction
Heat transfer by simultaneous conduction and convection, whether free or forced, forms the basis of most
industrial heat exchangers and related equipment. The measurement and prediction of heat transfer
coefficients for such circumstances is achieved in the EES® Free & Forced Convection Heat
Exchanger by studying the temperature profiles and heat flux in an air duct with associated flat and
extended transfer surfaces. The vertical duct is so constructed that the air temperature and velocity can be
readily measured, and a variety of “plug-in” modules of heated solid surfaces of known dimensions can be
presented to the air stream for detailed study. A fan situated at the top of the duct provides the air stream
for forced convection experiments.
A Control Panel contains temperature measurement, power control, and fan speed control circuits with
appropriate instrumentation. Temperature measurement, to a resolution of 1 oC is effected using
Thermocouple sensors with direct digital read-out in 0C.
Air velocity is measured with portable anemometer mounted on the duct.
The power control circuit provides a continuously variable, electrical output of 0-100 watts with a direct
read-out in watts.
Using the instrumentation provided, free and forced convective heat transfer coefficients may be
determined for: -
1. A flat surface
2. An array of cylinders (pinned heat sink)
3. An array of fins (finned heat sink)
Each module may be used independently on the bench, to establish free convection coefficients for
horizontal orientation.
The apparatus is fully self-contained.
1.2. Description
The EES® Free & Forced Convection Heat Exchanger consists of a vertical rectangular duct supported
by stand and a control panel. A flat plate pinned or finned exchanger may be installed in the duct and
secured by a quick-release catch on each side. Each exchanger incorporates an electric heating element
with thermostatic protection against overheating. The temperature at the base of each exchanger is
monitored by a thermistor sensor with connecting lead.
The exchanger in use may be viewed through an acrylic window in the wall of the duct.
An upward flow of air may be generated in the duct with a variable speed fan mounted at the top of
rectangular duct.
Air velocity in the duct, whether natural or forced, is indicated on a portable anemometer held in a bracket
on the duct wall. The anemometer sensor is inserted through the wall of the duct.
Temperature sensors are provided for the measurement of the in-going and out-going air temperatures
together with surface temperatures of exchanger pins and fins. A digital readout indicates the temperature
using a thermistor probe connected to a flexible lead.
These temperatures are determined by inserting the probe through access holes in the duct wall.
A control panel incorporates a variable power regulator with a digital readout to control and indicate
power supplied to the exchanger on test. The exchanger is connected to the panel via the supply lead. A
variable low voltage D.C. supply is provided for the fan via the supply lead.
Power is supplied to the equipment via a supply lead connected to control panel.
1.3. Experimental Capabilities
1. Demonstration of the relationship between input and surface temperature in free convection.
2. Demonstration of the relationship between input and surface temperature in forced convection.
3. Demonstration of the use of extended surfaces to improve heat transfer from the surface.
4. To determine the temperature distribution along an extended surface.
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5. Comparison of a horizontal and vertical flat plate in free convection.
6.
2 Theoretical background
2.1 Free Convection
A heated surface dissipates heat primarily through a process called convection. Heat is also dissipated by
conduction and radiation, however these effects are not considered in this experiment. Air in contact with
the hot surface is heated by the surface and rises due to a reduction in density. The heated air is replaced
by cooler air which is in turn heated by the surface and rises. This process is called free convection.
The hotter the temperature of the surface, the greater the convective currents and more heat (power) will
be dissipated. If more power is supplied to a surface, the temperature of the surface must rise to dissipate
this power.
Watt
Figure 1: Typical graph of power against surface temperature
2.2 Forced Convection

In free convection the heat transfer rate from the surface is limited by the small movements of air
generated by this heat. More heat is transferred if the air velocity is increased over the heated surface.
This process of assisting the movement of air over the heated surface is called Forced Convection.
Therefore a heated surface experiencing forced convection will have a lower surface temperature than that
of the same surface in free convection, for the same power input.
tH - tA
Velocity
m/s
tH – tA
Figure 2: Typical graph of air velocity against surface temperature
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2.3 Extended Surface
Heat transfer from an object can be improved by increasing the surface area in contact with the air. In
practice it may be difficult to increase the size of the body to suit. In these circumstances the surface area
in contact with the air may be increased by adding fins or pins normal to the surface. These features are
called extended surfaces. A typical example is the use of fins on the cylinder and head of an air cooled
petrol engine. The effect of extended surfaces can be demonstrated by comparing finned and pinned
surfaces with a flat plate under the same conditions of power input and airflow.
Air
Velocity
tH - tA
Figure 3: Typical graph of air velocity against surface temperature
2.4 Temperature Distribution along an Extend Surface
For a heat exchanger to be 100% efficient, the whole of the extended surface must be at the same
temperature as the backplane. In practice, this cannot occur because the flow of heat along the pins or fins
by conduction causes a temperature gradient to occur. The greater this gradient, the less efficient the heat
exchanger will be.
The efficiency of the heat exchanger must not be confused with the effect of a change in surface area e.g.
comparing pinned and finned. For example, if the pinned and finned heat exchangers supplied with the
equipment are compared, the pin is more efficient than the fin (slightly smaller temperature gradient) but
the finned exchanger has a significantly larger surface area than the pinned exchanger and can dissipate
more heat for the same surface temperature.
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PINNED
FINNED
Figure 4: Graph of surface temperature against distance from back plate.

2.5 Horizontal and Vertical Flat Plane in Free Convection
When a temperature difference is established between a wall and a stationary fluid, the fluid adjacent to
the wall will move upward if the wail temperature is higher than that of the fluid and downward if the
wall temperature is lower. Density gradients are set up in the fluid resulting in buoyancy forces and free
convective currents. The rate of heat transfer depends mainly on the fluid motion. The orientation of the
plate affects this movement of air. A horizontal plate restricts the movement of air and reduces the heat
transfer. The same plate mounted vertically will give improved heat transfer.
3 Experimental procedures
3.1 Start-up Procedures
1. Connect the mains input power supply plug to a nearest single-phase electrical supply of
240VAC/50Hz.
2. Turn the heater power control knob and fan speed control knob fully anti-clockwise.
3. Connect the fan supply lead to the socket at the side of the control panel.
4. Connect the temperature probe lead to the socket beneath the control panel.
5. Clamp the flat plate heat exchanger into the duct using the two toggle clamps and connect the
heater power supply lead to the socket on the cover.
6. Connect the plate temperature (TH) connector to the socket on the heat exchanger.
7. Place the meter into the bracket situated on the side of the duct.
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8. Ensure that the sensor hole is aligned with the direction of the airflow when inserting the probe
through the wall of the duct.
9. Switch on the main power.
10. Check that the L.E.D. temperature meter and Volt/Ampere Meter are illuminated. Check that
the temperature meter indicates ambient temperature.
11. Increase the heater power in the exchanger by rotating the power control knob clockwise. The
power supplied to the exchanger should be shown in watts on the meter.
12. Switch on the fan and increase the speed by rotating the fan speed control knob clockwise.
13. Observe that the air velocity is indicated on the indicator.
14. Check that the plate temperature (TH) increases.
15. Set the heater power control and fan speed control knob to minimum.
16. Now you are ready for the following experiments.
3.2 Shut Down Procedures
1. Switch off the heater and turn the power control knob fully anti-clockwise. Set the fan speed
control knob to maximum to cool down the hot plate heat exchanger.
2. Turn off the main power supply after plate heat exchanger has cooled down to room
temperature.
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4 Experiment
4.1 Objectives
To demonstrate the relationship between power input and surface temperature in free convection.
4.2 Equipment Set-Up
Wattmeter (Q)
Plate Sensor
Temperature Indicator
Heater
Probe
Sensor
Figure 5: Experimental Setup
4.3 Procedures
1. Remove the fan assembly from the top of the duct.
2. Place the finned heat exchanger into the test duct.
3. Set the heater power control to 20 Watts (clockwise).
4. Allow sufficient time to achieve steady state conditions before noting the heated plate temperature
(tH) and ambient temperature (tA) into the table below.
5. Repeat this procedure at 40, 60 and 80 Watts.
6. Plot a graph of power against temperature (tH-tA).
4.4 Observations
Input Plate Temp (tH) Ambient Temp (tA) tH – tA

Power C °C C
Watts
20
40
60
80
Table 1: Observations
15
5. Experiment
5.1 Objectives
To demonstrate the relationship between power input and surface temperature in forced convection.
Air Flow
Wattmeter (Q)
Plate Sensor
Heater
Probe
Sensor
Figure 6: Equipment setup
5.3 Procedures
1. Place the fan assembly on to the top of the duct.
2. Place the finned heat exchanger into the duct.
3. Set the heater power control to 50 Watts (clockwise). Allow sufficient time to achieve steady
state conditions before noting the heated plate temperature (tH) and the ambient temperature (tA).
4. Set the fan speed control to give a reading of 0.5m/s on the thermal anemometer, allow sufficient
time to achieve steady state conditions. Record heated plate temperature (t H) and ambient
temperature (tA).
5. Repeat this procedure by setting the fan speed control to give 1.0m/s and 1.5m/s.
6. Plot a graph of air velocity against temperature. ( tH –tA)
Power input = 50 Watts
5.4 Observations
Air Velocity Plate Temp (tH) Ambient Temp tH – tA
m/s C (tA) C
°C
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
Table 2: Obervations
16
6. Experiment
6.1 Objective
To demonstrate the use of extended surface to improve heat transfer from the surface.
Air Flow
Wattmeter (Q)
Plate Sensor
Heater
Probe
Sensor
Figure 7: Equipment setup
6.3 Procedures
1. Place the fan assembly on to the top of the duct.
2. Place the flat plate heat exchanger into the duct.
3. Set the heater power control to 75 Watts. Allow the temperature to rise to 800C, and then adjust the
heater power control to 15 Watts until a steady reading is obtained.
4. Set the fan speed control to give 1m/s using the thermal anemometer. Record heated plate
temperature (tH) and the ambient temperature (tA).
5. Repeat this procedure at 2 and 2.5m/s for the flat plate. Repeat the experiment by replacing the flat
plate with the finned plate and pinned plate.
6. Plot graphs of velocity against temperature (tH - tA) for each of the plates.
Input power = 15 Watt
6.4 Observations
Velocity Plate Temp (tH) Ambient Temp tH - tA
m/s C (tA) C
°C
0
1
2
2.5
17
Note: Comment on the correlation between total surface area of the heat exchanger and the temperature
achieved.
Further Experiments: Increase power input and repeat experiments
18
7 Experiment
7.1 Objectives
To determine the temperature distribution along an extend surface.
Air Flow
Wattmeter (Q)
Plate Sensor
Heater
Probe
Sensor
Figure 8: Equipment setup.
7.3 Procedures
1. Measure from the back plate the distance of the three access holes on the pinned and finned heat
exchangers.
2. Place the fan assembly on to the top of duct.
3. Place the pinned heat exchanger into the duct.
4. Set the heater power control to 60 watts. Allow sufficient time to achieve steady state conditions
before noting the heated plate temperature (tH) and the ambient temperature (tA).
5. Insert the temperature probe into the duct through the hole nearest the heated plate ensuring that the
tip of the probe is in contact with the pin. A small amount of heat conducting compound on the tip
will ensure a good thermal contact. Note this temperature (t1).
6. Record the pin temperatures (t2 and t3) using the remaining two holes. Repeat this procedure at
1.0m/s and 2m/s.
7. Remove the pinned heat exchanger and replace with the finned heat exchanger. Repeat complete
experiment.
8. Plot graphs of surface temperature against distance from back plate for the two heat exchangers at
various air velocities
7.4 Observations and Calculations
Power input = _____ Watts
Distance of nearest hole = _____ mm
Distance of middle hole = _____ mm
Distance of farthest hole = _____ mm
19
Air Temperature, (°C)

Velocity, t1 t2 t3 tA
(m/s) Pinned Finned Pinned Finned Pinned Finned Pinned Finned
0
1
2
20
8 Experiment
8.1 Objectives
Comparison of a horizontal and vertical flat plate in free convection.
8.2 Experiment Set-Up
Probe
Sensor
Wattmeter (Q)
Heater
Plate Sensor
Figure 9: Equipment Setup.
8.3 Procedures
1. Remove the fan assembly from the top of the duct.

2. Place the flat plate exchanger horizontally onto a suitable surface.
3. Set the heater power control to 15 Watts.
4. The surface temperature of the flat plate (tP) can be recorded using the temperature probe, the tip
of the probe being held in contact with the surface by hand. To ensure good contact the thermal
compound should be used.
5. Allow sufficient time to achieve steady state conditions before noting the surface plate
temperature (tP) and the ambient temperature (tA). The plate temperature should be taken at the
centre of the plate.
6. Repeat the experiment by placing the flat plate vertically .Take care not to touch the heated
surface with your hands.
8.4 Observations and Calculations
Plate Surface Temp (tP) Ambient Temp (tA) tP-tA

Position °C °C °C
horizontal
vertical
Table 5: Oservations
Note: Comment on the effects of plate orientation on surface temperature.
21
Heat Conduction Unit
22
ME-243L Heat and Mass Transfer Lab IST-MECH-HCU-EXP02/00
1 Heat Conduction Unit

1.1 Introduction
Thermal conduction is the mode of heat transfer, which occurs in a material by virtue of a temperature
gradient. A solid is chosen for the demonstration of pure conduction since both liquids and gases exhibit
excessive convective heat transfer. In a practical situation, heat conduction occurs in three dimensions, a
complexity which often requires extensive computation to analyze. In the laboratory, a single dimensional
approach is required to demonstrate the basic law that relates rate of heat flow to temperature gradient and
area.
The EES® Heat Conduction Study Unit consists of two electrically heated modules mounted on a bench
support frame. One module contains a cylindrical metal bar arrangement for a variety of linear conduction
experiments while the other consists of a disc for radial conduction experiment. Both test modules are
equipped with an array of temperature sensors. Cooling water, to be supplied from a standard laboratory
tap is fed to one side of the test pieces in order to maintain a steady temperature gradient.
The instrumentation provided permits accurate measurement of temperature and power supply. Fast
response temperature probes with a resolution of 1°C are used. The power control circuit provides a
continuously variable electrical output of 0-100 Watts.
The test modules are designed to minimize errors due to true three-dimensional heat transfer. The basic
principles of conduction can be taught without knowledge of radiation or convective heat transfer. The
linear test piece is supplied with interchangeable samples of conductors and insulators to demonstrate the
effects of area, conductivity and series combinations. Contact resistance may also be investigated, and the
important features of unsteady state conditions may be demonstrated.
The apparatus may also be used to measure thermal conductivity of various solid materials, by clamping a
sample of specific dimensions between the hot and cold elements.
1.2 General description
1.21 Unit Assembly
The equipment comprises two heat-conducting specimens, a multi-section bar for the examination of
linear conduction and a metal disc for radial conduction. A control panel provides electrical and power
digital for display heaters in the specimens as well as the selector switch for data acquisition system.
A small flow of cooling water provides a heat sink at the end of the conducting path in each specimen.
Control Panel
Heater Power Regulator/Indicator
Temperature Selector
Temperature Sensors
Linear Module
Radial Module
1.22 Specifications
a) Linear Module
Consists of the following sections:
i) Heater Section
Material : Brass
Diameter : 25 mm
ii) Cooler Section
Material : Brass
Diameter : 25 mm
iii) Interchangeable Test Section
23
- Insulated Test Section with Temperature Sensors Array (Brass)
(Diameter = 25mm, Length = 30 mm)
- Insulated Test Section (Brass)
- Insulated Test Section (Stainless Steel)
b) Radial Module
Material : Brass
Diameter : 110 mm
Thickness : 6 mm
c) Instrumentations
Linear module consists of a maximum of 9 temperature sensors at 10 mm interval.
For radial module, 6 temperature sensors at 10 mm interval along the radius are
installed.
Each test modules are installed with 100 Watt heater
1.23 General Requirements
Electrical : 240 VAC, 1-phase, 50Hz

Water : Laboratory tap water, 20 LPM @ 20 m head
2 Linear Module
Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction is most simply demonstrated with the linear conduction module. This
comprises a heat input section fabricated from brass fitted with an electrical heater. Three thermistor
temperature sensors are installed at 10mm intervals along the working section, which has a diameter of
25mm. A separate heat sink section also of brass is cooled at one end by running water while its working
section is also fitted with thermistor temperature sensors at 10mm intervals.
The heat input section and the heat sink section may be clamped directly together to form a continuous
brass bar with temperature sensor at 10mm intervals, alternatively any one of three intermediate sections
can be fitted between these two.
The first of these is a 30mm length of the same material (brass) and is the same diameter as the heat input
and heat sink sections and is again fitted with thermistor sensors at 10mm intervals. This section is
clamped between the two basic sections forms a relatively long uniform bar with nine regularly spaced
temperature sensors.
The second center section, which may be fitted, is again brass and 30-mm long but has a diameter of
13mm and is not fitted with temperature sensors. This section allows a study of the effect of a reduction in
the cross-section of the heat-conducting path.
The third center section, which may be fitted, is of stainless steel and has the same dimensions as the first
brass section. No temperature sensors are fitted. This section allows the study of the effect of a change in
the material while maintaining a constant cross-section.
The mating ends of the five sections are finely finished to promote good thermal contact although heat-
conducting compound may be smeared over the surfaces to reduce thermal resistance. The heat-
conducting properties of insulators may be found by simply inserting a thin specimen between the heated
and cooled metal sections. An example of such an insulator is a piece of paper.
Heat losses from the linear module are reduced to a minimum by a heat-resistant casing enclosing an air
space around the module. The interchangeable center sections have their own attached casing pieces,
which fit with those of the heat input and heat sink sections.
The thermistor temperature sensors are connected to miniature plugs fitted to the casing and connections
from the sensors to the temperature input module are made via nine sensor leads fitted with appropriate
sockets. Therefore temperature gradients can be plotted.
24
3 Radial Module
The radial conduction module comprises a brass disc 110mm diameter and 3mm thick heated in the center
by an electrical heater and cooled by cold water in a circumferential copper tube. Thermistor temperature
sensors are fitted to the center of the disc and at 10mm intervals along a radius there being six in all.
Again heat losses are minimized by preserving an air gap around the disc with a heat-resistant casing. As
in the linear module, the thermistor connections are brought out to plugs in the casing to which six sensor
leads fitted with appropriate sockets may be connected to obtain the temperature.
3.1 Control Panel
Either of the heat-conduction modules may be connected to a control panel which allows the heater input
power to be set and the temperature at any of the sensors to be shown in °C. Heater power is controlled by
a variable autotransformer and displayed on a digital indicator. Power outputs from 0 to 100 watts may be
obtained.
4 SUMMARY OF THEORY
4.1 Linear Conduction Heat Transfer
dx
dT Q
Figure 2: Linear temperature distribution

It is often necessary to evaluate the heat flow through a solid when the flow is not steady e.g. through the
wall of a furnace that is being heated or cooled. To calculate the heat flow under these conditions it is
necessary to find the temperature distribution through the solid and how the distribution varies with.
Using the equipment set-up already described, it is a simple matter to monitor the temperature profile
variation during either a heating or cooling cycle thus facilitating the study of unsteady state conduction.
25
THS kH kS kC
THI
TCI TCS
XH XS XC
Figure 3: Linear temperature distribution of different materials

Fourier’s Law states that:
dT (1)
Q  kA
dx
Where,
Q = heat flow rate, [W]
W 
k = thermal conductivity of the material, 
 Km 
A = cross-sectional area of the conduction, [m2]
dT = changes of temperature between 2 points, [K]
dx = changes of displacement between 2 points, [m]
Hence,
AH (dT ) AS (dT ) AC (dT )
  (2)
(dx H ) (dx S ) (dx C )
AC
AH AC
Q AC
XH XS XC
Figure 4: Temperature distribution with various cross-sectional area
26
4.2 Radial Conduction Heat Transfer (Cylindrical)
Ti Temperature
Distribution
To
Ri Ro
Ri
Ro
Figure 5: Radial temperature distribution

When the inner and outer surfaces of a thick walled cylinder are each at a uniform temperature, heat rows
radially through the cylinder wall. From continuity considerations the radial heat flow through successive
layers in the wall must be constant if the flow is steady but since the area of successive layers increases
with radius, the temperature gradient must decrease with radius.
The amount of heat (Q), which is conducted across the cylinder wall per unit time, is:
2Lk (Ti  To )
Q (32)
R
ln o
Ri
where,
Q = heat flow rate, [W]

L = thickness of the material, [m]
W 
k = thermal conductivity of the material, 
 Km 
Ti = inner section temperature, [K]
To = outer section temperature, [K]
Ro = outer radius, [m]
Ri = inner radius, [m]
4.3 Heat Conduction with Insulation
When two surfaces are in contact, paths of thermal conduction exist only across those points where actual
physical contact accursed on the microscopic scale and the degree of thermal contact depends on the
respective surface finishes.
Air trapped in the gaps between each surface acts as a thermal insulator resulting in a temperature step in
the conduction path. This can be reduced by the use of conducting compound, which fills the air spaces
and provides improved thermal contact.
27
Brass Brass
Insulation
Material
Figure 6: Material with insulation material
4.4 Unsteady State Heat Conduction

Many heat transfer problems are time dependent. Such unsteady or transient problems typically arise
when the boundary conditions of a system changed. For example, if the surface temperature system is
altered, the temperature at each point in the system will also begin to change. The change will occur until
a steady state temperature distribution is reached.
5 Experimental procedure
5.1 General Start-up Procedures
1. Make sure that the main switch if off. Insert an intermediate section into the linear module and clamp
together.
2. Connect one of the cooling water tubes to the water supply and the other to the drain.
3. Connect the heater supply lead for the linear conduction module into the power supply socket on the
control panel.
4. Connect the nine sensor leads to the nine plugs on top of the linear conduction module. Connect the
left-hand sensor lead from the module to the place marked T1 on the control panel. Repeat this
procedure for the remaining eight sensor leads, connecting them from left to right on the module and
in numerical order on the control panel.
5. Turn on the water supply and ensure that water is flowing from the free end of the water pipe to drain.
This should be checked at intervals.
6. Turn the heater power control knob on the control panel to 0 Watt position by turning the knob fully
anticlockwise.
7. Switch on the main switch and the digital readouts will be illuminated.
8. Set the heater power control to give a reading of 20 watts on the digital indicator.
9. Make sure that the temperature reading decreases towards the water-cooled end for the entire
temperature sensor.
10. Turn off the heater power control and switch off the main switch.
11. Exchange the two-heater supply leads at the control panel.
12. Remove the central specimen from the linear module, leaving the three sensor leads still connected to
the specimen.
28
13. Connect the remaining six sensor leads to the radial module, with the T1 connected to the innermost
plug on the radial. Connect the remaining five sensor leads to the radial module correspondingly,
ending with T 9 sensor lead at the edge of the radial module.
14. Set the heater power control to give a reading of 20 watts on the digital indicator.
15. Make sure that the temperature reading decreases towards the edge of the disc.
16. The equipment is now pre-checked for experiment.
Note:
1. Care should be exercised to avoid overheating the linear conduction module especially when
poor teat conductors are used as the intermediate section. The temperature at the hot end of the
module should be checked at regular intervals to ensure that it does not rise above 100 °C.
2. Always switch off the main switch before connecting the power and sensor leads.
5.2 General Shut-down Procedures
1. Turn the heater power control knob on the control panel to 0 Watt position by turning the knob fully
anticlockwise. Keep the cooling water flowing for at least 5 minutes through the module to cold down
the test metal.
2. Switch off the main switch and power supply. Then, unplug the power supply cable.
3. Close the water supply and disconnect the cooling water connection tubes if necessary. Otherwise,
leave the connection tubes for next experiment.
4. Disconnect the heater supply lead for the linear conduction module into the power supply socket on
the control panel.
5. Disconnect the sensor leads if necessary.
29
6 Experiment 1
Fourier’s Law study for linear conduction of heat along a homogeneous bar
6.1 Objective
To investigate Fourier's Law for the linear conduction of heat along a homogeneous bar
6.2 Procedures
1. Make sure that the main switch initially off. Then Insert a brass conductor (25mm diameter) section
intermediate section into the linear module and clamp together.
2. Turn on the water supply and ensure that water is flowing from the free end of the water pipe to
drain. This should be checked at intervals.
3. Turn the heater power control knob control panel to the fully anticlockwise position and connect the
sensors leads.
4. Switch on the power supply and main switch; the digital readouts will be illuminated.
5. Turn the heater power control to 40 Watts and allow sufficient time for a steady state condition to be
achieved before recording the temperature at all six sensor points and the input power reading on the
wattmeter (Q). This procedure can be repeated for other input power between 0 to 40 watts. After
each change, sufficient time must be allowed to achieve steady state conditions.
6. Plot of the temperature, T versus distance, x. Calculate the theoretical and actual thermal
conductivity.
6.3 Observations
1. When assembling the sample between the heater and the cooler take care to match the shallow
shoulders in the housings.
2. Ensure that the temperature measurement points are aligned along the longitudinal axis of the
unit.
Heater
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
Power, Q
(°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C)
(Watts)
Table 6: Observations.
30
7.Experiment 2
Conduction of heat and overall heat transfer along a composite bar
7.1 Objective
To study the conduction of heat along a composite bar and evaluate the overall heat transfer coefficient
7.2 Procedure
1. Make sure that the main switch initially off. Insert the stainless steel section or any other metals
(without sensor) into the linear module and clamp together.
3. Turn the heater power control knob control panel to the fully anticlockwise position.
4. Connect the six sensor leads (T1, 2, 3 & 7, 8, 9) to the plugs on top of the linear conduction module.
Connect the left-hand sensor lead from the module to the place marked T1 on the control panel.
Repeat this procedure for the remaining five sensor leads, connecting them from left to right on the
module and in numeral order on the control panel.
7. Plot of the temperature, T versus distance, x. Calculate the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, U based
on the knowledge of kbrass and kstainless steel and distances x1, x2 and x3.
Note
When assembling the sample between the heater and the cooler take care to match the surface.
7.3 Observations
Test Heater
T1 T2 T3 T7 T8 T9
Power, Q
(°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C)
(Watts)
A
B
C
D
Table 7: Observation
31
8 Experiment 3
The effect of a change in cross-sectional area on the temperature profile along a thermal
conductor
8.1 Objective
To investigate the effect of a change in the cross-sectional area on the temperature profile along a thermal
conductor.
8.2 Procedure
1. Make sure that the main switch initially off. Insert a brass or any other metals conductor (13mm
diameter) section into the linear module and clamp together.
4. Connect the six sensor leads (T1, 2, 3 & 7, 8, 9) to the plugs on top of the linear conduction
module. Connect the left-hand sensor lead from the module to the place marked TT1 on the control
panel. Repeat this procedure for the remaining five sensor leads, connecting them from left to right
on the module and in numeral order on the control panel.
7. Plot of the temperature, T versus distance, x. Comment on the trend and slope of the graph.
Note:
When assembling the sample between the heater and the cooler take care to provide a good surface
contact.
8.3 Observations
Test Heater
T1 T2 T3 T7 T8 T9
Power, Q
(°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C)
(Watts)
A
Table 8:Observations
32
9 Experiment 4
The temperature profile and rate of heat transfer for radial conduction through the wall of
cylinder
9.1 Objective
To examine the temperature profile and determine the rate of heat transfer resulting from radial
conduction through the wall of a cylinder
9.2 Procedure
1. Make sure that the main switch initially off.
2. Connect one of the water tubes to the water supply and the other to drain.
3. Connect the heater supply lead for the radial conduction module into the power supply socket on the
control panel.
4. Connect the six sensor (T1, 2, 3 & 4, 5, 6) leads to the radial module, with the T1 connected to the
innermost plug on the radial. Connect the remaining five sensor leads to the radial module
correspondingly, ending with T6 sensor lead at the edge of the radial module.
9. Plot of the temperature, T versus distance, r. Calculate the amount of heat transferred.
9.3 Observations
Test Heater
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
Power, Q
(°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C)
(Watts)
A
33
10 Experiment 5
The effect of surface contact on thermal conduction between adjacent slabs of material
10.1 Objective
To demonstrate the effect of surface contact on thermal conduction between adjacent slabs of material
10.2 Procedure
1. Make sure that the main switch initially off. Insert a brass conductor (25mm diameter) section into
the linear module and clamp together.
2. Apply the conducting compound only on the cold sink interface.
4. Connect the heater supply lead for the line conduction module into the power supply socket on the
control panel.
5. Connect the six sensors leads (T1, 2, 3 & 7, 8, 9) to the plugs on top of the linear conduction module.
Connect the left-hand sensor lead from the module to the place marked T 1 on the control panel.
6. Turn on the water supply and ensure that water is flowing from the free end of the water pipe to
drain. This should be checked at intervals.
8. Switch on the power supply and main switch, the digital readouts will be illuminated.
10. Plots of the temperature, T versus distance, x. Calculate the amount of heat transferred and comment
on the trend and type of graph obtained.
10.3 Observations:
Test Heater Power,
T1 T2 T3 T7 T8 T9
Q
(°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C)
(Watts)
A
B
C
D
34
11 Experiment 6
The influence of thermal insulation upon the conduction of heat between adjacent metals
11.1 Objective
To investigate the influence of thermal insulation upon the conduction of heat between adjacent metals
11.2 Procedure
1. Make sure that the main switch initially off. Insert a brass conductor (25mm diameter) section into the
linear module and clamp together.
2. Place an insulating material (eg. Paper) in between the specimen section and cold section.
4. Connect the heater supply lead for the line conduction module into the power supply socket on the
control panel.
5. Connect the six sensor leads (T1, 2, 3 & 7, 8, 9) to the plugs on top of the linear conduction module.
Connect the left-hand sensor lead from the module to the place marked T1 on the control panel.
8. Switch on the power supply and main switch, the digital readouts will be illuminated, the digital
readouts will be illuminated.
9. Set the heater power control to maximum of 5 watts and allow sufficient time for a steady state
conduction to be achieved before recording the temperature (T) at all nine sensor points and the input
power reading on the wattmeter (Q).
10. plot a graph temperature, T versus distance, x. Calculate the thermal conductivity of the insulating
material. Comment on the trend and type of graph obtained.
11.3 Observations
Test Heater
T1 T2 T3 T7 T8 T9
Power, Q
(°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C)
(Watts)
A
B
C
D
35
Radiation Heat Transfer and Exchange
36
ME-243L Heat and Mass Transfer Lab IST-MECH-RHTE-EXP03/00
1. Radiation Heat Transfer and Exchange

1.1. Introduction
Thermal radiation is a mode of heat transfer, which differs significantly from the other two modes,
namely conduction and convection. The fact that radiant energy transfer occurs across a vacuum is often
disturbing to students unless the theory relating to properties of electromagnetic waves has been
presented.
The engineer is not directly concerned with the mechanism by which heat transfer occurs, sound
knowledge of the properties and laws relating to the topic are required. The EES® RADIANT HEAT
TRANSFER & EXCHANGE consists of a pair of electrically heated radiant heat and light sources,
together with a comprehensive range of targets and measuring instrumentation.
The unit has been designed to demonstrate the fundamental laws relating to radiation. By performing a
series of simple experiments the student may verify the relevant equation appreciate the behavior of
radiation.
1.2. General description
The unit consists of a horizontal track fitted with interchangeable heat radiation source end and light
source. Either the heat radiation detector or the light meter may be placed on the horizontal track. In
addition, a number of accessories can be fitted for experimental purposes. These include metal plates, two
vertically orientated metal plates to form an aperture, and a number of light filters. The radiation detectors
accessories are all clamped to stand, which enable them to be positioned at different distances from the
source. Distances are measured with scales mounted on the front and the back of the track.
Temperatures of the three metal plates used in conjunction with the heat radiation source are displayed on
the control panel. Output from heat radiation detector and light meter are displayed on digital read out.
1.3. Unit Assembly
Filter plate Light meter
Light
Source
Target Plate
Radiometer
Aperture
Heated
Surface
Figure 1: Unit Assembly & Section View
37
1.4. Experimental Capabilities

1. Inverse Square Law for Heat - To show that the intensity of radiation on a surface is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance of the surface from the radiation source.
2. Stefan-Boltzmann Law - To show that the intensity of radiation varies as the fourth power of the
source temperature.
3. Kickoff’s Law - To determine the validity of Kickoff’s Law which states that the emissivity of a grey
surface is equal to its absorptivity of radiation received from another surface when in a condition of
thermal equilibrium.
4. Area Factors - To demonstrate that the exchange of radiant energy from one surface to another is
dependent upon their interconnecting geometry, i.e. a function of the amount that each surface can
‘see’ of the other.
5. Inverse Square Law for Light - To show that the illuminance of a surface is inversely proportional
to the square of the distance of the surface from the light source.
6. Lambert's Cosine Law - To show that the energy radiated in any direction at an angle with a surface
is equal to the normal radiation multiplied by the cosine of the angle between the direction of
radiation and the normal to the surface.
7. Lambert's Law of Absorption - To show that light passing through non-opaque matter is reduced in
intensity in proportion to the thickness and absorptivity of the material.
8. Determining the emissitivity of radiating surface with different finishes namely polished and gray
compared with matt black.
9. Demonstrating on how the emissitivity of radiating surface in close proximity to each other will affect
the surface temperature and the heat exchanged.
10. Demonstrating the exchange of radiant energy from one surface to another is dependent upon their
interconnecting geometry for example, a function of the amount that each surface can see of the other.
2.1 Specifications
1. Light Source
Consist of a bulb rated at 60 Watt, to produce a well distributed light using an acrylic filter.
2. Heated Surface
Consist of a heating aluminium plate rated with Matt Black Finish.
3. Target Plate
Consist of three types Polished, Grey and Matt Black with bolt-on temperature sensor.
4. Aperture
Consist of two plates with insulation on one side of the surface. The Insulated surface will be facing
the heated surface during the experiment.
5. Plastic Filter
Consist of three types of density known as Clear, Medium and Dark plate.
6. Radiometer
7. Light Meter
38
Overall Dimensions
Height : 0.25 m
Width : 1.55 m
Depth : 0.5 m
General Requirements
The equipment should be installed on a firm, level work surface.
The location should be remote from heaters or other sources of radiation and should preferably be a
darkened room for light experiments. If a darkened room is not available, the apparatus should be located
in subdued lighting away from direct sunlight.
Electrical: 240 VAC, 1-phase, 50/60Hz
39
2. Installation and commissioning

Ensure that the main switch on the control panel is switched off. Place the Radiant Heat Transfer &
Exchange unit on a flat surface adjacent to control panel. The unit utilised various combination and
therefore there is no one common assembly procedure. However, the following notes relate to the
important details on the various components.
2.1. Temperature Sensors and Metal Plate
The heater plate comes with an internal thermocouple. Plug in the thermocouple to the socket on the
control panel marked as Th. Connect the temperature sensor from the Black metal plate to miniature
socket marked as Black, connect the temperature sensor from the Grey metal plate to miniature socket
marked as Gray and connect the temperature sensor from the Polished metal plate to miniature socket
marked as Polish on the control panel. Heat Source
Install the heat source assembly on the holder with screws provided. Connect the power lead to the output
socket of the control panel.
Light Source
Install the light source assembly on the bracket with screws provided. Connect the power lead to the
socket of the control panel.
Radiometer
The radiometer is fitted with a cranked mounting as shown in the diagram to ensure that the sensing
surface is in the same plane as reference mark when installed on the track. Connect the radiometer to the
panel to read the measurements.
Light Meter
The light meter is located on a straight mounting on the track so that its sensing surface is in the same
plane as the reference mark on the carriage. Place the light on the holder and plug in to the light meter to
read the measurement.
2.2. Commissioning Procedures
1. Ensure that the main switch of the control panel is switched off.
2. Install the heat source assembly on the holder at one end of the horizontal track.
3. Then install the radiometer on the horizontal track. The complete installation is shown in Figure 1.
4. Connect the heater supply cable to the power output socket of the control panel.
5. Make sure that the radiometer cable is connected to the panel.
6. Connect the thermocouples of the heater assembly and three target plates to the panel. Then switch on
the unit.
7. Check the thermocouple reading from the plate should indicate ambient temperature.
8. Check the radiometer on the panel indicates approximately zero.
9. Set the heated surface temperature to 150oC and switch on the heater. Th temperature and the
radiometer reading should increase.
10. As the surface temperature of the heat source increases, observe the readouts of radiation. The reading
should increase.
11. Turn off the power supply to the heaters and allow sufficient time to cold down the heated plate to
below 50°C.
12. Remove the heat source assembly from the holder and install the light source assembly.
13. Then install the light meter on the horizontal track. The complete installation is shown in Figure 1.
14. Check the light meter measurement on the indicator. The measurement should give zero reading when
the cover that comes together with the sensor is closed.
15. Switch on the light source.
16. Remove the cover and check the light meter responds to the change in illumination of the light
source.
40
3. Theory
3.1. Inverse Square Law For Heat:
i 

dA1
dA
r
Figure2: Inverse Square Law For Heat
The total energy dQ from an element dA can be imagined to flow through a hemisphere of radius r. A
surface element on this hemisphere dA1 lies on a line making an angle with the normal and the solid
angle subtended by dA1.
3.2. Stefan-Boltzmann Law
The Stefan-Boltzmann Law states that: qb= σ (TS 4- Ta 4)
Where:
qb = energy emitted by unit area of a black body surface (Wm-2)
Note: Energy emitted by surface =3.040 X reading from radiometer R-refer to Radiometer Data Sheet for
explanation
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant equal to 5.67 x 10-8 (Wm-2 K-4)
TS= Source temperature and surrounding (K)
Ta= Temperature of radiometer and surroundings (K)
3.3. Area Factors
A2
T2
A1
Q12
T1
Figure 3: Area Factors
41
The heat transfer rate from one radiating black surface to another is dependent on the amount that each
surface can ‘see’ of the other surface. In order to solve radiant heat transfer problems an area factor F is
introduced where F is defined by the fraction of energy emitted per unit time by one surface that is
intercepted by the other surface. Thus, the time rate of radiant heat transfer (Q12) between two black
surfaces of area A1 and A2 at temperatures BLACK and GRAY Area factors are found by analysis,
numerical approximation and analogy, and results for common configurations have been published in
graphical form.
3.4. Inverse Square Law For Light
r
ssagdhig- r
hdfhihigf Er
Figure 4: Inverse square Law for Light

The luminous flux from a point light source is considered to spatially radiate and produce an illuminance,
Er on a spherical surface at radius r from the light source. Since the surface area of the sphere is given b,
the illuminance is inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the surface from the light source.
3.5. Lambert’s Cosine Law
Lambert's Law of diffuse radiation states that: I = IN Cosø
Where:
IN = intensity of radiation in normal direction
I = intensity of radiation in a direction at angle ø to the normal.
Where:
X = thickness of material
Io = original luminous intensity
IR = reflected component
If = luminous intensity after traverse.
4. General operating procedures
Sensor Connection
All sensors were numbered according to their range and type. Make sure that all sensors used were plug
in the right connections according to the label. The Light Meter and the Radiometer can be both move
along the track by loosen the nut below the holder.
Temperature Indicators
Temperature reading for each sensor is clearly labeled on the panel.
Heater Setting
Heating temperature is controlled by a temperature controller that comes with the panel. The maximum
heating temperature is 150°C
42
The first line displays the temperature of the heated plate while the second menu displays the set value.
Adjust the set value as follows
Press UP and DOWN arrow key continuously until almost near the desired set value.
Press UP and DOWN arrow key one by one until desired set value is reached. Notice that the least digit
point is flashing.
Press ENT to register the data. Notice that the least digit point goes off.
Holder
The equipment consists of a target plate holder and a filter/aperture that can be moved along the track by
losing the screw under the holder. Then, carefully slide the holder according to the experiment
requirement.
5. Experimental procedure
5.1. General Start-up Procedures
Heat Studies
1. Ensure that the main switches of the control panel is off.
2. Install the heat source assembly on the holder at one end of the horizontal track.
3. Then install the radiometer on the horizontal track. The complete installation is shown in Figure 1.
4. Connect the heater supply cable to the power output socket of the control panel.
5. Ensure that the heater cable is connected to the panel.
6. Connect the thermocouples of the heater assembly and three target plates to the panel. Then switch it
on.
7. Check the thermocouple reading from the plate should indicate ambient temperature.
8. Check the radiometer on the panel indicates approximately zero.
9. Set heater temperature to 150°C, Th temperature and the radiometer reading should increase. Ensure
that the radiometer’s cap is opened.
10. As the surface temperature of the heat source increases, observe the readouts of radiation. The
reading should increase as well.
11. The unit is now ready for experiment.
Light Studies
1. Ensure that the main switches of the control panel is off.
2. Install the light source assembly on the holder at one end of the horizontal track.
3. Then install the light meter on the horizontal track. The complete installation is shown in Figure 1.
4. Check the light meter measurement on the indicator. The measurement should give zero reading
when the cover that comes with the sensor is cap on.
5. Supply current to the light source.
6. Remove the cover and check the light meter responds to the change in illumination of the light
source.
7. The unit is now ready for experiment.
1. Turn off the power supply to either the heat source or the light source.
2. Turn off the main switch and power supply.
3. Keep all the accessories of the radiant Heat Transfer & Exchange unit at a proper place.
43
6. Experiment:
Inverse square law for heat
6.1 Objective
To show that the intensity of radiation on a surface is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
of the surface from the radiation source
6.2 Procedure
1. Follow the basic instruction as written in section 6.1.1.
2. Connect one of the thermocouple of the target plates BLACK to the panel and place the plate on the
bench, to record ambient temperature.
3. Position the radiometer on the test track at 800mm from the heat source.
4. Set heater temperature to 150°C by using heater controller. Monitor TH reading on the indicator.
5. When TH value has stabilized, record BLACK, TH, the distance, x and the radiometer reading, R.
6. Next, move the radiometer position to 700mm from the heated surface and monitor the reading on the
display panel. When the value has stabilized, record BLACK, TH, the distance, x and the radiometer
reading, R.
7. Repeat the above procedure by reducing the distance by 100mm until the radiometer is 300mm from
the heated surface.
6.3 Observations
Distance, Radiometer Reading, BLACK

TH (°C)
x(mm) R(W/m2) (°C)
800
700
600
500
150
300
44
7. Experiment
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
7.1 Objective
To show that the intensity of radiation varies as the fourth power the source temperature.
7.2 Procedure
2. Connect one of the thermocouple of the target plates BLACK to the panel and place the plate on the
4. Set the heater temperature to 150°C by heater controller. Monitor TH reading on the panel.
5. When TH value has stabilized, move the radiometer to 300mm from the heated plate. The reading
of the radiometer should start to rise. When the value has stabilized, record BLACK, TH, the
distance, x and the radiometer reading, R.
6. Next, move the radiometer to 800mm from the heated plate again.
7. Repeat the above procedure with an increment of 50°C from 250°C to 150°C.
7.3 Observations
Heater Radiometer
Distance, BLACK
Temperature Reading, TH (°C)
x(mm) (°C)
(°C) R(W/m2)
150 300
125 300
100 300
75 300
45
8. Experiment
Radiation from a source by the view factor
8.1 Objective
To show that the intensity of radiation measured by the radiometer is directly related to the radiation
emitted from a source by the view factor between the radiometer and the source
8.2 Procedures
2. Connect one of the thermocouple of the target plates, BLACK to the panel and place the plate on the
4. Supply 150°C to the heaters using the Heater Controller. Monitor TH reading indicated on the
temperature indicator.
5. When TH value has stabilized, record BLACK, TH, the distance, x and the radiometer reading, R.
6. Repeat the Above procedure with decrement steps of 100mm until the radiometer is 300mm from the
heated surface.
8.3 Observations
Radiometer
Distance, BLACK
Reading, TH (°C)
x(mm) (°C)
R(W/m2)
800
700
600
500
150
300
Assignment:
Calculate the radiation incident on the detector qb x Sin2 θ and compare with the corrected radiation value,
Rc.
46
9 Experiment
The Emissivity of Radiating Surface
9.1 Objective
To determine the emissivity of radiating surfaces with different finishing, namely polished, grey and matt
black
9.2 Procedures
2. Connect the thermocouple of the Black plate, BLACK to the panel and position the plate at 100 mm
from the heated surface. Use thermocouple, GRAY to measure the ambient temperature.
4. Supply 150°C to the heaters. Monitor BLACK and TH indicators reading.
5. When BLACK and TH have stabilized, position the radiometer at 100mm from the target plate, and
then record BLACK, GRAY, TH, the distance, x and the radiometer reading, R when all
measurements have stabilized.
6. Move the radiometer back to 800mm from the heated plate.
7. Now, connect the thermocouple of the grey plate, GRAY to the service unit and position the plate at
100 mm from the heated surface. Use thermocouple, POLISH to measure the ambient temperature.
8. Monitor GRAY and TH indicators readings on the Heat Transfer Service Unit.
9. When GRAY and TH have stabilized, position the radiometer at 100mm from the target plate. Record
GRAY, POLISH, TH, the distance, x and the radiometer reading, R when all measurements have
stabilized.
10. Move the radiometer back to 800mm from the heated plate.
11. Repeat procedure 7 until 9 with polished plate (POLISH) placed on the track and Black plate
(BLACK) to measure the ambient temperature.
9.3 Observations
BLAC POLIS Radiometer Radiometer

Sample GRAY TH
K H Reading, R Distance, x
No. (°C) (°C)
(°C) (°C) (W/m2) (mm)
1 - 200
2 - 200
3 - 200
Assignment:
1. Calculate the radiation using Stefan Boltzman formula and the view factor, F.
2. Calculate the emissitivity of each plate.
47
10 Experiment
Emissivity
10.1 Objective
To demonstrate how the emissitivity of radiating surface in close proximity to each other will affect the
surface temperature and heat exchanged
10.2 Procedures
2. Install the plate holder and position the holder with index mark 70mm from the heated pate.
3. Connect the thermocouple of the black plate (BLACK), grey plate (GRAY) and polished plate
(POLISH) to panel and place the plates on the bench adjacent to the panel to record the ambient
temperature.
Note: In order to have consistent readings, the distance between the last plate and the radiometer is kept
at 200mm. The radiometer has to be moved depending upon the number of plate used.
4. Supply 150°C to the heaters. Monitor TH indicator reading on the temperature indicator.
5. Then, move the radiometer distance according with the data distance given in the data sheet from the
heated surface.
6. When the readings have stabilized, record the relevant temperature reading, TH, the distance, x and the
radiometer reading, R.
7. Return the radiometer to 800mm position.
8. Add plates with the following combination:
Test 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Blac Blac Blac Polishe Polishe
1 - Black Black Polished
k k k d d
Slot
Polishe Polishe
2 - - Grey - - Grey -
d d
3 - - - - Grey Grey - - Grey
Table 16: Combinations
Move the radiometer 100mm from the target plate and record the necessary reading when stable value
achieved.
Slot No.
123
Target Plate
Heated
Radiometer
Surface
Figure 5: Radiometer
48
10.3 Observations
Test 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Blac Blac Polishe Polishe
1 - Black Black Black Polished
k k d d
Slot
Polishe
2 - - Polished Grey - - Grey -
d
3 - - - - Grey Grey - - Grey
SH
PO
LI
- - - -
Recorded
Y
A
G BL
- - - -
R
K Data
- - - -
C
TH
R
positio
Radio
n,mm
meter
300 280 300 300 320 320 280 300 320

Assignment: Take all reading and compare the values.
49
11 Experiment
Kirchoff’s Law
11.1 Objective
To determined validity of Kirchoff’s Law, which states that, the emissivity of a grey surface is equal to its
absorptivity of radiation received from another surface when in a condition of thermal equilibrium
11.2 Procedure
2. Connect thermocouple of the grey plate (GRAY) the panel and place the plate on the plate holder
80mm from the heated surface. Connect thermocouple of the polished plate (POLISH) to read
ambient temperature.
3. Install the radiometer on the track at 800mm from the heated surface.
4. Supply 150°C to the heaters. Monitor TH reading by selecting on the temperature indicator.
5. When TH value has stabilized, move the radiometer to 100mm from the grey plate. The reading of
the radiometer should start to rise. When the value has stabilized, record GRAY, TH, distance and R.
6. Now, carefully remove the radiometer from the stand. Point the radiometer to a wall or the bench
where the unit standing and hold the sensing face about 50 to 100mm from the target. Record the
ambient temperature and R.
7. Repeat the above procedure using ice cube or crushed ice.
11.3 Observations
Temperature of metal plate: __________________ °C
Sample Used PLATE WALL ICE

Radiometer Reading, R (W/m2)
Ambient Temperature, BLACK (°C)
Assignment:
1. Record ambient temperature and the radiometer measurements accordingly.
2. Compare the Radiometer readings.
50
12 Experiment
Area Factors
12.1 Objective
To demonstrate that the exchange of radiant energy from one surface to another is dependent upon their
interconnecting geometry, i.e. a function of the amount that each surface can 'see' of the other
12.2 Procedure
2. Install the aperture holder at 200mm from the heated surface. Then install the radiometer on the track at
800mm from the heated surface.
3. Supply 150°C to the heaters. Monitor TH indicator reading on the temperature indicator.
4. When TH value has stabilized, move the radiometer position to 100mm from the aperture position. The
reading of the radiometer should start to rise. When the value has stabilized, record TH, aperture width
and R.
5. Next, install the aperture plates on the aperture holder and adjust the width to 5mm. Again, record TH,
aperture width and R when the reading has stabilized.
6. Increase the gap with an increment of 5mm increment and repeat the above procedures.
Aperture
SURFACE
HEATED
Variable aparture gap
Plate
Cork
Figure 5: Equipment settings
12.3 Observations:
Width (mm) X (mm) R (W/m2)

No aperture
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
51
13 Experiment
Inverse Square Law for Light
13.1 Objective
To show that the illuminance of a surface is inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the
surface from the light source.
13.2 Procedure
Note:
The light meter is very sensitive to the sunlight and other artificial light generated from the surrounding. It
is recommended that the experiment is to be conducted in a dark room.
2. Position the light meter at 200mm from the light source and switch on the light power. Make sure that
the light source is positioned with 0° orientation.
3. When the reading has stabilized, record the following data:
Distance from the light source: x (mm)
Light meter reading: L (Lux)
4. Move the light meter 100mm away from the initial distance and repeat the observation.
5. Repeat the above procedure until the light meter is at 800mm from the light source.
13.3 Observations
Distance X (mm) 200 300 150 500 600 700 800

Light Meter Reading L
(Lux)
Assignment:
Plot Log L vs. Log X graph
52
14 Experiment
Lambert’s Cosine Law
14.1 Objective
To show that the energy radiated in any direction at an angle with a surface is equal to the normal
radiation multiplied by the cosine of the angle between the direction of radiation and the normal to the
surface
14.2 Procedure
Note: The light meter is very sensitive to the sunlight and other artificial light generated from the
surrounding. It is recommended that the experiment is to be conducted in a dark room.
2. Position the light meter at 200mm from the light source and switch on the light source. Make sure that
the light source is positioned with 0° orientation.
3. When the reading has stabilized, record the following data:
Angular position of the light source: Ф (°)
4. Increase the angle displacement by 10° increment clockwise and repeat the observation until the angle
is 90°.
5. Repeat the above procedures for Anti clockwise displacement.
14.3 Observations
Angle Displacement, Ф (°) Lux meter reading (Lux)
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
80
90
53
15 Experiment
Lambert’s Law of Absorption
15.1 Objective
To show that light passing through non-opaque matter is reduce in intensity in proportion to the thickness
and absorptivity of the material
15.2 Procedure
Note: The light meter is very sensitive to the sunlight and other artificial light generated from the
surrounding. It is recommended that the experiment to be conducted in a dark room.
2. Position the light meter at 200mm from the light source. Make sure that the light source is position
with 0° orientation.
3. Install the filter plate holder 100mm from the light source.
4. Switch on the light source.
5. When the reading has stabilized, record the followings:
Filter Plate Present: No/Yes (Thickness)
6. Place 3mm medium filter plate onto the plate holder and repeat observation.
7. Repeat above observation with different plate thickness by adding more medium filter with 3mm
thickness to the previous filter.
Note: Add the filter alternately for constant reading as shown below.
First Medium Filter
Added Medium Filter

Added Medium Filter
Nut to secure filter
Filter/Aperture holder
8. Now, replace the filter plate with the clear plate. When the reading has stabilized,
record the followings:
Filter Plate Present: Color
9. Repeat the observation with different filter plates.
54
15.3 Observations
(a) Variable Filter Thickness Test

FILTER TYPE 0 3 6 9
Light Meter Reading (lux)
(b) Variable Optical Density Demonstration

FILTER TYPE No Filter Clear Medium Dark
Light Meter Reading
(lux)
Assignment
1. Calculate Ln of L from the observation (a) and labeled as Ln If.
2. Plot Ln If vs. thickness of the plate from observation (a) and calculate the slope.
3. From the slope, calculate the reflected component.
4. With the reflected component obtained from the previous observation, calculate the absorptivity of
the material for observation (b).
55
Shell and tube Heat Exchanger
56
1. Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

1.1 Introduction
A heat exchanger is a piece of equipment built for efficient heat transfer from one medium to another.
The media may be separated by a solid wall to prevent mixing or they may be in direct contact. They are
widely used in space heating, refrigeration, air-conditioning, power plants, chemical plants, petrochemical
plants, petroleum refineries, natural gas processing, and sewage treatment. The classic example of a heat
exchanger is found in an internal combustion engine in which a circulating fluid known as engine
coolant flows through radiator coils and air flows past the coils, which cools the coolant and heats the
incoming air
1.2 Description
Experimental Capabilities
1. Energy balance determination
2. Temperature profile in counter current flow
3. Log mean temperature difference
4. Heat transfer coefficient
5. Flow rate effects on heat transfer rate
6. Heat loss estimatio
Specifications
a) Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger:
Tube O.D. (do): 10.0 mm
Tube I.D. (di): 8.0 mm
Tube Length (L): 500.0 mm
Tube Count (Nt): 13 (single pass)
Tube Pitch (pt): 18.2 mm
Tube arrangement: non-cumulative triangular
Shell O.D.: 123.9 mm
Shell I.D. (Ds): 116.06 mmBaffle Count:
Baffle Cut (Bc): 40%
Baffle Distance (lB): 53.3 mm
Tube-to-Baffle Clearance (ct): 0 in. (0 mm)
57
Material of Construction: stainless steel
Number of tube Rows 3
a) Instrumentations:
Measurements of inlet and outlet temperatures for hot water and cold water streams Measurements of
flow rates for the hot water and cold water circuits Measurements of pressure drops across the heat
exchanger.
b) Control Panel:
To mount all the necessary digital indicators, temperature controller, selector switches, on/off switches,
etc.
General Requirement
Cooling water, Laboratory tap water,Drainage point
2. Theory
Heat Exchangers
Heat exchangers are devices designed to transfer heat from one fluid to another without the fluids coming
into contact.
Types of Heat Exchanger

Shell-and-tube heat exchanger: The most common type of heat exchanger in industrial applications. They
contain a large number of tubes (sometimes several hundred) packed in a shell with their axes parallel to
that of the shell. Heat transfer takes place as one fluid flows inside the tubes while the other fluid flows
outside the tubes through the shell.
58
Figure 1: Parallel and Counter Flow

Co-current (Parallel) flow
As the name suggests, the flow of the hot and the cold fluid is taking place in the same direction in this
case. As the graph shows, the temperature difference between the hot and the cold fluid keeps on
decreasing from one end to the other.
Counter current flow
In this setup, the hot fluid enters from one end of the exchanger and the cold from the opposite end. This
results in nearly constant temperature difference between the hot and the cold fluid. This is a significant
aspect and makes counter current exchangers preferable over co-current exchangers. We will discuss this
point later when we talk about LMTD.
Crossed flow
The cold and the hot fluid flow axis is at an angle to each other and hence, the fluids cross each other in
this arrangement. The most common type of crossed flow exchanges has the angle between axes as 90
degrees.
59
Design and Construction

Shell and heat tube exchangers-It finds application in a variety of industries and is, without doubt, one of
the most widely used exchangers. It has a series of tubes which is enclosed by a shell. One fluid flows
inside the tubes while the other liquid flows over the outside walls of the tubes which, basically, is the
shell. It's highly recommended for places where there's a need for high heat transfer coefficient as the
number of tubes can be increased depending on the need. Due to its unique shape, it finds use in high
pressure applications.
2.1 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
Construction
Tubes-The tubes provide the heat transfer area in a shell and tube heat exchanger. The tubes in a shell and
tube heat exchanger are arranged in various arrangements. They are enclosed by a shell around them.
They are available in various sizes and shapes according to B.W.G (Birmingham wire gauge) system. The
selection of wall thickness of tube depends on maximum operating pressure and corrosion characteristics.
Tube Pitch-Various aspects have to be kept in mind while designing a shell and heat tube exchanger. The
tubes cannot be made very close to each other as that would then leave very less amount of metal between
the drilled tubes holes in tube sheets attached at the ends of the exchanger. And if the space between the
tubes is very high, it would result in less surface area which in turn, would affect the efficiency of the
exchanger. Hence, an optimum distance should be maintained. The shortest distance between centers of
two adjacent tubes is called the tube pitch, should not be less than 1.25 times the tube diameter.
Shell- As shown in the figure, the shell is the outer casing of the heat exchanger. One fluid flows between
the outer wall of the heat exchanger and inner wall of the shell while the other flows inside the tube. Shell
has a circular cross section and selection of material of the shell depends upon the corrosiveness of the
fluid and the working temperature and pressure. Carbon steel is a common material for the shell under
moderate working conditions.
Baffles-These are panels responsible for obstructing and redirecting the flow of fluid in the shell side of
an exchanger. They are situated normal to the walls of the shell and force the liquid to flow at right angles
to the axis of the tubes. This increases turbulence resulting in greater heat transfer. Also, the baffles help
in keeping the tubes from sagging and increase the strength of the tubes by preventing their vibration.
60
2.2 Experiment#1 (Parallel Flow)

Study the effects in concentric tube heat exchanger by varying flow rate of hot water and by keeping the
constant flow rate of cold water
Tube side Calculations
Flow rate Hot water LMTD Prandtl Nusselt Reynolds ut U ht Pt
Hot water Cold water Inlet Outlet
(liter/min) (liter/min) temp temperat
ure
Table 1: Parallel Flow (Tube side Calculations)

Shell side Calculations
Flow rate Cold water LMTD Prandtl Nusselt Reynolds us U hs PS
ure
Table 3: Shell side Calculations

Type Power Power Power Lost Efficiency
Emitted Absorbed %
Parallel flow
Note:
Parallel: T1 = tHin – tCin =T2 = tHout – tCout
61
2.3 Experiment#2 (parallel flow)

Study the effects in concentric tube heat exchanger by varying flow rate of cold water and by keeping the
constant flow rate of hot water
Flow rate Hot water Temp LMTD Prandtl Nusselt Reynolds ut U ht Pt
ure
Table 2: Parrallel flow(Tube side Calculations)

Flow rate Cold water Temp LMTD Prandtl Nusselt Reynolds us U hs PS
(liter/min) K K m/s2 mH2O
ure

Emitted Absorbed %
Parallel flow
Note:
Parallel: T1 = tHin – tCin = T2 = tHout – tCout
62
2.4 Experiment#3 (Counter Flow)

Study the effects in concentric tube heat exchanger by varying flow rate of cold water and by keeping the
constant flow rate of hot water
ure
Table 5: Parallel Flow(Tube side Calculations)

ure

Emitted Absorbed %
counter
Note:
Counter: T1 = tHin – tCout = T2 = tHout – tCin
63
2.5 Experiment#4 (Counter Flow)

Study the effects in concentric tube heat exchanger by varying flow rate of hot water and by keeping the
constant flow rate of cold water
ure
Table 6: Parallel Flow(Tube side Calculations)

ure

Emitted Absorbed %
counter
64
Unsteady State Heat Transfer
65
ME-243L Heat and Mass Transfer Lab IST-MECH-USHT-EXP05/00
1 General description
Two sets of simple shapes (the solid sphere, the rectangular slab and the long solid cylinder) made of
brass and stainless steel is supplied. Each of the specimens has a built-in temperature sensor to
measure the temperature at the centre of the shape. Measurement taken on a shape of a particular
material can be used to confirm the conductivity of a similar shape of different material.
The water bath has a capacity of 30 liters and is heated by a 3.0 kW electric heating element. The
temperature of the water bath can be maintained and predetermined by means of a thermostat before
taking any measurements. The large volume of water in the bath ensures that any changes in the
temperature of the water as the measurements are taken, is negligible
A small pump mounted alongside the water bath circulates water from the bath to the base of a
vertical cylindrical duct, which is located at the centre of the water bath. The individual shapes are
conveniently positioned within the vertical duct by means of a holder before the measurements are
taken. The heat transfer characteristics and also the water temperature surrounding the shape remains
constant, due to the upward flow of water at constant velocity past the shape.
A temperature sensor mounted on the holder of the solid shapes contacts the hot water instantaneously
as the solid shape to give an accurate temperature/time measurement.
1.1 Unit Assembly
Test
shape
holder
Tank
Cover
Tank
Recirculation
Pump
Thermostat
Figure 1: Unit Assembly
66
Test
Shape
Pump
Heater
Figure 2: Unit Assembly & Section View
1.2 Experiment Capabilities
 Monitoring the changes in temperature for bodies of different sizes, shapes and materials,
which are dropped into the hot water bath.
 Analysis of the results obtained from different solid shapes using analytical
temperature/heat flow charts provided.
 Determination of the conductivity of a shape using the results obtained from similar shape
made of different material.
 The effect of shape, size and material properties upon unsteady heat flows.
1.3 Specifications
A bench top unit designed to allow experiments on unsteady state heat transfer.
Water Bath
30 litres insulated stainless steel tank with top plate and mounting for solid shapes holder. The heating
is by a 3.0kW electric heater with thermostat control while the water circulation is by a centrifugal
pump.
Solid Shapes
7 Pieces of solid specimens made of brass and stainless steel are supplied. The three different shapes
are solid sphere, rectangular slab and long solid cylinder. Each solid shape has a built-in temperature
sensor at the centre.
Brass &
Brass & Stainless Stainless Brass &
Stainless
Steel Steel Stainless Steel
Steel
67
L=100mm,
Ø=20mm,
Ø=30mm, L=100mm W=67mm, Ø=45mm
L=100mm
T=15mm
Figure 3: Test Shape

Overall Dimensions
Height : 680mm
Width : 450mm
Depth : 600mm
General Requirements
Electrical : 240 VAC, 1-phase, 50Hz
Water : Clean tap water.
2 Installation and commissioning
2.1 Assembly
Place the unit on a flat surface adjacent to the Heat Transfer Service Unit HE111. Carefully assemble
the top section.
2.2 Temperature Sensors
Connect the relevant miniature thermocouple plugs to the thermocouple sockets on the front of the
service unit according to the label on the lead.
2.3 Heating Element & Circulating Pump
Connect the power supply leads of the heater and the circulating pump to the service unit.
2.4 Water Bath
When filling up the equipment with water, ensure that you do not splash it onto the electrical
instruments. Carefully and slowly, pour the water into the tank until it reaches the mid of the overflow
hole inside the tank.
2.5 Test Shape
The Unsteady State Heat Transfer comes with a few test shapes. Handle the shape carefully.
3. Commissioning Procedures
1. Ensure that the drain valve adjacent to the circulating pump is in the closed position and fill the
water bath with clean water until the water level is at the mid of the overflow hole inside the
tank. Set the thermostat temperature to 70 °C.
2. Make sure that the Heat Transfer Service Unit HE111 is initially turned off.
68
3. Connect the power supply leads of the heater and the circulating pump to the service unit.
4. Connect all temperature sensors to the Heat Transfer Service Unit according to the label marked
on the thermocouple leads.
5. Turn on the service unit and all indicators should illuminate.
6. Check that all temperature measurements indicate ambient temperature reading.
7. Turn on the water circulating pump and slowly open the flow control valve. Check that the water
is circulating through the pump.
8. Turn on the heater. The water bath temperature should slowly increase.
9. The unit is ready for use.
4. Theory
Unsteady state heat transfer is the process, which takes place before steady state conditions can be
reached. No system exists initially under steady state conditions. During unsteady state phase,
temperature is a function of time.
Basic Equation
In the simplified case, consider a solid, which has a very high thermal conductivity or very low
internal conductive resistance, compared to the external surface resistance, where the convection
occurs from the external fluid to the surface of the solid. Since the internal resistance is very small,
the temperature within the solid is essentially uniform at any given time.
An example would be a small, hot cube of steel at To K at time t=0, suddenly immersed into a large
bath of cold water at T∞ which is held constant with time. Assume that the heat-transfer coefficient, h
in W/m2.K is constant with time. Making a heat balance on the solid object for small time interval of
time, dt s, the heat transfer from the bath to the object must equal the change in internal energy of the
object.
hA(T∞-T)dt = CpρVdT (Eq. 1)
Where,
A = surface area of the object, [m2]

T = average temperature of the object at time T, [s]
 kg 
ρ = density of the object,  3 
m 
3
V = volume, [m ]
Rearrange the equation and integrating between the limits of T = To when t = 0 and T = T and t = t
T T  hA 
dT hAdT T  T  t
 T  T C P V To  T
T To 
   e  CP V 
(Eq.2)
This equation describes the time-temperature history of the solid object. The term CPρV is often called
the lumped thermal capacitance of the system. This type of analysis is often called the lumped
capacitance method or Newtonian heating or cooling method.
Equation for Different Geometries

The basic assumption of negligible internal resistance was made in the derivation. This assumption
is reasonably accurate when
69
hx 1
NBi  < 0.1 (Eq.3)
k
Where NBi is called Biot Number, which is dimensionless, and x1 is a characteristic dimension of the
body obtained from x1 = V/A.
The Biot number compares the relative values of internal conduction resistance and surface
convective resistance to heat transfer.
For sphere,
V 4r 3 r
x1    (Eq.4)
A 12r 2
3
For a long cylinder,
V D 2L D r
x1     (Eq.5)
A 4DL 4 2
For a long square rod,
V 2x  L x
2
x1    (x = ½ thickness) (Eq.6)
A 42x L 2
4.1 Transient Heat Conduction in Various Geometries
Now, the more general situation will be considered, where the internal resistance is not small, and
hence the temperature is not constant in the solid.
Transient Conduction in a Large Flat Plate
A geometry that often occurs in heat-conduction problems is a flat plate of thickness 2x1 in the x
direction and having large or infinite dimensions in the y and z directions, as shown in Figure 2:
x
z
Figure 1: Transient Conduction in Large Flat plate
Heat is being conducted only from the two flat and parallel surfaces in the x direction. The original
uniform temperatures of the plat is To, and at time t = 0, the solid is exposed to an environment at
temperature T1 and transient conduction occurs. A surface resistance is present. The numerical results
of this case presented graphically in Figure 3, which is the chart (Heisler Chart) for determining the
temperature at center in the and at any time t. The dimensionless parameters used in Heisler Chart are
shown in Table 1.
70
Figure 2: Chart for determining temperature at the center of a large flat plate for transient heat
conduction. [From H.P. Heisler, Trans. A.S.M.E., 69, 227 (1947)]
T1  T k
Y m
T1  To hX 1
t k
X 2 
x1 C P
where,
T1 = water bath temperature, oC
T = center temperature at time t, oC
To = initial center temperature, oC
K = thermal conductivity of material, W/m.K
h = heat transfer coefficient, W/m2.K
X1 = V/A, m
t = time, s
S = density of sample, kg/m3
Cp = heat capacity of sample, J/kg.K
Table 1: Dimensionless Parameters for Use in Heisler Chart
Transient Conduction in Long Cylinder

In the consideration of transient conduction in a long cylinder, the conduction occurs only in the radial
direction. The cylinder is long so that conduction at the ends can be neglected or the ends are
insulated. Charts for this case are presented in Figure 4 for determining the center temperature.
71
Figure 3: Chart for determining temperature at the center of a long cylinder for transient heat
conduction. [From H.P. Heisler, Trans. A.S.M.E., 69, 227 (1947)]
Transient Conduction in a Sphere

For a sphere, the conduction occurs in the radial direction. In Figure 5, a chart by Heisler is shown for
determining the center temperature in the sphere.
Figure 4: Chart for determining temperature at the center of a sphere for transient heat conduction.
[From H.P. Heisler, Trans. A.S.M.E., 69, 227 (1947)
72
4.2 General operating procedures

1. Sensor Connection
All sensors were numbered according to their range and type. Make sure that all sensors used were
plugged in the correct connection according to the label attach at the end of the terminal.
2. Temperature Selection
To select a particular temperature, use the temperature selector knob and turn it clockwise. The
reading should vary from T1 until T12.
3. Heater Setting
Heating value is controlled by the thermostat.
4. Water Bath
When filling up the equipment with water, ensure that you do not splash it onto the service unit.
Carefully and slowly, pour the water into the tank until it reaches the mid of the overflow hole inside
the tank.
5. Test Shape
The Unsteady State Heat Transfer comes with a few test shapes. Handle the specimens carefully.
Assemble the shape with the carrier before putting the shape into the water bath. When taking the
shape out from the water bath, carefully not to touch the hot specimens.
5. Experimental procedures
5.1 General Start-up Procedures
1. Ensure that the drain valve adjacent to the circulating pump is in the closed position and fill the
water bath with clean water until the water level is at the mid of the overflow hole inside the tank.
Set the thermostat temperature to 70 °C.
2. Make sure that the Heat Transfer Service Unit HE111 is initially turned off.
3. Connect the power supply leads of the heater and the circulating pump to the service unit.
4. Turn on the service unit and all indicators should illuminate, then turn on the heater. The water
bath temperature should slowly increase.
5. While waiting for the water to heat up, attach the required test shape to the shape holder and
secure it using screw provided. Avoid touching the shape directly to reduce thermal effect.
6. Connect the relevant thermocouple leads to the service unit. Then place the shape on the bench to
reach ambient temperature.
1. Follow the general shut down procedure for the service unit.
2. Disconnect all sensors and power supply leads form the service unit and take out the submerge
shape to cold it down on the bench.
3. Let the water bath and the test shape cool down then, drain the water bath and wipe dry the test
shape. If possible, wipe the internal tank to dry or just leave it open to dry before storage.
4. Store in a safe place.
73
6. Experiment
Unsteady state condition of the heat to the center of a solid shape
6.1 Objectives
To observe unsteady state condition of the heat to the center of a solid shape when a step change is
supplied to the temperature at the surface of the shape
6.2 Procedures
1. Follow the basic instruction as written in section 6.1.
2. Install the 30mm diameter stainless steel cylinder in the shape holder.
3. The water bath temperature should be stabilized at 70oC.
4. Turn ON the pump.
5. Record the initial condition temperature and place the test shape in the water bath. Then, record
temperature and time as detailed in the observation sheet.
6. The experiment may be repeated with other specimens.
6.3 Observations
Time Bath Temp, T1 Air / Water Temp, T2 Specimen's Temp, T3

(s) (°C) (°C) (°C)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
Assignment:
1. Plot Temperature T3 vs. Time (seconds)
74
7. Experiment
Determination of thermal conductivity using analytical transient temperature heat flow
chart
7.1 Objective
To compare the thermal conductivity of a solid cylinder from measurements taken on a similar
cylinder but having different thermal conductivity using analytical transient temperature heat flow
charts
7.2 Procedures
2. Install the 20mm diameter stainless steel cylinder in the shape holder.
3. The water bath temperature should be stabilized at 70oC.
temperature and time as detailed in the observations sheet.
6. When the 20mm brass cylinder has reached the bath temperature, remove it from the tank and
install 20mm brass cylinder in the shape holder.
temperature and time as detailed in the observations.
7.3 Observations
(s) (°C) (°C) (°C)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
75
8. Experiment
Effect of size, shape and material properties on unsteady state heat flow
8.1 Objective
To investigate the effect of size, shape and material properties on unsteady state heat flow. Using
analytical transient temperature heat flow chart to analyze the result obtained from different solid
shape
8.2 Procedures
2. Install the 15mm thick brass slab in the shape holder.
3. The water bath temperature should be stabilize at 70oC.
6. When 15mm thick brass slab has reached the bath temperature, remove it from the tank and install
15mm thick stainless steel slab in the shape holder.
8. The experiment may be repeated with other test specimens.
8.3 Observations

(s) (°C) (°C) (°C)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
76

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ME-243L Heat and Mass Transfer Lab

DEPARTMENT OFMECHANICAL ENGINEERING

1.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 10

1.2. Description .................................................................................................................................. 10

1.3. Experimental Capabilities ........................................................................................................... 10

2.1 Free Convection .......................................................................................................................... 11

2.2 Forced Convection ...................................................................................................................... 11

2.3 Extended Surface ........................................................................................................................ 12

2.4 Temperature Distribution along an Extend Surface .................................................................... 12

2.5 Horizontal and Vertical Flat Plane in Free Convection .............................................................. 13

3.1 Start-up Procedures ..................................................................................................................... 13

3.2 Shut Down Procedures ................................................................................................................ 14

4.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................................... 15

4.2 Equipment Set-Up:...................................................................................................................... 15

4.3 Procedures: .................................................................................................................................. 15

4.4 Obervations: ................................................................................................................................ 15

5.1 Objectives: .................................................................................................................................. 16

5.2 Equipment Set-Up:...................................................................................................................... 16

5.3 Procedures: .................................................................................................................................. 16

5.4 Observations ............................................................................................................................... 16

6.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 17

6.2 Equipment Set-Up:...................................................................................................................... 17

6.4 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 17

7.1 Objectives: .................................................................................................................................. 19

7.2 Equipment Set-Up: ...................................................................................................................... 19

7.3 Procedures: .................................................................................................................................. 19

7.4 Observations and Calculations: ................................................................................................... 19

8.1 Objectives: .................................................................................................................................. 21

8.2 Experiment Set-Up: .................................................................................................................... 21

8.3 Procedures: .................................................................................................................................. 21

8.4 Observations and Calculations: ................................................................................................... 21

1 Heat Conduction Unit ......................................................................................................................... 23

1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 23

1.2 General description ..................................................................................................................... 23

1.21 Unit Assembly ............................................................................................................................ 23

1.22 Specifications .............................................................................................................................. 23

1.23 General Requirements ................................................................................................................. 24

2 Linear Module ..................................................................................................................................... 24

3 Radial Module ..................................................................................................................................... 25

3.1 Control Panel .............................................................................................................................. 25

4.1 Linear Conduction Heat Transfer .............................................................................................. 25

4.2 Radial Conduction Heat Transfer (Cylindrical) .......................................................................... 27

4.3 Heat Conduction with Insulation ................................................................................................ 27

4.4 Unsteady State Heat Conduction ................................................................................................ 28

5 Experimental procedure ...................................................................................................................... 28

5.2 General Shut-down Procedures ................................................................................................... 29

6.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 30

6.3 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 30

7.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 31

7.2 Procedure: ................................................................................................................................... 31

7.3 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 31

8.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 32

8.2 Procedure: ................................................................................................................................... 32

8.3 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 32

9.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 33

9.2 Procedure: ................................................................................................................................... 33

9.3 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 33

10.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 34

10.2 Procedure: ................................................................................................................................... 34

10.3 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 34

11.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 35

11.2 Procedure: ................................................................................................................................... 35

11.3 Obervations: ................................................................................................................................ 35