STANDARD CONSISTENCY TEST:

Take about 500 gms of cement and prepare a paste with a weighed quantity of water (say 24
per cent by weight of cement) for the first trial. The paste must be prepared in a standard manner
and filled into the Vicat mould within 3-5 minutes. After completely filling the mould, shake
the mould to expel air. A standard plunger, 10 mm diameter, 50 mm long is attached and
brought down to touch the surface of the paste in the test block and quickly released allowing
it to sink into the paste by its own weight. Take the reading by noting the depth of penetration
of the plunger. Conduct a 2nd trial (say with 25 per cent of water) and find out the depth of
penetration of plunger. Similarly, conduct trials with higher and higher water/cement ratios till
such time the plunger penetrates for a depth of 33-35 mm from the top. That particular
percentage of water which allows the plunger to penetrate only to a depth of 33-35 mm from
the top is known as the percentage of water required to produce a cement paste of standard
consistency.

( VICAT APPARATUS)

SETTING TIME OF CEMENT:

Take 500 gm. of cement sample and guage it with 0.85 times the water required to produce
cement paste of standard consistency (0.85 P). The paste shall be guaged and filled into the
Vicat mould in specified manner within 3-5 minutes. Start the stop watch the moment water is
added to the cement.
INITIAL SETTING TIME:
Lower the needle (C) gently and bring it in contact with the surface of the test block and quickly
release. Allow it to penetrate into the test block. In the beginning, the needle will completely
pierce through the test block. But after some time when the paste starts losing its plasticity,
theneedly may penetrate only to a depth of 33-35 mm from the top. The period elapsing
between the time when water is added to the cement and the time at which the needle penetrates
the test block to a depth equal to 33-35 mm from the top is taken as initial setting time.

FINAL SETTING TIME:

The cement shall be considered as finally set when, upon, lowering the attachment gently cover
the surface of the test block, the centre needle makes an impression, while the circular cutting
edge of the attachment fails to do so. In other words the paste has attained such hardness that
the centre needle does not pierce through the paste more than 0.5 mm.

COMPRESSION STRENGTH OF CEMENT:

THE cubes of 15cm X 15cm X 15cm or 10cm X 10cm x 10cm depending upon the size of
aggregate are used. For most of the works cubical moulds of size 15cm x 15cm x 15cm are
commonly used.

This concrete is poured in the mould and tempered properly so as not to have any voids. After
24 hours these moulds are removed and test specimens are put in water for curing. The top
surface of these specimen should be made even and smooth. This is done by putting cement
paste and spreading smoothly on whole area of specimen.

These specimens are tested by compression testing machine after 7 days curing or 28 days
curing. Load should be applied gradually at the rate of 140 kg/cm2 per minute till the
Specimens fails. Load at the failure divided by area of specimen gives the compressive strength
of concrete.
 (COMPRESSION TESTING MACHINE)

TESTS RELATED TO AGGREGATES:

SIEVE ANALYSIS:

A gradation test is performed on a sample of ((aggregate in a laboratory. A typical sieve

analysis involves a nested column of sieves with wire mesh cloth (screen). See the separate
((Mesh (scale) page for details of sieve sizing.
A representative weighed sample is poured into the top sieve which has the largest screen
openings. Each lower sieve in the column has smaller openings than the one above.
The column is typically placed in a mechanical shaker. The shaker shakes the column, usually
for some fixed amount of time. After the shaking is complete the material on each sieve is
weighed. The weight of the sample of each sieve is then divided by the total weight to give a
percentage retained on each sieve. The size of the average particle on each sieve is then
analysed to get a cut-off point or specific size range, which is then captured on a screen.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF
AGGREGATES :

(i) About 2 kg of aggregate sample

is washed thoroughly to remove
fines, drained and placed in wire
basket and immersed in distilled
water at a temperature between
22- 32º C and a cover of at least
5cm of water above the top of
basket.

(ii) Immediately after

immersion the entrapped air is

removed from the sample by

lifting the basket containing it 25 mm above the base of the tank and allowing it to drop at the

rate of about one drop per second. The basket and aggregate should remain completely

immersed in water for a period of 24 hour afterwards.

(iii) The basket and the sample are weighed while suspended in water at a temperature of 22°

– 32°C. The weight while suspended in water is noted =W1g.

(iv) The basket and aggregates are removed from water and allowed to drain for a few minutes,

after which the aggregates are transferred to the dry absorbent clothes. The empty basket is

then returned to the tank of water jolted 25 times and weighed in water=W2g. .

(v) The aggregates placed on the absorbent clothes are surface dried till no further moisture

could be removed by this cloth. Then the aggregates are transferred to the second dry cloth

spread in single layer and allowed to dry for at least 10 minutes until the aggregates are

completely surface dry. The surface dried aggregate is then weighed =W3 g
(vi) The aggregate is placed in a shallow tray and kept in an oven maintained at a temperature

of 110° C for 24 hrs. It is then removed from the oven, cooled in an air tight container and

weighted=W4 g.

Weight of saturated aggregate suspended in water with basket = W1 g

Weight of basket suspended in water = W2 g

Weight of saturated aggregate in water = W1 – W2 g

Weight of saturated surface dry aggregate in air = W3 g

Weight of water equal to the volume of the aggregate = W3–(W1–W2)g

Weight of oven dry aggregate = W4 g

(1) Specific gravity = W3 / (W3– (W1– W2))

(2) Apparent specific gravity = W4 / (W4– (W1– W2))

 IMPACT VALUE OF AGGEGRATE:

Sieve the material through 12.5 mm and 10.0mm IS sieves. The aggregates passing

through 12.5mm sieve and retained on 10.0mm sieve comprises the test material.

(ii) Pour the aggregates to fill about just 1/3 rd depth of measuring cylinder.

(iii) Compact the material by giving 25 gentle blows with the rounded end of the tamping rod.

(iv) Add two more layers in similar manner, so that cylinder is full.

(v) Strike off the surplus aggregates.

(vi) Determine the net weight of the aggregates to the nearest gram(W).

(vii) Bring the impact machine to rest without wedging or packing up on the level plate, block

or floor, so that it is rigid and the hammer guide columns are vertical.

(viii) Fix the cup firmly in position on the base of machine and place whole of the test sample

in it and compact by giving 25 gentle strokes with tamping rod.

(ix) Raise the hammer until its lower face is 380 mm above the surface of aggregate sample in

the cup and allow it to fall freely on the aggregate sample. Give 15 such blows at an interval

of not less than one second between successive falls.

(x) Remove the crushed aggregate from the cup and sieve it through 2.36 mm IS sieves until

no further significant amount passes in one minute. Weigh the fraction passing the sieve to an

accuracy of 1 gm. Also, weigh the fraction retained in the sieve.

Aggregate Impact Value (percent) = W2 / W1 X 100

CRUSHING VALUE OF AGGREGATE:

Put the cylinder in position on the base plate and weigh it (W).
Put the sample in 3 layers, each layer being subjected to 25 strokes using the tamping rod. Care
being taken in the case of weak materials not to break the particles and weigh it (W1).
Level the surface of aggregate carefully and insert the plunger so that it rests horizontally on
the surface. Care being taken to ensure that the plunger does not jam in the cylinder.
Place the cylinder with plunger on the loading platform of the compression testing machine.
Apply load at a uniform rate so that a total load of 40T is applied in 10 minutes.
Release the load and remove the material from the cylinder.
Sieve the material with 2.36mm IS sieve, care being taken to avoid loss of fines.
Weigh the fraction passing through the IS sieve (W2).
Calculation of Aggregate Crushing Value

The ratio of weight of fines formed to the weight of total sample in each test shall be expressed

as a percentage, the result being recorded to the first decimal place.

Aggregate crushing value = (W2 x 100) / (W1-W)

W2 =Weight of fraction passing through the appropriate sieve.

W1-W =Weight of surface dry sample.

TESTS RELATED TO CONCRETE:

SLUMP CONE TEST:

Clean the internal surface of the mould and apply oil.

Place the mould on a smooth horizontal non- porous base plate.
Fill the mould with the prepared concrete mix in 4 approximately equal layers.
Tamp each layer with 25 strokes of the rounded end of the tamping rod in a uniform manner
over the cross section of the mould. For the subsequent layers, the tamping should penetrate
into the underlying layer.
Remove the excess concrete and level the surface with a trowel.
Clean away the mortar or water leaked out between the mould and the base plate.
Raise the mould from the concrete immediately and slowly in vertical direction.
Measure the slump as the difference between the height of the mould and that of height point
of the specimen being tested.

When the slump test is carried out, following are the shape of the concrete slump that can be

observed:
COMPRESSION STRENGTH OF CONCRETE:

(I) Remove the specimen from water after specified curing time and wipe out excess water

from the surface.

(II) Take the dimension of the specimen to the nearest 0.2m

(III) Clean the bearing surface of the testing machine

(IV) Place the specimen in the machine in such a manner that the load shall be applied to the

opposite sides of the cube cast.

(V) Align the specimen centrally on the base plate of the machine.

(VI) Rotate the movable portion gently by hand so that it touches the top surface of the

specimen.

(VII) Apply the load gradually without shock and continuously at the rate of 140 kg/cm2/minute

till the specimen fails

(VIII) Record the maximum load and note any unusual features in the type of failure.

Compressive Strength of Concrete at Various Ages

The strength of concrete increases with age. Table shows the strength of concrete at different

ages in comparison with the strength at 28 days after casting.

Age Strength per cent

1 day 16%
 3 days 40%

7 days 65%

14 days 90%

28 days 99%

Compressive Strength of Different Grades of Concrete at 7 and 28 Days

Grade of Minimum compressive Specified characteristic compressive

2
Concrete strength N/mm at 7 days strength (N/mm2) at 28 days

M15 10 15

M20 13.5 20

M25 17 25

M30 20 30

M35 23.5 35

M40 27 40

M45 30 45

TEST RELATED TO SAND:

BY VOLUME:

Fill 1% solution of common salt and water in the measuring cylinder up to 50 ml mark.
Now add sand to be tested to this solution till the level of the salt solution shows 100 ml
mark.

Top up the level of salt solution up to 150 ml mark.

Shake the mixture of sand and salt solution well and keep it undisturbed for about 3 hours.

The silt being of finer particles than sand, will settle above the sand in a form of layer.

Measure the thickness of this silt layer.

PROCEDURE FOR BUILDING CONSTRUCTION:

EXCAVATION:

Excavation is the process of removing earth to form a cavity in the ground.On small sites or in
confined spaces, excavation may be carried out by manual means using tools such as picks,
shovels and wheelbarrows. Larger scale excavation works will require heavy plant such as
bulldozers and backactors.

TOOLS REQUIRED FOR EXCAVATION:

SPADE:

Spade is a tool which consists metal plate having sharp edges, the plate is attached to long
handle which is generally made up of wood. Because of its sharp edges the soil can be dig
easily. The metal plate having less curvature in the spade so, we cannot lift the soil by spade.
SHOVEL:

Shovel is tool which is used for the purpose of lifting of excavated soil. It is also similar to
spade the difference between spade and shovel is the difference in leading edge. The curvature
of metal plate of shovel is generally higher when compared to spade so we can hold the soil
easily and lifted it. Shovel can also be used for digging purpose in case of soft soils, sand etc.

HOE:

Hoe is an excavating tool which consists a metal plate attached to a long handle with acute
angle. The plate having sharp edge is used to excavate the soil. For small work of excavation
it is widely preferred tool. Sometimes metal plate is replaced by fork type plate.
 LEVELLING:
Levelling is a branch of surveying, the object which is

Find the elevation of a given point with respect to the given or assumed ((datum.
Establish a point at a given elevation with respect to the given or assumed ((datum.

Procedure for leveling:

The instrument is to set up at any point.The instrument is levelled by centering the
bubble. A rod or staff is held vertical on that point and the instrument is used to
read the rod scale. This gives the height of the instrument above the starting
(backsight) point and allows the height of the instrument (H.I.) above the datum to
be computed.
The rod is then held on an unknown point and a reading is taken in the same manner,
allowing the elevation of the new (foresight) point to be computed. The procedure
is repeated until the destination point is reached. By the RL values are calculated
either by height of instrument method or by rise and fall method and the surface is
levelled according to it.
PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE:

Plain Cement Concrete (PCC) is also called as Blinding Concrete.It is used for leveling,
bedding for footings, grade slabs, concrete roads etc.PCC is used to provide non-porous, rigid,
impervious, firm and leveled bed for laying RCC, where earth is soft and yielding.PCC can be
use over brick flat soling or without brick flat soling.PCC also used as filler like lump concrete;
this is a mix of PCC and boulder.It consists of cement, sand and coarse aggregates mixed with
water in the specifiedproportions.
S.NO CONCRETE GRADE USED IN CONSTRUCTION

1 M10 PCC

2 M25 FOOTING

3 M30 SLAB
4 M45 COLUMN

CONCRETE GRADE MIX RATIO COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH MPA

(CEMENT : SAND : AGGREGATES) (N/MM2)
M5 1 : 5 : 10 5 MPa
M7.5 1:4:8 7.5 MPa
M10 1:3:6 10 MPa
M15 1:2:4 15 MPa
M20 1 : 1.5 : 3 20 MPa
M25 1:1:2 25 MPa

MARKING:

Site marking is one of the starting point of your construction.

In this activity your Engineer and Meastri will identify pillar placements.
Once pillars placement is identified based on soil condition earth work will start.
Engineer will mark the area around the piller. Earth workers will dig marked area
Depending on soil condition pillar depth will vary.
Some people perform puja before starting this marking.
FOOTING:

Footings are an important part of foundation construction. They are typically made of
concrete with reinforcement that has been poured into an excavated trench. The purpose
of footings is to support the foundation and prevent settling. Footings are especially
important in areas with troublesome soils.The construction of footings is best that can
assess the soil conditions and decide on the proper

depth and width for the footings as well as the proper placement. The dimensions of
footings also depend on the size and type of structure that will be built. Placement of
footings is crucial to provide the proper support for the foundation and ultimately the
structure.

TYPES OF FOOTINGS:
Isolated footing:

Footings which are provided under each column independently are called as
Isolated footings. They are usually square, rectangular or circular in section.
Footing is laid on PCC. Before laying PCC termite control is done to restrict
the termites to damage the footing. These footings are most economical when
compared with the other kind of footings. These kinds of footings are provided
where the soil bearing capacity is generally high. Isolated footings comprise of
a thick slab which may be flat or stepped or sloped.

Flat footing:
These kind of footings are generally square or rectangular or circular in shape
which are provided under each column independently. Flat or Footing is one of the Shallow
Foundation. It is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform thickness.

Stepped footing:

As from the name its resembling that footings are stacked upon one another as steps. In these
type of footing three concrete cross sections are stacked upon each other. This type of footing
is used generally in residential buildings. These types of footings are constructed in olden days
now they are outdated.
Sloped Footing:

Sloped footings are trapezoidal footings. They are done with great care to see that the top slope
of 45 degree is maintained from all sides. When compared the trapezoidal footing with the
flat footing the usage of concrete is less. Thus, it reduces the cost of footing in concrete as well
as reinforcement.

Shoe or eccentric footing:

Shoe footing is the half footing cut-out from the original footing and it has a shape of shoe. It
is provided in the corner of the plot . Where there is no provision of setback area. They are
constructed on property boundary. Column is provided or loaded at the edges of footing. It is
provided when the exterior column is close to the boundary or property line and hence there is
no scope to project footing much beyond the column face. Shoe footings are constructed when
the soil bearing capacity is the normal 24KN/m2
Combined footing:

A footingwhich has more than one column is called as combined footing. This kind of footing
is adopted when there is a limited space. Due to lack of space we cannot cast individual footing,
Therefore footings are combined in one footing.

Raft or Mat footing:

When the column loads are heavy or the safe bearing capacity of soil is very low, The required
footing area become very large. As mentioned this footing is in shallow foundation. So in order
to spread the load over large area with less depth then we have to increase the footing area. If
we increase footing area, the footings are overlapped each other instead of providing each
footing on each column all columns are placed in common footing. A raft or mat footing is a
solid reinforced concrete slab covering entire area beneath the structure and supporting all the
columns.
COLUMN REINFORCEMENT:A reinforced concrete column is a structural member
designed to carry compressive loads, composed of concrete with an embedded steel frame to
Provide reinforcement.

COLUMN FORMWORK:

Reinforced concrete column forms are subjected to lateral pressure because of their small cross
section, large heights and relatively high rates of concrete placement. Thus It is necessary to
provide tight joints and strong tie support to the formwork. As the sizes of concrete column
increases, the stiffness of the formwork must be increased by either increasing thickness of
sheathing or vertical stiffeners must be added to prevent sheathing deflection.

TYPES OF FORMWORK:

Plywood Formwork:

Resin bonded plywood sheets are attached to timber frames to make up panels of required sizes.
The cost of plywood formwork compares favorably with that of timber shuttering and it may
even prove cheaper in certain cases.

Steel Formwork:

This consist of panels fabricated out of thin steel plates stiffened along the edges by small steel
angles. The panel units can be held together through the use of suitable clamps or bolts and
nuts. The panels can be fabricated in large number in any desired modular shape or size. Steel
forms are largely used in large projects or in situation where large number reuses ofthe
shuttering is possible.

COLUMN FORMWORK REMOVAL:

The removal of formwork also called as strike-off or stripping of formwork should be carried
out only after the time when concrete has gained sufficient strength, at least twice the stress to
which the concrete may be subjected to when the formworks are removed. It is also necessary
to ensure the stability of the remaining formwork during formwork removal.

HONEY COMBS COLUMNS:

Honeycombs are hollow spaces and cavities left in concrete mass on surface or inside the
concrete mass where concrete could not reach. These look like honey bees .
CAUSES:

Honeycomb is due to non-reaching of concrete to all places due to which cavities and hallow
pockets are created, main reasons are:

1) Improper vibration during concrete.

2) Less cover to reinforcement bars

3) Use of very stiff concrete

REMEDIES:

In case of honey combs on surface pressure grouting with cement based chemicals which are
non-shrinkable can be adopted after taking opinion of the designer and acting as per his advice.
Taping with wooden hammer the sides of shuttering from outs side during concreting and
vibrating will help minimizing honeycombs to a great extent in case of columns and beams.
Use of thinner needle say 25mm or less with vibrator at intricate places of concreting will also
help in reducing honey combs.
 CURING:
Curing is the process of spraying water over freshly prepared concrete in order to
maintain the moisture level of the mix so as to avoid cracks on the surface. The duration
of curing is generally 7 to 14 days. Curing is done by covering gunny bags to the
concrete columns.

BEAM AND SLAB REINFORCEMENT:

Detailing of reinforcements in beams and slabs plays an important role in providing
strength, durability and cost optimization. Reinforcement details of concrete beams and
slabs should specify clearly about cover to reinforcement, length of reinforcement,
curtailment of reinforcement, number and diameter of reinforcement to be provided.

BEAM AND SLAB FORMWORK:

Formwork is temporary or permanent molds into which concrete or similar materials are
poured. In the context of concrete construction, the falsework supports the shuttering
molds. Formwork for reinforced concrete slabs depends on the type of slabs to be
constructed. The floor slabs can be structural slabs supported on a steel or concrete structural
frame, or slab-on-grade.
 BEAM AND SLAB FORMWORK REMOVAL:
Beam and joist bottoms should remain in place until final removal of all shoring under
them are done.Joist forms should be designed and removed so that the shores may be
removed temporarily to permit removal of joist forms but must be replaced at once.
The shores and joists will be dismantled beginning from the middle of the member’s
span, continuing symmetrically up the supports.The approval from the engineer should
be obtained for the sequence and pattern of formwork removal.

BLOCK WORK:

Blocks are constructed using concrete or cement. They may include a hollow core to make
them lighter and to improve their insulation properties A standard block is 440 mm x 215 mm,
the equivalent of 3 bricks high and 2 long, the maximum size that one person can comfortably
lift. They are available in a range of widths from 50 mm to 300 m.

PLASTERING:

Plaster is a building material used for the protective and/or decorative coating of walls and
ceilings and for moulding and casting decorative elements. The most common types of plaster
mainly contain either gypsum, lime, or cement but all work in a similar way. The plaster is
manufactured as a dry powder and is mixed with water to form a stiff but workable paste
immediately before it is applied to the surface. The reaction with water liberates heat through
crystallization and the hydrated plaster then hardens.
Concrete Mix Design
Introduction:
The process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and determining their relative
amounts with the objective of producing a concrete of the required, strength, durability, and
workability as economically as possible, is termed the concrete mix design. The
proportioning of ingredient of concrete is governed by the required performance of concrete
in 2 states, namely the plastic and the hardened states. If the plastic concrete is not workable,
it cannot be properly placed and compacted. The property of workability, therefore, becomes
of vital importance.
The compressive strength of hardened concrete which is generally considered to be an index
of its other properties, depends upon many factors, e.g. quality and quantity of cement, water
and aggregates; batching and mixing; placing, compaction and curing. The cost of concrete is
made up of the cost of materials, plant and labour. The variations in the cost of materials arise
from the fact that the cement is several times costly than the aggregate, thus the aim is to
produce as lean a mix as possible. From technical point of view the rich mixes may lead to
high shrinkage and cracking in the structural concrete, and to evolution of high heat of
hydration in mass concrete which may cause cracking.
The actual cost of concrete is related to the cost of materials required for producing a
minimum mean strength called characteristic strength that is specified by the designer of the
structure. This depends on the quality control measures, but there is no doubt that the quality
control adds to the cost of concrete. The extent of quality control is often an economic
compromise, and depends on the size and type of job. The cost of labour depends on the
workability of mix, e.g., a concrete mix of inadequate workability may result in a high cost of
labour to obtain a degree of compaction with available equipment.
Requirements of concrete mix design
The requirements which form the basis of selection and proportioning of mix ingredients are:
a) The minimum compressive strength required from structural consideration
b) The adequate workability necessary for full compaction with the compacting equipment
available.
c) Maximum water-cement ratio and/or maximum cement content to give adequate durability
for the particular site conditions
d) Maximum cement content to avoid shrinkage cracking due to temperature cycle in mass
concrete.
Types of Mixes
1. Nominal Mixes
In the past the specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of cement, fine and
coarse aggregates. These mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio which ensures adequate
strength are termed nominal mixes. These offer simplicity and under normal circumstances,
have a margin of strength above that specified. However, due to the variability of mix
ingredients the nominal concrete for a given workability varies widely in strength.
2. Standard mixes
The nominal mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio (by volume) vary widely in strength and
may result in under- or over-rich mixes. For this reason, the minimum compressive strength
has been included in many specifications. These mixes are termed standard mixes.
IS 456-2000 has designated the concrete mixes into a number of grades as M10, M15, M20,
M25, M30, M35 and M40. In this designation the letter M refers to the mix and the number
to the specified 28 day cube strength of mix in N/mm2. The mixes of grades M10, M15, M20
and M25 correspond approximately to the mix proportions (1:3:6), (1:2:4), (1:1.5:3) and
(1:1:2) respectively.
3. Designed Mixes
In these mixes the performance of the concrete is specified by the designer but the mix
proportions are determined by the producer of concrete, except that the minimum cement
content can be laid down. This is most rational approach to the selection of mix proportions
with specific materials in mind possessing more or less unique characteristics. The approach
results in the production of concrete with the appropriate properties most economically.
However, the designed mix does not serve as a guide since this does not guarantee the correct
mix proportions for the prescribed performance.
For the concrete with undemanding performance nominal or standard mixes (prescribed in
the codes by quantities of dry ingredients per cubic meter and by slump) may be used only
for very small jobs, when the 28-day strength of concrete does not exceed 30 N/mm2. No
control testing is necessary reliance being placed on the masses of the ingredients.
Factors affecting the choice of mix proportions
The various factors affecting the mix design are:
1. Compressive strength
It is one of the most important properties of concrete and influences many other describable
properties of the hardened concrete. The mean compressive strength required at a specific
age, usually 28 days, determines the nominal water-cement ratio of the mix. The other factor
affecting the strength of concrete at a given age and cured at a prescribed temperature is the
degree of compaction. According to Abraham’s law the strength of fully compacted concrete
is inversely proportional to the water-cement ratio.
2. Workability
The degree of workability required depends on three factors. These are the size of the section
to be concreted, the amount of reinforcement, and the method of compaction to be used. For
the narrow and complicated section with numerous corners or inaccessible parts, the concrete
must have a high workability so that full compaction can be achieved with a reasonable
amount of effort. This also applies to the embedded steel sections. The desired workability
depends on the compacting equipment available at the site.
3. Durability
The durability of concrete is its resistance to the aggressive environmental conditions. High
strength concrete is generally more durable than low strength concrete. In the situations when
the high strength is not necessary but the conditions of exposure are such that high durability
is vital, the durability requirement will determine the water-cement ratio to be used.
4. Maximum nominal size of aggregate
In general, larger the maximum size of aggregate, smaller is the cement requirement for a
particular water-cement ratio, because the workability of concrete increases with increase in
maximum size of the aggregate. However, the compressive strength tends to increase with the
decrease in size of aggregate.
IS 456:2000 and IS 1343:1980 recommend that the nominal size of the aggregate should be
as large as possible.
5. Grading and type of aggregate
The grading of aggregate influences the mix proportions for a specified workability and
water-cement ratio. Coarser the grading leaner will be mix which can be used. Very lean mix
is not desirable since it does not contain enough finer material to make the concrete cohesive.
The type of aggregate influences strongly the aggregate-cement ratio for the desired
workability and stipulated water cement ratio. An important feature of a satisfactory
aggregate is the uniformity of the grading which can be achieved by mixing different size
fractions.
6. Quality Control
The degree of control can be estimated statistically by the variations in test results. The
variation in strength results from the variations in the properties of the mix ingredients and
lack of control of accuracy in batching, mixing, placing, curing and testing. The lower the
difference between the mean and minimum strengths of the mix lower will be the cement-
content required. The factor controlling this difference is termed as quality control.
Mix Proportion designations
The common method of expressing the proportions of ingredients of a concrete mix is in the
terms of parts or ratios of cement, fine and coarse aggregates. For e.g., a concrete mix of
proportions 1:2:4 means that cement, fine and coarse aggregate are in the ratio 1:2:4 or the
mix contains one part of cement, two parts of fine aggregate and four parts of coarse
aggregate. The proportions are either by volume or by mass. The water-cement ratio is
usually expressed in mass
Factors to be considered for mix design
ð The grade designation giving the characteristic strength requirement of concrete.
ð The type of cement influences the rate of development of compressive strength of concrete.
ð Maximum nominal size of aggregates to be used in concrete may be as large as possible
within the limits prescribed by IS 456:2000.
ð The cement content is to be limited from shrinkage, cracking and creep.
ð The workability of concrete for satisfactory placing and compaction is related to the size
and shape of section, quantity and spacing of reinforcement and technique used for
transportation, placing and compaction.
Procedure:
1. Determine the mean target strength ft from the specified characteristic compressive
strength at 28-day fck and the level of quality control.
ft = fck + 1.65 S
Where S is the standard deviation obtained from the Table of approximate contents given
after the design mix.
2. Obtain the water cement ratio for the desired mean target using the emperical relationship
between compressive strength and water cement ratio so chosen is checked against the
limiting water cement ratio. The water cement ratio so chosen is checked against the limiting
water cement ratio for the requirements of durability given in table and adopts the lower of
the two values.
3. Estimate the amount of entrapped air for maximum nominal size of the aggregate from the
table.
4. Select the water content, for the required workability and maximum size of aggregates (for
aggregates in saturated surface dry condition) from table.
5. Determine the percentage of fine aggregate in total aggregate by absolute volume from
table for the concrete using crushed coarse aggregate.
6. Adjust the values of water content and percentage of sand as provided in the table for any
difference in workability, water cement ratio, grading of fine aggregate and for rounded
aggregate the values are given in table.
7. Calculate the cement content form the water-cement ratio and the final water content as
arrived after adjustment. Check the cement against the minimum cement content from the
requirements of the durability, and greater of the two values is adopted.
8. From the quantities of water and cement per unit volume of concrete and the percentage of
sand already determined in steps 6 and 7 above, calculate the content of coarse and fine
aggregates per unit volume of concrete from the following relations:

Where V = absolute volume of concrete

= Gross volume (1m3) minus the volume of entrapped air
Sc = specific gravity of cement
W = Mass of water per cubic metre of concrete, kg
C = mass of cement per cubic metre of concrete, kg
p = ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate by absolute volume
fa, Ca = total masses of fine and coarse aggregates, per cubic metre of concrete, respectively,
kg, and
Sfa, Sca = specific gravities of saturated surface dry fine and coarse aggregates, respectively
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9. Determine the concrete mix proportions for the first trial mix.
10. Prepare the concrete using the calculated proportions and cast three cubes of 150 mm size
and test them wet after 28-days moist curing and check for the strength.
11. Prepare trial mixes with suitable adjustments till the final mix proportions are arrived at.

M45 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN BY IS METHOD

Sample calculation of M45 grade concrete:
1) Design stipulations:
Characteristics compressive strength 28 days : 45N/mm2
Target mean strength :f’ck = fck +1.65 s ( s= 5; from is 10262 table 1)
f’ck = 45+1.65 x 5 = 53.25N/mm2
Maximum size of aggregates : 20 mm
Workability, slump : 50 to 75mm
Type of exposure : Moderate
Aggregate surface condition : All aggregates are in surface dried
Condition
2) Test data for materials:
Type of cement : ACC 43 grade (OPC)
Specific gravity of cement : 3.15
Specific gravity of admixture : 1.07
Specific gravity of coarse aggregates : 2.54
Specific gravity of fine aggregates : 2.47
Table for densities of materials used

Materials Specific gravity X1000 Specific weight(kg/m3)

Water 1 1000 1000
Cement 3.155 1000 3155
Surface dried fine aggregates 2.47 1000 2470

Surface dried coarse aggregates 2.54 1000 2540

Admixture 1.07 1000 1070

3) Selection of water/cement ratio:

From is 456-2000 table 5 maximum W/C ratio =0.35
Based on trials adopted w/c ratio=0.34<0.35 hence ok
Hence selected W/C ratio is = 0.34
4) Estimation of mixing water:
a) Weight of water for 20 mm aggregates and slump 25-50 mm = 186 litre.
b) Weight of water for 50-75 mm slump (increased by 3% for additional 25 mm slump
as per is 10262 clause 4.2) = 191.58 litre.
Note: on adding super plasticizer @ 0.9% water content reduces by 20%
Net water volume =191.58X0.8=litre =153.26 litre
6) Estimation of weight of cement:
Wt. of cement=wt. of water/water cement ratio
Wt. of cement=153.26/0.34 =450.76kg/m3
Min. content as per is 456 for moderate exposure =360kg
450.76> 360kg hence ok
7) Estimation of weight of admixture:
Weight of admixture @0.9% of weight of cement=0.9x 450.36/100 =4.05kg
Volume of admixture (E) =wt. of admixture/specific weight
=4.05/1070 = 0.00378 m3
8) Calculating proportion of coarse and fine aggregates
From is-10262 table 3:
Volume of coarse aggregates corresponding to 20mm size and fine aggregates zone 1=o.60
Volume of fine aggregates = (1-0.60) = 0.40
9) Mix calculations:
a) Volume of concrete =1m3
b) Volume of cement = (mass of cement/specific gravity) x (1/1000)
= (450.76/3.155) x (1/1000) =0.1428 m3
c) Volume of water = (mass of water/specific gravity) x (1/1000)
= (153.36/1.00) x (1/1000) =0.153 m3
d) Volume of admixture = (mass of admixture/specific gravity) x (1/1000)
= (4.05/1.07) x (1/1000) =0.00378 m3
e) Volume of all in aggregates = {a-(b+c+d)}
 =1-(0. 1428+0.153+0.00378) =0.70042
f) Weight of coarse aggregates = 0.7057x0.63x specific gravity of coarse agg x 1000
=0.7004x0.60x2.54 x 1000 =1067.44 kg
g) Weight of fine aggregates = 0.7004 x0.40x 2.47 x 1000 =691.99kg
10) Proportion ratio:
Cement: coarse aggregates: fine aggregates = 1: 1.53: 2.36
11) Table of ingredients:

Ingredients Surface dried weights

cement 450.76 kg
Coarse aggregates 1067.44 kg
Fine aggregates 691.99 kg
water 153 litre.
Admixture 4.05 kg
Water cement ratio 0.34