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NOTES
1. Introduction
Boilers are delivered clean with no soot, slag and scale.
Consequently a soot and scale problem is a classic management
and operational problem that has very little to do with boiler
design.
Soot and slag is a mixture of solid carbon, ash, and molten ash that
sticks to the fire side of the tube and prevents heat transfer. Slag
will also cause corrosion.
Major causes are overfiring of the boiler, too much excess air,
and worn out burner nozzles.
The soot and scale problems Page 3
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e) Dripping burner
Occasionally liquid oil drips directly from the burner down
into the fire tube and forms a pile of soot. This soot burns up
and generates smoke.
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NOTES
Figure 2 shows a fire tube with soot inside the tube. In a fire tube
boiler the hot combustion gases pass through a bundle of tubes and
release part of their energy to the water at the outside.
Fire tube boilers are usually smaller (1 to 25 t/h) and mostly in the
5 to 20 bar range. Soot cleaning is simple, requiring only to open
the back and front door of the boiler to expose the horizontal fire
tubes. Soot cleaning of water tube boilers is much more
complicated, since they are larger and more complicated built.
NOTES
High stack gas temperatures are therefore a sure sign that boiler
heat exchanger surfaces have accumulated soot and/or scale.
Both, the soot as well as the scale act as insulators. The effect is a
hotter than usual stack gas temperature because the combustion
gases were prevented from efficiently transferring their energy to
the water side.
NOTES
Roh, (), is the scale density in kg/m3, while Lambda, (), stands
for the thermal conductivity in W/moC.
Since on both sides of the tube we have a fluid flowing (stack gas,
water, or steam) there are also two so called film heat transfer
coefficients, hH2O, for the water or steam side and hgas for the gas
side. The film heat transfer coefficient, hgas, describes how easily
the gas transfers its energy to the metal or soot surface, while hH2O
describes how easily the water or steam picks up the heat that
penetrates through the metal tube or the scale surface.
2 L Ta Tb
Q = Watt
1 ln r r ln r2 r1 ln r3 r2 1
1 0
r0 h0 k1 k2 k3 r3 h3
Ta = temperature of the fluid (steam, water, stack gas) inside the tube, oC
Tb = temperature of the fluid (gas, water) outside the tube, oC
r0 = inner radius of the free cross section of the pipe, m
r1 = outer radius of the first layer, m
r2 = outer radius of the second layer, m
r3 = outer radius of the third layer, m
ki = thermal conductivity of layer i, W/moC
L = tube length, m
h0 = inner film heat coefficient, W/m2 oC
h3 = outer film heat coefficient, W/m2 oC
NOTES
Some boiler operators neither care about soot nor scale and operate
their boiler inefficiently. Recall that scale as well as soot are
barriers to heat transfer. Your recommendation is to clean the fire
side of the boiler and remove the soot regularly, while descaling of
the water side can wait until the next major shutdown for
overhauling of the boiler.
Consequently one barrier for heat transfer is removed, but the other
remains. Note that the barrier on the very hot combustion gas side
was removed, and subsequently the metal surface temperature will
go up significantly (thermal stress), depending on the scale
thickness on the water or steam side. This phenomena would not
happen to this extend if both barriers, scale and soot, are removed.
Keep in mind that under certain circumstances cleaning the fire
side without cleaning the water or steam side will increase the
danger of thermal stress of boiler tubes. This happens in particular
at the tube seats of the first pass of fire tube boilers.
NOTES
Nevertheless even very thin layers (0.5 to 1 mm) of soot and scale
cause significant fuel losses. In addition scale built up causes
thermal stress to the tubes and increases repair and maintenance
costs.
10
% Fuel Energy Loss
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
1
NOTES
12
10
% Fuel Loss
8 High density
6 Medium Density
Low Density
4
2
0
0.25
0.75
1.25
1.75
0.5
1.5
0
2
Scale Thickness,mm
8. Measurement techniques
The stack gas temperature of a boiler, if continuously recorded
over longer periods (weeks, months), gives very important
information about the efficiency of a boiler and its operating hours.
Temperature recording is accurate, inexpensive and easy to
perform.
In case a boiler requires closer observation one may first
install automatic single channel data loggers that measure the
temperature in 1 to 10 minute intervals over days and weeks.
Equipment costs are US$ 350 only.
NOTES
EXERCISES
Task 1
Assume there is a scale with = 1 W/moC at the inside of a boiler
water tube (OD = 38.1 mm, wall thickness =3.4 mm). The steam
and water mixture is at 40 bar and 250oC. The overall heat transfer
is 400 kW/m2 inner pipe surface. Follow the steps to calculate the
temperature increase across each of the surfaces from the inside to
the outside (Water film, scale, tube wall).
NOTES
Task 2
Often an energy auditor is in no position to measure water or steam
temperatures. Assume a situation where the temperature gages are
missing or you don’t trust the reading, but you are able to measure
the surface temperature of the bare pipe correctly ( 2 oC).
Task 3
Measuring surface temperatures requires special surface
temperature sensors and some skills. It is always advisable to apply
enough pressure on the sensor and clean the surface, prior to
measuring. Test the effect of paint at the pipe surface. Even a very
thin layer of paint will change the surface temperature of a pipe
carrying hot feedwater at 95 C by about 3-7 C.
Does the temperature go up or down as compared to the surface
temperature of the clean pipe?