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UNIT I WATER AND ITS TREATMENT

WATER TECHNOLOGY

1 Introduction

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2 Hard water and soft water
3 Boiler Feed water
3.1 Formation of deposits in steam boilers and Heat exchangers

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3.2 Caustic embrittlement
3.3 Boiler corrosion

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3.4 Priming and Foaming
4 Softening or conditioning Methods
4.1 Zeolite or Permutit process
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4.2 Ion-Exchange (or) De- ionization (or) Demineralisation Process
5 Internal Treatment (or) Internal Conditioning (or) Boiler Compounds
6 Desalination of Brackish water
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6.1 Reverse Osmosis (R.O)

1 INTRODUCTION
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Water is essential for the existence of human beings, animals and plants. Though 80%
of the earth‟s surface is occupied by water, less than 1% of the water is available for ready
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use.
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The main sources of water are

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Rain
rivers and lakes (surface water)
wells and springs (ground water)
sea water

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Among the above sources of water, rain water is the purest form of water but it is very difficult
to collect whereas sea water is the most impure form.

Thus, surface and ground water are normally used for industrial and domestic
purposes. Such water must be free from undesirable impurities.

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“The process of removing all types of impurities from water and making it fit for
domestic or industrial purposes are called water treatment.” Before treating water one
must know the nature as well as the amount of impurities.

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2 HARD WATER AND SOFT WATER

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Hard Water ee
“Water which does not produce lather with soap solution, but produces white precipitate
is called hard water”.
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This is due to the presence of dissolved Ca and Mg salts.

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Soft Water
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“Water which produces lather readily with soap solution is called soft water.”
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This is due to the absence of Ca and Mg salts.

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3 BOILER FEED WATER

In Industry, one of the chief uses of water is generation of steam by boilers. The
water fed into the boiler for the production of steam is called boiler feed water.

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Requirements of boiler feed water

It should have zero hardness.
It must be free from dissolved gases like O2, CO2, etc.
It should be free from suspended impurities.
It should be free from dissolved salts and alkalinity

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It should be free from turbidity and oil.

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It should be free from hardness causing and scale forming constituents like Ca and
Mg salts.
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Formation of deposits (Scales and Sludges) in boilers and heat exchangers

In a boiler, water is continuously converted into steam. Due to this continuous evaporation
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of water, the concentration of soluble matters increases progressively. Then the salts
separating out from the solution in the order of their solubility, the lease soluble ones
separating out first.
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(i) Sludge

If the precipitate is loose and slimy it is called sludges.

Sludges are formed by substances like MgCl2, MgCO3, MgSO4 and CaCl2.

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They have greater solubilities in hot water thancold water.

( i i ) Scale

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If the precipitate forms hard and adherent coating on the inner walls of the boiler, it is called
scale.

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Scales are formed by substances like Ca (HCO3)2, CaSO4 and Mg(OH) 2.

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Disadvantages of Scale Formation

Wastage of fuels
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Scales have a low thermal conductivity, so the rate of heat transfer from boiler to inside water
is greatly decreased. In order to provide a supply of heat to water, excessive or over-heating is
done. This causes increase in fuel consumption. The wastage of fuel depends upon the
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thickness and the nature of scale.

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(ii) Decrease in efficiency

Scales sometimes deposit in the valves and condensers of the boiler and choke them partially.
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This results in decrease in efficiency of the boiler.

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(iii) Boiler explosion

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When thick scales crack due to uneven expansion, the water comes suddenly in contact with
over-heated iron plates. This causes in formation of a large amount of steam suddenly. So
sudden high-pressure is developed, which may even cause explosion of the boiler.

Prevention of scale formation

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At the initial stage, scales can be removed using scraper, wire brush etc.
If scales are brittle, they can be removed by thermal shocks.
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If the scales are loosely adhering, they can be removed by frequent blow down
operation.
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Caustic Embrittlement

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Caustic embrittlement is a form of corrosion caused by a high concentration of sodium

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Hydroxide in the boiler feed water.

It is characterized by the formation of irregular intercrystalline cracks on the boiler metal,

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particularly at places of high local stress such as bends and joints.

Causes of caustic embrittlement

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Boiler water usually contains a small amount of Na2CO3. In high pressure boilers,
Na2CO3undergoes hydrolysis to produce NaOH.
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Na 2 CO 3 + H 2 O → 2NaOH +CO2
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This NaOH flows into the minute hairline cracks present on the boiler material by
capillary action and dissolves the surrounding area of iron as sodium ferroate, Na2FeO2.
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Fe + 2NaOH → Na 2 FeO 2+H2

This type of electrochemical corrosion occurs when the concentration of NaOH is above
100 ppm. This causes embrittlement of boiler parts, particularly the stressed parts like bends,
joints, rivets, etc.

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Caustic embrittlement can be prevented by

Using sodium phosphate as the softening agent instead of sodium carbonate.

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Adding chemicals such as tannin, lignin to the boiler water. They block the hairline cracks.

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Adjusting the pH of the feed water carefully between 8 and 9.
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Boiler Corrosion
Corrosion in boilers is due to the presence of
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Dissolved oxygen
Dissolved carbon dioxide
Dissolved salts like magnesium chloride.
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Dissolved oxygen
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The presence of dissolved oxygen is responsible for corrosion in boilers. Water

containing dissolved oxygen when heated in a boiler, free oxygen is evolved, which corrodes
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the boiler material.

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4Fe + 6H2O + 3O2 → 4 Fe(OH)3

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Dissolved carbon dioxide

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When water containing bicarbonates is heated, carbon dioxide is evolved which makes
the water acidic. Carbon dioxide dissolved in water forms carbonic acid. This leads to intense
local corrosion called pitting corrosion.

Ca(HCO3)2 → CaCO3 + H2O + CO2

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CO2 + H2O → H2CO3

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Dissolved magnesium chloride

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When water containing dissolved magnesium chloride is used in a boiler, hydrochloric
acid is produced. HCl attacks the boiler in a chain-like reaction producing hydrochloric acid
again and again which corrodes boiler severely.
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MgCl2 + 2H2O → 2HCl + Mg (OH)2
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Fe + 2 HCl → FeCl2 + H2

FeCl2 + 2H2O → Fe (OH)2 + 2 HCl

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Corrosion by HCl can be avoided by the addition of alkali to the boiler water.
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Prevention of boiler corrosion

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Removal of dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide can be done either chemically or
mechanically.
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Chemical method
For the removal of dissolved oxygen, sodium sulphite, hydrazines are used.

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2Na2SO3 + O2 → 2Na2SO4

N2H4 + O2 → N2 + 2H2O

Hydrazine is the ideal compound for the removal of dissolved O2 as it forms only water

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and inert nitrogen gas during the reaction.

Dissolved CO2 is removed by the addition of ammonium hydroxide. 2NH4OH +

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CO2 →(NH4)2CO3 + H2O

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Mechanical method

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Oxygen along with carbon dioxide can be removed mechanically by the de-aeration
method
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In this method, water is allowed to fill in slowly on the perforated plates fitted inside
the tower.
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To reduce the pressure inside the tower, the de-aerator is connected to a vacuum pump.
The sides of the tower are heated by means of a steam jacket. This is based on the principle
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that the solubility of a gas in water is directly proportional to pressure and inversely
proportional to temperature.

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High temperature, low pressure and a large exposed surface, reduces the dissolved
gases (O2 and CO 2) in water.

The water flows down through a number of perforated plates and this arrangement
exposes a large surface of water for de-aeration.

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Priming and Foaming

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During the production of steam in the boiler, due to rapid boiling, some droplets of
liquid water are carried along with steam. Steam containing droplets of liquid water is called
wet steam.

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These droplets of liquid water carry with them some dissolved salts and suspended
impurities. This phenomenon is called carry over. It occurs due to priming and foaming.
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Priming
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Priming is the process of production of wet steam. Priming is caused by

High steam velocity.

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Very high water level in the boiler.

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Sudden boiling of water.

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Very poor boiler design.

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Prevention

Priming can be controlled by

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Controlling the velocity of steam.

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Keeping the water level lower.
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Good boiler design.

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Using treated water.

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Foaming

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The formation of stable bubbles above the surface of water is called foaming. These
bubbles are carried over by steam leading to excessive priming.
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Foaming is caused by the

Presence of oil and grease.

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Presence of finely divided particles.
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Prevention

Foaming can be prevented by

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Adding coagulants like sodium aluminate, aluminium hydroxide.

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Adding anti-foaming agents like synthetic polyamides.
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4 PREVENTION OF SCALE FORMATION (OR) SOFTENING OF HARD WATER

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The process of removing hardness – producing salts from water is known as softening
or conditioning of water. Since water is a source for industrial purpose. It is mandatory to
soften water to make it free from hardness producing substances, suspended impurities and
dissolved gases, etc.

Softening of water can be done by two methods.

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i) External treatment ii) Internal treatment.

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External Treatment or Conditioning

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It involves the removal of hardness producing salts from the water before feeding into
the boiler. The external treatment can be done by the following methods.
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Zeolite (or) Permutit process
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1 Zeolite (or) Permutit process

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Zeolites are naturally occuring hydrated sodium aluminosilicate minerals. The chemical
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formula is Na2O.Al2O3.XSiO2.YH2O. The synthetic form of zeolite is called permutit and is

represented by Na2Ze.
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In this process the hard water is allowed to perlocate through sodium zeolite. The
sodium ions which are loosely held in this compound are replaced by Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions.
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When zeolite comes in contact with hard water, it exchanges its sodium ions with
calcium and magnesium ions of hard water to form calcium and magnesium zeolites.

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As sodium ions do not give any hardness to water, the effluent will be soft. The
exhausted zeolite is again regenerated by treated with 5 to 10 percent of sodium chloride
solution.

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Na2Ze + Ca(HCO)2 -- -- > CaZe + 2NaHCO3
Na2Ze + Mg(HCO)2 -- -- > MgZe + 2NaHCO3

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Na2Ze + MgCl2 -- -- > MgZe + 2NaCl
Na2Ze + CaCl2 -- -- > CaZe + 2NaCl

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Na2Ze + CaSO4 -- -- > CaZe + Na 2SO4
Na2Ze + MgSO4 -- -- > MgZe + Na 2SO4
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Regeration

After some time zeolite gets exhausted. The exhausted zeolite is again regerated by
treating with 10%solution of NaCl.

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CaZe + 2 NaCl → Na2Ze + CaCl2

MgZe + 2 NaCl → Na2Ze +MgCl2

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Advantages

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No sludge is formed during this process.
Water of nearly zero hardness is obtained.
This method is very cheap because the generated permutit can be used again.

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The equipment used is compact and occupies a small space.
Its operation is also easy.
The process can be made automatic and continuous.
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Disadvantages
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This process cannot be used for turbid and acidic water as they will destroy
the zeolite bed.
This treatment replaces only the cations, leaving all the anions like
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(HCO3)– and(CO3)2– in the soft water.

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 When such water is boiled in boilers, CO2 is liberated. Free CO2 is weakly acidic
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in nature and extremely corrosive to boiler metal.

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Na2CO3 + H2O→2NaOH + CO2

Due to the formation of sodium hydroxide, the water becomes alkaline and
can cause cause caustic embrittlement.
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Water containing Fe, Mn cannot be treated, because regeneration is very

difficult.
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This process cannot be used for softening brackish water. Becausebrackish
water also contains Na+ ions. So, the ions exchange reaction will not take place.

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2 Ion exchange or Demineralisation process

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Ion exchange or demineralisation process removes almost all the ions (both anions and
cations) present in the hard water.

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The soft water, produced by lime-soda and zeolite processes, does not contain hardness
producing Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions, but it will contain other ions like Na+, K+, SO42– , Cl– etc.,
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On the other hand demineralised (DM) water does not contain both anions and cations.
Thus a soft water is not demineralised water whereas demineralised water is soft water.
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This process is carried out by using ion exchange resins, which are long chain, cross
linked, insoluble organic polymers with a micro process structure. The functional groups
attached to the chains are responsible for the ion exchanging properties.
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(i) Cation exchanger

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Resins containing acidic functional groups (–COOH, – SO3H) are capable of exchanging
their H+ ions with other cations of hard water. Cation exchange resin is represented as RH2.
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Examples:
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Sulphonated coals
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Sulphonated polystyrene R–SO3H; R–COOH ≡ RH2

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Anion Exchanger

Resins containing basic functional groups (–NH2, –OH) are capable of exchanging their

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anions with other anions of hard water.

Anion exchange resin is represented as R (OH)2.

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Examples:

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 Cross-linked quaternary ammonium salts. Urea-formaldehyde resin.
R–NR3OH; R–OH; R–NH2 ≡ R (OH)2
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Process

The hard water first passed through a cation exchange which absorbs all the cations like
Ca , Mg2+ Na+, K+, etc. present in the hard water.
2+
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RH2 + CaCl2 → RCa + 2HCl

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RH2 + MgSO4 → RMg + H2SO4

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RH + NaCl → RNa + HCl

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The cation free water is then passed through a anion exchange column, which absorbs
all the anions like Cl–, SO42, HCO3–, etc., present in the water.

R' (OH) 2 + 2HCl → R'Cl2 + 2H2O R'(OH) 2 + H2SO4 → R'SO4 + 2H2O

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The water coming out of the anion exchanger completely free from cations and anions. This
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water is known as demineralised water or deionised water.

Regeneration
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When the cation exchange resin in exhausted, it can be regenerated by passing a solution
of dil.HCl or dil.H2SO4.
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RCa + 2HCl → RH2 + CaCl2

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RNa + HCl → RH + NaCl

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Similarly, when the anion exchange resin is exhausted, it can be regenerated by passing
a solution of dil.NaOH.
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R'Cl2 + 2 NaOH → R'(OH)2 + 2 NaCl

Advantages

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The water is obtained by this process will have very low hardness.
Highly acidic or alkaline water can be treated by this process.

Disadvantages

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The equipment is costly.
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More explosive chemicals are needed for this process.
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Water containing turbidity, Fe and Mn cannot be treated, because turbidity reduces the output

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and Fe, Mn form stable compound with the resins
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5 INTERNAL TREATMENT
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Internal treatment involves adding chemicals directly to the water in the boilers for removing
dangerous scale – forming salts which were not completely removed by the external treatment
for water softening. This method is used to convert scale to sludge which can be removed by
blow-down operation.
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Calgon conditioning
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Carbonate conditioning
Phosphate conditioning
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Colloidal conditioning

Calgon conditioning

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Calgon is sodium hexa meta phosphate with a

Composition Na2(Na4 (PO3)6). A highly soluble complex containing Ca is formed by

replacing the sodium ions and thus prevents their formation of scale forming salts like CaSO4.
The reaction is as follows:

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2CaSO 4 + Na 2 [Na 4 (PO3) 6] → Na 2 [Ca 2 (PO3) 6] + 2Na 2SO4

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Since the complex is highly soluble there is no problem of sludge disposal.

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Carbonate conditioning
Scale formation due to CaSO4 in low pressure boilers can be avoided by adding
Na2CO3 to the boilers.
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CaSO4 + Na2 CO3 → CaCO3 + Na2SO4

The forward reaction is favored by increasing the concentration of CO32-

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.CaCO3 formed can be removed easily.

Phosphate conditioning
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In high pressure boilers, CaSO4 scale whose solubility decrease with increase of
temperature. Such scale can be converted into soft sludge by adding excess of soluble
phosphates.
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3CaSO4 + 2Na3 PO4 → Ca3 (PO4)2 +2Na2SO4

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There are three types of phosphates employed for this purpose.

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Tri-sodium phosphate – Na3PO4 (too alkaline): used for too acidic water.

Di-sodium hydrogen phosphate – Na2HPO4 (weakly alkaline): Used for weakly acidic
water.Mono sodium di hydrogen phosphate NaH2PO4 (acidic) used for alkaline acidic water.

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Colloidal conditioning

The colloidal conditioning agents are kerosene, agar-agar, gelatin, glue, etc. They are Used in

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low pressure boilers. The colloidal substances convert scale forming substance like CaCO 3,
CaSO4into a Non-adherent, loose precipitate called sludge, which can be removed by blow-
down Operation.

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6 DESALINATION OF BRACKISH WATER

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Depending upon the quantity of dissolved solids, water is graded as Fresh water has < 1000
ppm of dissolved solids. Brackish water has > 1000 but < 35,000 ppm of Dissolved solids.
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Sea water has > 35,000 ppm of dissolved solids.
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Water containing dissolved salts with a peculiar salty or brackish taste is

called brackish water. It is totally unfit for drinking purpose. Sea water and brackish water can
be made available as drinking water through desalination process.
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The removal of dissolved solids (NaCl) from water is known as desalination

process. The need for such a method arises due to the non-availability of fresh water.
Desalination is carried out either by electro dialysis or by reverse osmosis.
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Reverse Osmosis
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When two solutions of different concentrations are separated by a semi-permeable

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membrane, flow of solvent takes place from a region of low concentration to high
concentration until the concentration is equal on both the sides. This process is
called osmosis.

The driving forces in this phenomenon are called osmotic pressure. If a hydrostatic
pressure in excess of osmotic pressure is applied on the higher concentration side, the solvent

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flow reverses, i.e., solvent is forced to move from higher concentration to lower concentration
.This is the principle of reverse osmosis. Thus, in reverse osmosis method pure water is
separated from its dissolved solids.
sing this method pure water is separated from sea water. This process is also known as
super-titration. The membranes used are cellulose acetate, cellulose butyrate, etc.

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Advantages

The life time of the membrance is high.

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It can be replaced within few minutes.

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It removes ionic as well as non-ionic, colloidal impurities

Due to simplicity low capital cost, low operating, this process is used for converting sea water
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into drinking water

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Glossary
Hardness

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Harness is the property or characteristics of water, which does not produce lather with
soap solution.

Soft water

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Water which produces lather readily with soap solution is called soft water. Soft water
is free of calcium & magnesium salts.

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Temporary hardness

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Temporary hardness is due to the presence of bicarbonates of calcium
and magnesium. Since these salts can be easily removed by simple physical methods such as
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Permanent hardness

Permanent hardness is due to the presence of soluble chlorides and sulphates of calcium
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and magnesium. These salts can be removed by chemical treatments only.

Alkalinity

Alkalinity of water is due to the presence of soluble hydroxide ( OH- ), carbonate (

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CO32-) and bicarbonate ( HCO3-) ions.

Boiler feed water
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The water which is free from dissolved salts, dissolved gases, hardness, oils and
alkalinity is known as boiler feed water.
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Sludge
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The loose and slimy precipitate is called sludge.

Scale
The hard and adherent precipitate on the inner walls of the boiler is called scale.

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Priming

Some droplets of liquid water are carried along with steam during the production of
steam in the boiler is called priming.

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Foaming

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The formation of stable bubbles above the surface of water is called foaming. Caustic
embrittlement

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Formation of irregular, intergranular cracks at the welded joints, rivets etc. in high
pressure boilers is called caustic embrittlement.
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Brackish water

The water containing high concentration of dissolved salts with salty or brackish
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taste is called brackish water.

Reverse osmosis
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The solvent flows from higher concentration to lower concentration.

Unit 3 PHASE RULE AND ALLOYS

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Chemical reactions are of two types

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1.Irreversible reaction
2. Reversible reaction – it’s of two types
a. homogeneous
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b. heterogeneous
A. homogeneous reversible reaction
B.heterogeneous reversible reaction --- its behaviour can be studied by PHASE RULE given
by Willard Gibbs (1874).

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Phase rule

The number of degree of freedom (F) of the system is related to number of components (C)
and number of phases (P) by the following phase rule equation.
F = C-P+2

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Explanation or meaning of terms 1. Phase (P)
Any homogeneous physically distinct and mechanically separable portion of a system which
is separated from other parts of the system by definite boundaries.
a. Gaseous phase

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All gases are completely miscible and there is no boundary between one gas and the
other. For example: air – single phase

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b.Liquid phase

It depends on the number of liquids present and their miscibilities.

i. If two liquids are immiscible, they will form three separate phases two liquid
phase and one vapour phase. For example: benzene-water.
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ii. If tow liquids are miscible, they will form one liquid phase and one vapour
phase. For example: alcohol – water.
C .Solid phase
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Every solid constitutes a separate phase

For example:
(i) Water system ------- three phases
(ii) Rhombic sulphur (s) -- > monoclinic sulphur (s) ----- two phase
iii) Sugar solution in water ----- one phase
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iv) CuSO4.5H2O(s) < -- -- > CuSO4.3H2O(s) + 2H2O(g) ---- three phases.

2. Component (C)
“The smallest number of independently variable constituents, by means of which the
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omposition of each phase can be expressed in the form of a chemical equation”.

For example:
i) Water system ---- one component ( H2O )
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ii) An aqueous system of NaCl --- two component ( NaCl , H2O )

iii) PCl5(s) < -- -- > PCl3 (l) + Cl2 (g) --- two component ,three phases
iv) CuSO4.5H2O(s) < -- -- > CuSO4.3H2O(s) + 2H2O(g) ---- three phases,two
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3. Degree of freedom(F)

“The minimum number of independent variable factors such as temperature, pressure and
concentration, which much be fixed in order to define the system completely”.
i) Water system

Ice (s) < -- -- > water (l) < -- -- > vapour (g)

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F = Non variant (or) zero variant

ii) Ice (s) < -- -- > water (l)
F = univariant (one)
iii) For a gaseous mixture of N2 and H2, we must state both the pressure and temperature.
Hence,the system is bivariant.
PHASE DIAGRAM:
Phase diagram is a graph obtained by plotting one degree of freedom against another.

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Types of phase diagrams

(i)P-T Diagram : used for one component system

(ii) T-C Diagram : used for two component system

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APPLICATIONS OF PHASE RULE TO ONE COMPONENT SYSTEM The water
system:
Water exists in three possible phases namely solid, liquid and vapour. Hence there

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can be three forms of equilibria.
Solid < -- -- > Liquid
Liquid < -- -- > Vapour
Solid < -- -- > Vapour
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Each of the above equilibrium involves two phases. The phase diagram for the water system is
shown in the figure.
This phase diagram contains curves, areas, and triple.
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(i)Curve OA

The curve OA is called vaporisation curve, it represents the equilibrium between water and
vapour. At any point on the curve the following equilibrium will exist.
Water < -- -- > Water vapour
The degree of freedom of the system is one, i.e, univariant.
This is predicted by the phase rule.

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F=C-P+2; F=1-2+2; F=1

This equilibrium (i.e. Line OA) will extend up to the critical temperature (347o C). Beyond the
critical temperature the equilibrium will disappear only water vapour will exist.
(ii) Curve OB

The curve OB is called sublimation curve of ice, it represents the equilibrium between ice and

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vapour. At any point on the curve the following equilibrium will exist.
ICE < -- -- > VAPOUR
The degree of freedom of the system is one, i.e. univariant. This is predicted by the
phase rule.

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F = C – P + 2; F = 1-2=2 ; F=1

This equilibrium (line OB) will extend up to the absolute zero (-273o C), where no vapour can

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be present and only ice will exist.

iii) Curve OC

The curve OC is called melting point curve of ice, it represents the equilibrium between the ice
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and water. At any point on the curve the following equilibrium will exist.
Ice < -- -- > water
The curve OC is slightly inclined towards pressure axis. This shows that melting point of ice
decreases with increase of pressure.
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The degree of freedom of the system is one i.e., univariant. iv) point O (triple point)
The three curves OA ,OB ,OC meet at a point “O” ,where three phases namely solid ,liquid and
vapour are simultaneously at equilibrium .
This point is called triple point, at this point the following equilibrium will exist.
Ice < -- -- > water < -- -- > vapour
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The degree of freedom of the system is zero i.e., nonvariant.This is predicted by the
phase rule. F=C-P+2; F=1-3+2=0
Temperature and pressure at the point “O” are 0.0075 oC and 4.58 mm respectively.
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(v) Curve OB’: Metastable equilibrium

The curve OB’ is called vapour pressure curve of the super-cool water or metastable
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equilibrium where the following equilibrium will exist.

Super-cool water < -- -- > vapour
Sometimes water can be cooled below O oC without the formation of ice, this water is called
super –cooled water. Super cooled water is unstable and it can be converted in to solid by
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seeding or by slight disturbance.

vi) Areas

Area AOC, BOC, AOB represents water, ice and vapour respectively .The degree of the
freedom of the system is two.i.e. Bivariant.
This is predicted by the phase rule

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F=C-P=2; F=1-1+2; F=2

Two component alloy system or multi component equilibria Reduced phase rule or
condensed system
The system in which only the solid and liquid are considered and the gas phase
is ignored is called a condensed system.since pressure kept constant, the phase rule becomes
F’ = C – P + 1
This equation is called reduced phase rule.

et
Classification of two component system

Based on the solubility and reactive ablity, the two component systems are classified in to three
types.

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1. Simple eutectic formation - A binary system consisting of two substances, which
arecompletely miscible in the liquid state, but completely immiscible in the solid state, is

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known as eutectic (easy melt) system. They do not react chemically. Of the different mixtures
of the two substances, the mixture having the lowest melting point is known as the eutectic
mixture.
2. a) formation of compound with congruent melting point
b) Formation of compound with incongruent melting point
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3. Formation of solid solution
Thermal analysis or cooling curve

Thermal analysis is a method involving a study of the cooling curves of various

ad

compositions of a system during solidification. The form of the cooling curve indicates the
composition of the solid.
Ex: 1. Cooling curve of a pure solid. Ex: 2. Cooling curve of a mixture A + B.
A cooling curve is a line graph that represents the change of phase of matter, typically from a
gas to a solid or a liquid to a solid.
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The independent variable (X-axis) is time and the dependent variable (Y-axis) is temperature.
Below is an example of a cooling curve.
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The initial point of the graph is the starting temperature of the matter, here noted as the "pouring
temperature". When the phase change occurs there is a "thermal arrest", that is the temperature

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stays constant. This is because the matter has more internal energy as a liquid or gas than in
the state that it is cooling to. The amount of energy required for a phase change is known
as latent heat. The "cooling rate" is the slope of the cooling curve at any point.
A Pure substance in the fused or liquid state is allowed to cool slowly. The
temperature is noted at different times.when represented graphically the rate of cooling will be
a continuous from ‘a’ to ‘b’.
When the freezing point is reached and solid making its appearance there will be a break in the

et
continuity of the cooling curve.The temperature will thereafter remain constant until the liquid
is completely solidified.Thereafter the fall in temperature wil again become continuous.

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a. Cooling curve of a pure substances b. Cooling curve of a mixture
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If a mixture of two solids in the fused state is cooled slowly we get a cooling curve .
Here also first a continuous coling curve will be obtained as long as the mixture is in the liquid
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state .
When a solid phase begins to form there will be a break in the cooling curve .But the
temperature will not remain constant unlike in the case of cooling of a purified substance.The
temperature will decrease continuously but at a different rate.The fall of temperature will
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continue till the mixture forms a eutectic and the eutectic point is reached.
The temperature will thereafter remain constant until solidification is complete . Thereafter the
fall of temperature will become uniform ,but the rate of fall will be different from that for a
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pure substance.

Uses of cooling curves

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i) Percentage purity of the compounds can be noted from the cooling curve.
ii) The behaviour of the compounds can be clearly understood from the
cooling curve.

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iii) The procedure of thermal analysis can be used to derive the phase diagram of
any two
component system.
BINARY ALLOY SYSTEM OR THE SIMPLE EUTECTIC SYSTEM The Lead – Sliver
system
Since the system is studied at constant pressure,the vapour phase is ignorned and the
condensed phase rule is rule is used.

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F I= C-P+1

The phase diagram of lead –sliver system is shown in the figure It contains lines,areas
and the eutectic point.

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i) curve AO
The curve AO is known as freezing point curve of sliver.
Along the curve AO, solid Ag and the melt are in equilibrium.
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Solid Ag < -- -- > melt

According to reduced phase rule
F’=C-P+1
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C=2
P=2
F’=1
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The system is univariant

ii) curve BO
The curve BO is known as freezing point curve of lead .
Along the curve BO, solid Pb and the melt are in equilibrium.
Solid Pb < -- -- > melt

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According to reduced phase rule

F’=C-P+1
C=2
P=2
F’=1
The system is univariant.

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iii) Point “ O ” (eutectic point)
The curves AO and BO meet at point ‘ O ‘ at a temperature of 303 o C ,where the three phases
are in equilibrium.

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Solid Pb + soild Ag < -- -- > melt
According to reduced phase rule
F’=C-P+1

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C=2
P=3
F’=1
The system is non-variant.
The point “ O “ is called eutectic point or eutectic temperature and is corresponding
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composition,97.4 % Pb and 2.6 % Ag ,is called eutectic composition.below this point the
eutectic compound and the metal solidfy.
iv) Areas
The area above the line AOB has a single phase( molten Pb + Ag ). According to reduced phase
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rule
F’=C-P+1 C=2
P=1
F’=2
The system is bi-variant.
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The area below the line AO ,OB and point “O” have two phases and hence the system is
univariant.
According to reduced phase rule F’=C-P+1
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C=2
P=2
F’=1
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The system is uni-variant.

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et
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The process of raising the relative proportion of Ag in the alloy is known as pattinson’s
process.
The Pattinson process was patented in 1833. It depended on well-known material
properties; essentially that lead and silver melt at different temperatures. The equipment
ee
consisted of a row of about 8-9 iron pots, which could be heated from below. Agentiferous lead
was charged to the central pot and melted. This was then allowed to cool, as the lead solidified,
it was skimmed off and moved to the next pot in one direction, and the remaining metal was
then transferred to the next pot in the opposite direction. The process was repeated in the pots
successively, and resulted in lead accumulating in the pot at one end and silver in that at the
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other. The process was economic for lead containing at least 250 grams of silver per ton.

Uses of eutectic system

1.suitable alloy composition can be predicted with the help of eutectic systems.
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2.eutectic systems are used in preparing solders ,used for joining two metal
pieces together.
Melting point
It is the temperature at which the solid and liquid phases, having the same composition ,are in
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equilibrium.
Solid A < -- -- > solid B
Eutectic point
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It is the temperature at which two solids and a liquid phase are in equilibrium.
Solid A + solid B < -- ---> Liquid
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Triple point
It is the temperature at which three phases are in equilibrium.
Solid < -- ---> liquid < -- ---> vapour
By definition ,

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All the eutectic points are melting points, but all the melting points need not be eutectic points.
llly , all the eutectic points are triple points ,but all the triple points need not be eutectic points.

Uses (or) merits of phase rule

1. It is a convenient method of classifying the equilibrium states in terms of phases ,components
and degree of freedom.
2. It helps in deciding whether the given number of substances remain in equilibrium or not.

et
Limitations of phase rule

1.phase rule can be applied for the systems in equilibrium.

2.only three variables like P,T & C are considered ,but not electrical, magnetic and gravitational

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forces.

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ALLOYS
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Definition

An alloy is defined as “homogeneous solid solution of two or more different element one of
which at least is essentially a metal”. Alloy containing Hg as a constituent element are called
amalgams.
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Properties of alloys
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1) Alloy are harder less malleable and possess lower melting point than
their component metals
2) Alloys possess low electrical conductivity
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3) Alloys resist corrosion and the action of acids

Importance or need of making alloys
1. To increase the hardness of the metal Example
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Gold and silver are soft metal they are alloyed with copper to make them hard
2. To lower the melting points of the metal Example

Wood metal (an alloy of lead, bismuth, tin and cadmium) melts at 60.5⁰c which is far below
the melting points of any of these constituent metals
3. To resist the corrosion of the metal

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Example

Pure iron rested but when it is alloyed with carbon chromium (stainless steel) which resists
corrosion
4. To modify chemical activity of the metal
Example

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Sodium amalgam is less active than sodium but aluminium amalgam is more active than
aluminium
5. To modify the colour of the metal Example
Brass an alloy of copper (red) and size (silver-white) is white colour.

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6. To get good casting of metal Example
An alloy of lead with 5% tin and 2% antimony is used fro casting printing type due toits good
casting property

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Functions (or) effects of alloying elements

Addition of small amount of certain metals such as Ni, Cr, Mo, Mn, Si, v and Al impart special
properties like hardness, tensile strength, resistance to corrosion and coefficient of expansion
on steel. Such products are known as special steel or alloy steels Some important alloying
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element and their functions are given in table

CLASSIFICATION (OR) TYPES OF ALLOYS

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FERROUS ALLOYS OR ALLOY STEELS

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Ferrous alloys are the type of steels in which the elements like Al,B,Cr,Co,Cu,Mn are
present in sufficient quantities, in addition to carbon & iron.
PROPERTIES
1. High yield point & strength
2. Sufficient formability,ductility & weldability
3. Corrosion & abrasion resistant

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4. Less distortion & cracking

5. High temperature strength
IMPORTANT FERROUS ALLOYS (i)NICHROME
Nichrome is an alloy of nickel & chromium
COMPOSITION
Nickel – 60%
Chromium – 12%

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Iron – 26%
Manganese – 2%
PROPERTIES

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1. Good resistance to oxidation & heat
2. High melting point & electrical resistance
3. Withstand heat up to 1000-1100⁰C

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USES

1. Used for making resistance coils,heting elements in stoves & electric

irons
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2. Used in making parts of boilers,steam lines stills,gas turbines,aero
engine valves,retorts,annealing boxes.
(ii)ALNICO
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Alnico is an alloy of aluminium-nickel-cobalt .

COMPOSITION
Aluminium – 8-12%
Nickel – 14-28%
Cobalt – 5-35%
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PROPERTIES

1. Excellent magnetic properties & high melting point

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2. Magnetized to produce strong magnetic fields as high as 1500 gauss

TYPES OF ALNICO ALLOYS
Alnico alloys are of two types
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1. ISOTROPIC ALNICO
It is effectively magnetized in any direction
2.ANISOTROPIC ALNICO
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It possess preffered direction of magnetization.

Anisotropic alnico possesses greater magnetic capacity in their
preffered orientation than isotropic alnico.
USES

1. Used as permanent magnets in motors,generators,radio speakers

microphones,telephone receivers & galvanometers.

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(iii)STAINLESS STEELS (or)CORROSIOPN RESISTANT STEELS

 These are alloy steels containing chromium together with other elements
such as nickel,molybdenum,etc.

 Chromium-16% or more

 Carbon-0.3-1.5%

et
PROPERTIES
1. Resist corrosion by atmospheric gases & also by other chemicals.
2. Protection against corrosion is due to the formation of dense, non-

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porous,tough film of chromium oxide at the metal surface. If the film
cracks, it gets automatically healed up by atmospheric oxygen

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TYPES OF STAINLESS STEEL
ee
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1. HEAT TREATABLE STAINLESS STEEL

COMPOSITION Carbon-1.2%

Chromium-less than 12-16%

PROPERTIES
Magnetic,tough & can be worked in cold condition

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USES
1. Can be used up to 800⁰C
2. Good resistant towards weather & water
3. In making surgical instruments,scissors,blades,etc.
2.HEAT TREATABLE STAINLESS STEEL
PROPERTIES

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 Possess less strength at high temperature

 Resistant to corrosion

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TYPES OF NON HEAT TREATABLE STAINLESS STEEL
(a)MAGNETIC TYPE
COMPOSITION

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Chromium-12-22%
Carbon-0.35%
PROPERTIES

1.
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Can be forged,rolled & machined
2. Resist corrosion
USES
Used in making chemical equipments& automobile parts.
(b)NON MAGNETIC TYPE
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COMPOSITION
Chromium-18-26%
Nickel-8-21% Carbon-0.15%
Total % of Cr & Ni is more than 23%. EXAMPLE:18/8 STAINLESS STEEL
COMPOSITION: Chromium-18%
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Nickel-8%
PROPERTIES
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1. Resistance to corrosion.
2. Corrosion resistance is increased by adding molybdenum
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USES
In making household utensils,sinks,dental & surgical instruments.
NON FERROUS ALLOYS
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 Do not contain iron as one of the main constituent.


 Main constituents are copper,aluminium,lead,tin,etc.
PROPERTIES

1. Softness & good formability

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2. Attractive (or) very good colours

3. Good electrical & magnetic properties
4. Low density & coefficient of friction
5. Corrosion resistance
IMPORTANT NON FERROUS ALLOYS 1. COPPER ALLOYS (BRASS)
Brass contains mainly copper & zinc
PROPERTIES

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 Greater strength, durability & machinability

 Lower melting points than Cu & Zn

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
 Good corrosion resistance & water resistance property
2.BRONZE(COPPER ALLOY)

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Bronze contains copper & tin
PROPERTIES

 Lower melting point


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 Better heat & electrical conducting property

 Non-oxidizing,corrosion resistance & water resistance property.
3.SOLDERS
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Solders are low- melting alloys of tin & lead

PROPERTIES

Solder is melted to join metallic surfaces ,especially in the fields of electronic &
plumbing
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USES

1. Used in electrical industry

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2. Alloy with 50% tin is general-purpose solder

3. For sealing automotive radiator cores.
4. As fuses for fire-extinguishing equipments,boiler plugs,etc.
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Heat treatment of alloys (steel)

Heat treatment is defined as” the process of heating and cooling of solid steel
article under carefully controlled condition”. During heat treatment certain physical
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properties are altered without altering its chemical composition

Objectives (or) purpose of heat treatment

Heat treatment causes

i. Improvement in magnetic and electrical properties

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ii. Refinement of grain structure

iii. Removal of the imprisoned trapped gases
iv. Removal of internal stress
v. Improves fatique and corrosion resistance
Types of heat treatment of alloys (steel) 1. Annealing
Annealing means softening. This is done by heating the metal to high
temperature followed by slow cooling in a furnace.

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Purpose of annealing

i. It increases the machinability

ii. It also removes the imprisoned gases

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Types of annealing

Annealing can be done in two types

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i. Low temperature annealing (or) process annealing
ii. High temperature annealing 9or) full annealing
Low temperature annealing (or)process annealing

It involves in heating steel to a temperature below the lower critical point

ee
followed by slow cooling
Purpose

1. It improves mashinability by reliving the internal stress or internal strain

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2. It increases ductility and shock resistance

3. It reduce hardness
(i) High temperature annealing (or) fault annealing
It involves in heating to a temperature about 30 to 50⁰C above the
higher critical temperature and holding it at that temperature for
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sufficient time to allow the internal changes to take place and then
cooled room
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temperature

The approximate annealing temperature of various grades of carbon

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steel
are
1. Mild steel=840-870⁰c
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2. Medium carbon steel=780-840⁰c

3. High carbon steel=760-780⁰c

Purpose

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1. It increases the ductility and machinability

2. It makes the steel softer, together with an appreciable increases in its toughness
2.Hardening (or) quenching

 It is the process of heating steel beyond the critical temperature and then
suddenly cooling it either in oil or brine water or some other fluid.
 The faster the rate of cooling harder will be the steel produced.

et

 Medium and high carbon steel can be hardened but low carbon steel
cannot hardened
Purpose

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1. It increases its resistance to wear ability ,to cut other metal and strength .
2. It increases abrasion resistance.

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3. Used for making cutting tools.
3. TEMPERING

 It is the process of heating the already hardened steel to a temperature

lower than its own hardening temperature & then cooling it slowly.
ee

 The reheating controls the development of the final properties

 Thus,
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
(a)For retaining strength & hardness, reheating temperature should not
exceed 400⁰C.

(b) For developing better ductility & toughness, reheating temperature

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should be within 400-600⁰C.

Purpose
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1. It removes stress &strains that might have developed during quenching.

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2. Increased toughness & ductility.

3. Used for cutting tools like blade,cutters etc.
4. NORMALISING
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It is the purpose of heating steel to a definite temperature (above

its higher critical temperature) & allowing it to cool gradually in air. Purpose

1. Recovers homogeneity
2. Refines grains.
3. Removes internal stresses

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4. Increases toughness
5. Used in engineering works

NOTE: The difference between normalised & annealed steel are

1. A normaled steel will not be as soft as annealed steel.
2. Also normalizing takes much lesser time than annealing.

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5.CARBURIZING
 The mild steel article is taken in a cast iron box within containing small pieces
of charcoal(carbon material).
 It is heated to about 900 to 950⁰C & allow it for sufficient time,so that the

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carbon is absorbed to required depth .

 The article is then allowed to cool slowly within the box itself.

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
 The outer skin of the article is converted into high carbon steel containing
about 0.8 to 1.2% carbon. Purpose
To produce hard surface on steel article
6.NITRIDING
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 Nitriding is the process of heating the metal alloy in presence of
ammonia to about 550⁰C.

 The nitrogen (obtained by the dissociation of ammonia) combines
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with the surface of the alloy to form hard nitride.

Purpose

To get super-hard surface.

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FUELS AND COMBUSTION

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1 Definition
1.1 Characteristics for good fuel
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2.1 Calorific value

2.2 Gross or high calorific value (gcv)
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2.3 Net or lower calorific value(ncv)

2.4 Theoretical calculation of calorific value ( dulong‟s formula)
3 Solid fuel
3.1 Advantages of solid fuels

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3.2 Disadvantages of solid fuels

4 Coal
4.1 Proximate analysis
4.2 significance of proximate analysis
5 Carbonization of metallurgical coke

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5.1 Metallurgical coke
5.2 Otto-Hoffman‟s method

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5.3 Recovery of by-products
5.4 Advantages of otto hoffman‟s process
6 Liquid fuels

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6.1 Advantages of liquid fuels, disadvantages of liquid fuels
6.2 Petroleum
6.3 Refining of petroleum or crude oils
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6.7. Knocking
7.1 Causes of knocking in S.I (petrol) engines
7.2 Improvement of anti knock characteristics
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7.3 Octane number or octane rating

7.4Anti-knock agent
7.5Causes of knocking in C.I (diesel) engines
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7.6 Cetane number or cetane rating

7.8 Diesel index
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8. Hydrogenation of coal
8.1 Bergius process (indirect method)
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8.2 Fischer-tropics process (indirect method)

9 Gaseous fuels
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9.1. Compressed natural gas (CNG)

9.2 Producer gas
9.3. Water gas
9.4 LPG- liquefied petroleum gas
10 GLOSSARY

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1 DEFINITION

Fuel is a combustible substance ,during combustion of it the atoms of C,H,S and N etc are
combine with oxygen with simultaneous liberation of heat and light.

et
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2. CHARACTERISTICS FOR GOOD FUEL
High calorific value.

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Moderate ignition temperature.
Low moisture content.
Low contents of non-combustible matters.
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Combustion should be controllable.
Easy to transport and readily available at low cost.
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2.1 Calorific value:

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. It is defined as the amount of heat liberated by the complete combustion of a unit mass of the
fuel.

2.2 Gross or high calorific value (GCV)

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It is defined as the total heat generated when a unit quantity of fuel is
completely burnt and the products of combustion are cooled to room temperature.

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2.3 Net or Lower Calorific Value(NCV)

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It is defined as the “net heat produced when a unit quantity o f fuel is completely burnt and the
products of combustion are allowed to escape.
NCV = GCV- latent heat of condensation of steam produced.
ee
2.4 Theoretical calculation of calorific value ( Dulong‟s formula)
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According to Dulong, the calorific value of a fuel is the sum of the calorific
values of its constituent elements.

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The calorific values of C, H&S are found to be 8080, 34500 and 2240kcals when
1kg of the fuel is burnt completely.

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Thus,Dulong‟s formulae for GCV is written as

GCV=1/100 [8080(C)+34500(H-O/8)+2240(S)]Cals/kg.
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NCV =[ GCV-9/100( H)x 587] Kcals/kg.

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The latent heat of steam is 587Kcals/kg.


In Dulong‟s formula C, H, O&S represent the percentage of the corresponding
elements.

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3 SOLID FUEL

ADVANTAGES OF SOLID FUELS:

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Solid fuels are easily available and they are cheap.

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Handling and transportation are easy.
They can be stored conveniently without any risk.
They have a moderate ignition temperature.

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
DISADVANTAGES OF SOLID FUELS:
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Combustion process cannot be easily controlled.
The calorific value is comparatively lower.
They form large amount of ash and its disposal is a big problem.
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A large space is required for storage.

4 COAL
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Analysis of coal
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4.1 Proximate Analysis:

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It involves the determination of percentage of following in coal

a. Moisture content
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b. Volatile matter
c. Ash content
d. Fixed carbon

Moisture content

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1gm of powdered and air-dried coal sample in crucible is heated at 100-150⁰C in an

electric air oven for 1 hour.
The loss in weight of the sample is found out and percentage of moisture is calculated as
% of moisture = (Loss in weight of coal / Weight of air-dried coal) ×100

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(b) Volatile matter:

In this the crucible with residual coal sample is covered with a lid and heated at 950± 20⁰C for

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7mins in a muffle furnace. The loss in weight is found out.

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(c) Ash Content:
The crucible with residual coal sample is heated without lid at 700 ± 50 ⁰C for
½hour in a muffle furnace. The loss in weight is found out.
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(d) Fixed Carbon:
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of fixed carbon = percentage of (a+b+c)

4.2 Significance of proximate analysis:

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High percentage of moisture content is undesirable because

High percentage of volatile matter is undesirable because
High percentage of ash content is undesirable because
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High percentage of fixed carbon content is desirable because

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5 CARBONISATION OFMETALLURGICAL COKE

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When coal is heated strongly in the absence of air , it is converted into lustrous,
dense, porous and coherent mass known as coke. This process of converting coal is known as
carbonization.

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5.1 METALLURGICAL COKE

When bituminous coal is heated strongly in the absence of air, the volatile matter

et
escapes out and the mass becomes hard, porous and coherent which is called Metallurgical
coke.

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PREPARATION
5.2 Otto-Hoffman’s method
Significance of Otto-Hoffman‟s method

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(i) To increases the thermal efficiency of the carbonization process and,
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(ii) To recover the valuable by products (like coal gas, ammonia, benzyl oil, etc).
ad
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w
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. The oven consists of a number of silica chambers , each chamber is provided with a
charging hole at the top, it is also provided with a gas off take valve and iron door at
each end for discharging coke.

Coal is introduced into the silica chamber and the chambers are closed.

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The chambers are heated to 1200 o C by burning the preheated air and the producer gas
mixture in the interspaces between the chambers.
The air and gas are preheated by sending them through 2nd and 3rd hot regenerator.
Hot flue gases produced during carbonization are allowed to pass through 1st and
4thregenerators until the temperature has been raised to 1000ċ.


et
While 1st and 4th regenerated are heated by hot flue gases, the 2nd and 3rd regenerators are
used for heating the incoming air and gas mixture.


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When the process is complete, the coke is removed and quenched with water.
The yield of coke is about 70%.

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The valuable by products like coal gas, tar, ammonia, H2S and benzyl, etc. can be recovered
from flue gas. ee
5.3 Recovery of by-products
(i) Tar
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The flue gases are first passed through a tower in which liquor ammonia is sprayed.
Tar and dust get dissolved and collected in a tank below

(ii) Ammonia
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The gases are then passed through another tower in which water is sprayed. Here
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ammonia gets converted to NH4OH.

(iii) Naphthalene
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The gases are again passed through a tower, in which cooled water is sprayed,
naphthalene gets condensed.
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(iv) Benzene

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The gases are passed through another tower, where petroleum is sprayed, benzene
gets condensed to liquid.

(v) Hydrogen Sulphide

The remaining gases are then passed through a purifier packed with moist Fe2O3.
Here H2S is retained.

et
The final gas left out is called coal gas which is used as a gaseous fuel.

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5.4 Advantages of Otto Hoffman’s process
Valuable by products like ammonia, coal gas, Naphthalene etc. are recovered.

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The carbonization time is less.
Heating is done externally by producer gas.
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6 LIQUID FUELS
ADVANTAGES OF LIQUID FUELS:
They have higher calorific value than solid fuel.
ad

They occupy less storage space than solid fuels.

Their combustion is uniform and easily controllable.
Liquid fuels do not yield any ash after burning.
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DISADVANTAGES OF LIQUID FUELS:

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Liquid fuels are more costly than the solid fuels.

Liquid fuels give unpleasant odor during incomplete combustion.
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Special type of burners is required for effective combustion.

Some amount of liquid fuels will escape due to evaporation during storage.
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6.2 PETROLEUM
It is naturally occurring liquid fuel.
It is dark brown or black coloured viscous oil

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
Crude oil is a mixture of paraffinic, olefinic and aromatic hydrocarbons with small amounts of
organic compounds like N, O and S.

The average composition of crude oil is as follows

et
C = 80-87%

H = 11-15%

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S = 0.1-3.5%

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N+O = 0.1-0.5% It is classified into three types

1. Paraffinic-Base type crude oil

ee
It contains saturated hydrocarbons from CH4 to C35H72 with a smaller amount of
naphthenes and aromatics.

2. Naphthenic or Asphaltic Base type crude oil

ad

It contains Cycloparaffins or naphthenes with a smaller amount of paraffin and

aromatics
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3. Mixed base type crude oil

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It contains both paraffinic and asphaltic hydrocarbons.

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6.3 REFINING OF PETROLEUM OR CRUDE OIL

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The crude oil obtained from the earth is a mixture of oil, water, unwanted impurities and
its subjected to fractional distillation.

During fractional distillation, the crude oil is Thus, the process of removing impurities and
separating the crude oil into various fractions having different boiling points is called
Refining of Petroleum.

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
The process of refining involves the following steps.
Step 1: Separation of water (Cottrell‟s process)

The crude oil well is an extremely stable emulsion. The crude oil is allowed to flow

et
between two highly charged electrodes, where colloidal water droplets combine to form large
drops, which is then separated out form the oil.

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Step 2: Removal of harmful sulphur compounds

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Sulphur compounds are removed by treating the crude oil with copper oxide. The
copper sulphide formed is separated out by filtration.

Step: 3 Fractional distillation

ee
The purified crude oil is then heated to about 400ċ in an iron retort, where the oil gets
vaporized.
ad


The hot vapors are then passed into the bottom of a “fractionating column”.

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The fractionating column is a tall cylindrical tower containing a number of horizontal

stainless steel trays at short distances.

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Each tray is provided with small chimney covered with a loose cap.

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When the vapors of the oil go up in the fractionating column, they become and get
condensed at different trays.

w

The fractions having higher boiling points condense at lower trays whereas the fractions
having lower boiling points condense at higher trays.

The gasoline obtained by this fractional distillation is called straight-run gasoline.

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Various fractions obtained at different trays are given in table.

7. KNOCKING

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The rate of ignition of the fuel gradually increases and the final portion of the fuel-air
mixture gets ignited instantaneously producing an explosive sound known as “Knocking”.

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7.1 Causes of knocking in S.I (Petrol) engines
In a petrol engine fuel used as a mixture of gasoline vapor and air at 1:17 ratio

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The mixture is compressed and ignited by an electric spark.

The products of combustion increase the pressure and push the piston down the cylinder.
ee

If the combustion proceeds in a regular way, there is no problem in knocking.

ad

But in some cases, the rate of combustion (oxidation) will not be uniform due to unwanted
chemical constituents of gasoline.

Knocking property of the fuel reduces the efficiency of engine. So a good gasoline should
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resist knocking.
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7.2Improvement of anti knock characteristics

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Blending petrol of high octane number with petrol of low octane number, so that
the octane number of the latter can be improved.
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The addition of anti-knock agents like Tetra-Ethyl Lead (TEL).

7.3 OCTANE NUMBER OR OCTANE RATING

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Thus octane number is defined as „the percentage of iso-octane present in a

mixture of iso-octane and n-heptanes.‟Octane number is introduced to express the
knocking characteristics of petrol. On the other hand, iso-octane gives very little
knocking and so, its anti-knock value has been given 100.

et
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7.4 ANTI-KNOCK AGENT ee
Tetraethyl lead (TEL) (C2H5)4 Pb is an important additive added to petrol. Thus the
petrol containing tetra ethyl lead is called leaded petrol. TEL reduces the knocking tendency
of hydrocarbon.
ad

Mechanism of Knocking

. Knocking follows a free radical mechanism, leading to a chain growth which results in an
explosion.
.p

If the chains are terminated before their growth, knocking will cease.
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
TEL decomposes thermally to form ethyl free radicals which combine with the growing
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free radicals of knocking process and thus the chain growth is stopped.
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Disadvantages of using TEL

When the leaded petrol is used as a fuel, the TEL is converted to lead oxide and metallic
lead.


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To avoid this, small amount of ethylene dibromide is added along with TEL.

This ethylene dibromide reacts with Pb and PbO to give volatile lead bromide, which goes
out along with exhaust gases and creates atmospheric pollution.


et
But now a day‟s aromatic phosphates are used instead of TEL.

7.5Causes of knocking in CI (Diesel) engines

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In a diesel engine, first air is compressed and raises the temperature of the cylinder to about
500ċ then the oil is sprayed.

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
The expanding gases push the piston and power stroke begins.
ee
The combustion of a fuel in a diesel engine is not instantaneous and the time

between injection of the fuel and its ignition is called Ignition lag or Ignition delay and
raising the temperature of vapour to its ignition temperature.
ad

.
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Which undergo explosion during ignition ,this is responsible for diesel knock.


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

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
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7.6 CETANE NUMBER OR CETANE RATING

Thus the cetane number is defined as “the percentage of cetane present in

a mixture of cetane and 2-methyl naphthalene which has the same ignition lag as
the fuel under test”.

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Cetane number is introduced to express the knocking characteristics of diesel.

Cetane (C16H34) has a very short ignition lag and hence its cetane number is taken as 100.

On the other hand 2-methyl naphthalene has a long ignition lag and hence its cetane number

et
is taken zero.

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The cetane number decreases in the following order.
Straight chain paraffin‟s >Cycloparaffins >Olefins >Branched paraffin‟s.
ee
The cetane number of diesel oil can be increased by adding additives called dopes. Ex: Ethyl
nitrate, Iso-amyl nitrate.
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7.8 DIESEL INDEX

.p

The quality of diesel oil is indicated by diesel index number using the following.
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Aniline point and specific gravity is noted from API (American Petroleum Institute)
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Comparison of gasoline oil and diesel oil

w

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Gasoline oil

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ee
1. Low boiling fraction of petroleum contains C5-C9 hydrocarbons.
2. Fuel for SI engine
3. Knocking tendency is measured in octane rating
ad

4. Knocking is due to premature ignition

5. Antiknocking is improved by the addition of TEL
6. Its exhaust gases contain higher amount of pollutants
.p

7. More consumption, lower thermal efficiency

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Diesel oil
1. High boiling fraction of petroleum contains C15-C18 hydrocarbons.
w

2. Fuel for Cl engine.

3. Knocking tendency is measured in cetin rating.
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4. Knocking is due to ignition lag.

5. Anti knocking is improved by doping with ethyl nitrate.
6. Its exhaust gases contain lesser amount of pollutants.
7. Less consumption, higher thermal efficiency.

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8. Hydrogenation of coal
The preparation of liquid fuels from solid coal is called Hydrogenation of coal.

Coal contains about 4.5% of hydrogen compared to about 18% of in petroleum. So, coal is

et
a hydrogen deficient compound.

If coal is heated with hydrogen to high temperature under high pressure, it is converted to

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gasoline.

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There are two methods available for the hydrogenation of coal.
Bergius process (or direct method)
Fischer- Tropsch Process (or indirect method)
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8.1(a)Bergius process (indirect method)
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ee
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Finely powdered coal + heavy oil+ catalyst powder (tin or nickel) is made into a paste
.p


The paste is pumped along with hydrogen gas into the converter, where the paste is heated
to 400-450ċ under a pressure of 200-250atm.
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
During this process hydrogen combine with coal to form saturated higher hydrocarbons,
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which undergo further decomposition at higher temperature to yield mixture of lower

hydrocarbons.

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The mixture is led to a condenser, where the crude oil is obtained.

The crude oil is then fractionated to yield.

Gasoline (ii) Middle oil (iii) heavy oil

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The middle oil is further hydrogenated in vapour phase to yield more gasoline.

The heavy oil is recycled for making paste with fresh coal dust.
The yield of gasoline is about 60% of the coal.

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8.2 (b) Fischer-tropics process (indirect method)

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In this process coal is first converted into coke. Then water gas is produced by passing steam
over red hot coke

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The water gas is mixed with hydrogen and the mixture is purified by passing through
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Fe 2O3+Na2CO 3 (to remove sulphur compounds).

The purified gas is compressed to 5 to 25 atm and then led through a converter, which is
ad

maintained at a temperature of 200-300⁰C.


The converter is provided with a catalyst bed consisting of a mixture of 100 parts cobalt, 5
parts thoria, 8 parts magnesia and 200 parts kieselgurh earth.
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
A mixture of saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbon is produced as a result polymerization.
w
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The out coming gaseous mixture is led to condenser, where the liquid crude oil is obtained.

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The crude oil is fractionated to yield (i) Gasoline and (ii) Heavy oil.
The heavy oil is used for cracking to get more gasoline.

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ee
ad

9 GASEOUS FUELS

ADVANTAGES OF GASEOUS FUELS:

.p

Gaseous fuels have high calorific value than solid fuels.

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During burning they do not produce any ash or smoke.

Compared to solid and liquid fuels, they have high thermal efficiency.
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They can be easily transported through the pipes.

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DISADVANTAGES OF GASEOUS FUELS:

They are highly inflammable and hence the chances for fire hazards are high.
Since gases occupy a large volume, they require large storage tanks.

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

9.1COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS (CNG)

When the natural gas is compressed, it is called compresses natural gas (CNG).

et
The primary component present in CNG is methane. It is mainly derived from natural gas.

Properties

.n
1. CNG is the cheapest, cleanest and least environmentally vehicle impacting

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alternative fuel.

Vehicles powered by CNG produce less carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon (HC)
emission.
ee
It is less expensive than and diesel.
The ignition temperature of CNG is about 55ċ.
ad

CNG requires more air for ignition.

Uses:
.p

CNG is used to run an automotive vehicle just like LPG.

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Comparison of emission levels between CNG- driven vehicles and petrol driven vehicles
w
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9.2 PRODUCER GAS

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It is a mixture of CO&N2 with small amount of H2. Its average composition is as follows.

et
It is calorific value is about 1300 kcal/m3.

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Manufacture
The reactor used for the manufacture of producer gas is known as gas producer.

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It consists of a tall steel vessel inside of which is lined with refractory bricks.

It is provided with cup and cone feeder at the top and a side opening for producer
gas exists.
ee
At the bottom, it is provided with an inlet pipe for passing air and steam.
When a mixture of air and steam is passes over a red hot coke maintained at about
1100ċ in a reactor, the producer gas is produced.
ad
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w
w
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ee
1. Ash Zone
ad

This is the lowest zone consists mainly of ash. The incoming air and steam mixture is
preheated in this zone.
.p

2. Combustion or oxidation zone

This is the zone next to ash zone. Both the reactions are exothermic. Hence, the
w

temperature of the bed reaches around 1,100ċ.

w
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3. Reduction Zone
This is the middle zone. Here both CO2 and steam are reduced.

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The above reactions are endothermic. Hence the temperature of the coke bed falls to
1000ċ.

4. Distillation or Drying Zone

et
This is the upper most of the coke bed. In this zone (400-800ċ) the incoming coke is heated
by the outgoing gases.

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Uses
It is used as a reducing agent in metallurgical operations.

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It is also used for heating muffle furnaces, open-hearth furnaces etc.
ee
9.3 WATER GAS
It is mixture of CO and H2 with small amount of N2. The average composition of water
gas is as follows.
ad

The above reactions are endothermic. Hence the temperature of the coke bed falls to
1000ċ.
.p

4. Distillation or Drying Zone

This is the upper most of the coke bed. In this zone (400-800ċ) the incoming coke is heated
w

by the outgoing gases.

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Uses
It is used as a reducing agent in metallurgical operations.
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It is also used for heating muffle furnaces, open-hearth furnaces etc.

WATER GAS

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It is mixture of CO and H2 with small amount of N2. The average composition of water gas is
as follows.

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Constituents Percentage

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CO 41
H2 51
N2 4

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CO2+CH4 rest

Its calorific value is about 2800kcal/m3

ee
Manufacture
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The water gas producer consists of a tall steel vessel, lined inside with refractory bricks.

It is provide with cup and cone feeder at the top and a side opening of water gas
exist.


et
At the bottom on it is provide with two inlet pipes for passing air and steam.
When steam and little air is passed alternatively over a red hot coke maintained at
about 900-1000ċ in a reactor, water gas is produced.

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Step-I

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In the first stage, steam is passed through the red hot coke, where CO &H2 are produced.
The reaction is endothermic. Hence, the temperature of the coke bed falls.
ee
In the second stage, in order to raise the temperature of the coke bed to 1000ċ, the steam

supply is temporarily cut off and air blown in; the reaction is
ad

Thus the steam-run and air blow are repeated alternatively to maintain proper temperature.
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Uses
It is used for the production of H2 and in the synthesis of ammonia.
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It is used to synthesis gasoline in Fischer-Tropics process.

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It is also used in the manufacture of power alcohol and carbureted water gas (water gas
oil gas).
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9.4LPG- Liquefied Petroleum gas

It is also known as bottled gas or refinery gas.
It is obtained by a by-product during the fractional distillation of heavy oil
or cracking of higher hydrocarbons.

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It can easily be liquefied under pressure, but exist as gas at atmospheric

pressure.
LPG consists of the following hydrocarbons containing carbons atoms up to
4(C4).
The average composition of LPG is
Propane - 24.7%

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Butane - 38.5%
Isobutene - 37.7%

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LPG has the calorific value of about 2500 Kcals/m3.

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Uses

LPG is supplied with the trade name like indene bharath gas etc. It is mainly used as domestic
and industrial fuel.
ee
It is also used as motor fuel, because it easily mixes with air and burns without any pollution
creating residue.
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Advantages
It possesses high efficiency and heating rate.
.p

Burns completely without smoke.

Needs only little care in maintenance.
Easily transported using steel cylinder to any places.
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It is very cheaper than gasoline.

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Disadvantages
Handling should be only under pressure.
w

User of LPG in engines is possible only if it works under high compression ratio.
Its response to blending is poor and so its uses are selective.
Nitrogen Content:

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Kjeldahl’s method:

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Reactions :

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From the volume of HCl consumed % of Nitrogen is calculated
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i) Sulphur Content :
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Burnt in
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From the weight of BaSO4, % of Sulphur is calculated

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of Sulphur = 32 x weight of BaSO4 obtained / 233 x weight of coal sample x 100

Ash content :

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ee
ad
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Draw backs of presence of S in Coal:

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The combustion products of sulphur, SO2 and SO3 are harmful and have
corrosion effects on equipments.
The coal containing sulphur is not suitable for the preparation of
etallurgical coke as it affects the properties of the metal.

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Description of Orsat's apparatus

It consists of a horizontal tube having three way stop cock at one end. The end of three
way stop cock is connected to a U tube containing fused CaCl2 to remove moisture in the gas.
The another end of the tube is connected with a graduated burette. The burette is surrounded

et
by a water jacket in order to keep the temperature of gas constantly. The lower end of the
burette is connected by a water reservoir by means of Rubber tube. The level of the water in
burette can be raised or loweredby raising or lowering the reservoir. The middle of the

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horizontal tube is connected with 3 bulbs(A, B and C) for absorbing flue gases as follows:

Bulb 'A' containing KOH solution and it absorbs only CO2

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Bulb 'B' containing alkaline pyrogallol solution and it absorbs only O2
Bulb 'C' containing ammoniacal cuprous chloride solution and it absorbs CO.
ee
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Working of Orsat apparatus

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The bulbs A, B and C are cleaned and filled by respective solutions. Now, the three
way stop cock is opened and the burette is filled with water, by raising the water reservoir to
remove air from the burette. Then, the flue gas is taken in the burette up to 100 cc by raising
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and lowering the reservoir. The 3 way stop cock is now closed.

Absorption of gases in bulbs i) Absorption of CO2

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The stopper of the bulb 'A' is opened and the flue gas is allowed to pass by raising the
water reservoir. CO2 present in flue gas is absorbed by KOH. This process is repeated several
times by raising and lowering the water reservoir until the volume of burette becomes constant.
The decrease in volume of burette indicates the volume of CO2 in 100 cc of the flue gas. Now
the stopper of the bulb „A' is closed.
ii) Absorption of O2

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The stopper of the bulb 'B' is opened and the flue gas is allowed to pass. O2 present in
the flue gas is absorbed by alkaline pyrogallol. This process is repeated several times until the

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volume of burette becomes constant. The decrease in volume of flue gas in burette indicates
the volume of O2 . Now the stopper is closed.

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c) Absorption of CO

The stopper of the bulb 'C' is opened and the flue gas is allowed to pass. 'CO' present in
ee
the flue gas is absorbed by ammoniacal cuprous chloride solution. This process is repeated
several times until the volume of burette becomes constant. The decrease in volume of flue gas
in burette indicates the volume of CO. The remaining gas in the burette after the absorption of
CO2 , O2 and CO is taken as nitrogen. The % of N2 = [100 (% of CO2 + % of O2 + % of CO)]
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10 Glossary
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Fuel
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Fuel is a combustible substance, containing carbon as the main constituent,

which on burning gives large amount of heat that can be used for domestic and industrial
purposes.
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Calorific value
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Is the total quantity of heat liberated when a unit mass of the furel is burnt
completely

Calorie

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Is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water
through one degree centigrade.

Cracking

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Is defined as “ the decomposition of higher boiling hydrocarbons of high
molecular weight into simpler, lower boiling hydrocarbons of lower molecular weight”.

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Synthetic petrol

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The preparation of liquid fuels from solid coal is called hydrogenation of coal
(or) synthetic

petrol.
ee
Knocking
Is a kind of explosion due to rapid pressure rise occurring in an IC engine.
ad

Octane number
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Is defined as “ the percentage of iso-octane present in a mixture of iso-octane

and n-heptanes, which matches the fuel under test in knocking characteristics”.
w

Cetane number
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Is defined as “ the percentage of hexadecane present in a mixture of hexadecane

and alpha methyl naphthalene, which has the same ignition characteristics as the diesel under
test”.
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Water gas
Is a mixture of combustible gases (CO and H2) with small amount of non combustible gases
(CO2, N2).

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Producer gas
Is a mixture of combustible gases ( CO & N2 ) with small amount of non-
combustible gases
( N2, CO2 etc).
Power alcohol

et
Is known as power alcohol. It is used as additive to motors fuels, when blended
with petrol at concentration of 5-10%, it is called power alcohol.

.n
UNIT V ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

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ENERGY SOURCES

1 Introduction
2 Nuclear Energy
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2.1 Nuclear Fission
2.2 Nuclear fusion
2.3 Nuclear chain reaction
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3 Nuclear reactor
3.1 Light water Nuclear Reactor
3.2 Breeder Reactor
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4 Solar Energy
4.1 Solar energy conversion
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4.2 Solar cell

4.3 Application of Solar Cells
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5 Wind Energy
5.1 Wind Mill
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6 Batteries
6.1 Types of batteries
6.2 Alkaline Battery
6.3 Lead Storage Battery

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6.4 Nickel-Cadmium Battery

6.5 Lithium Battery
7 Fuel Cells
7.1 Hydrogen Oxygen Fuel Cell
8. Glossary

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1 INTRODUCTION

Sufficient sources of energy are necessary for industrialized nations. Energy is used for

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heating, cooking, transportation and manufacturing. Energy sources can be generally classified
as conventional and non-conventional. Over 85% of the energy used in the world is from
conventional sources such as fossil fuels (coal and oil) and nuclear power.
ee
The convenrtional energy sources depend on coal and oil. The burnt fuels result in the
release of CO2 and other gases into the atmosphere causing environmental damage. There are
abundant renewable sources of energy such as wind, sun, water, and biomass. These sources
are pollution ofree and known as “ green energy “.
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2 Nuclear Energy :
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The enormous energy thus released during the Nuclear Fission & Fusion
reaction is known as Nuclear Energy.
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2.1 N uclear fission: It is the nuclear reaction in which heavy isotopes are split into lighter
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nuclei on bombardment by neutrons. Fission reaction of U235 is given below

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2.2 Nuclear fusion:

Process of combination of lighter nuclei into heavier nucleus with simultaneous liberation of
largeamount of energy. (e.g) solar system

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Nuclear fusion reaction occurs in sun.

2.3 Nuclear chain reaction:

et
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ee
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et
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Differences between fission and fusion reaction

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Nuclear fission
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1 It is a process of breaking at heavier nucleous.

2 It emits radioactive rays
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3 The mass number and atomic number of new elements are lower than
4 It occurs at ordinary temperature
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5 It gives rise to chain reaction

6 It emits neutrons
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7 It can be controlled

Nuclear fusion
1. It is a process of combination of lighter nuclei.
2. It does not emit any kind of radioactive rays

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3. The mass number and atomic number of product is higher than that of starting elements
4. It occurs at high Temperature
5. It does not give rise to chain reaction
6. It emits positrons
7. It canot be controlled

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3 Nuclear Reactor

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3.1 Light water nuclear power plant Definition

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Light water nuclear power plant is one in which U235 feed rods are submerged in
water. ee
Here the water acts as coolant and moderator.

The fission reaction is controlled by inserting or removing the control rods of

B10automatically from the spaces I between the fuel rods.
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The heat emitted by U235 absorbed by the coolant in the fuel core is Heat is transferred to sea
water and then converted into steam. The steam then drives the turbines, generating electricity.
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(Structure of light water nuclear power plant)

3.2 Breeder reactor

A nuclear reactor with conversion or multiplication factor greater than one is a breeder reactor.

et
A

breeder reactor generates fissionable nuclei from fertile nuclei. E.g., the fertile material like

.n
uranium-238 is converted into fissile 94 Pu239 by using slow neutrons. 94 Pu239 undergoes
fission and produces energy.

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ee
Working :
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`In breeder reactor, 92U235 is used as trigger to produce sufficient neutrons. These are used
to convert 92U235 to Plutonium undergoes fission with the production of three neutrons.
One neutron is used to propagate fission chain. The other two neutrons react
with92U238 to fissionable 94Pu239. Thus breeder reactor produces
.p

two239 Pu atoms for each 238 U consumed. Thus more fissionable material is produced
than consumed. Hence the reactor is called breeder reactor.
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Critical Mass:
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The minimum amount of fissile material (U235) required to continue the nuclear chain reaction
is called critical mass.
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4 Solar Energy
Solar energy

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The energy that derive directly from sunlight and can be converted into more
useful forms is known as Solar energy.

4.1 Solar Energy Conversion

The energy conversion my occur iterms of heat & current.

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4.2 Photo galvanic cell or Solar cell

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PRINCIPLE:

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The principle of Solar cell is based on photovoltaic effect. When light radiation falls on
the p-n junction semi conductor device, charge separation takes place and a potential
difference is setup. This causes flow of electrons and produces electricity.
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Working:

When sun rays all on the top layer of p- type semiconductor, electrons from valence
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band are promoted to conductance band and cross the p-n junction into the n-type
semiconductor. A potential difference is set up between the two layers. This causes flow of
electrons and produces electricity. When the „p‟ and „n‟ layers are connected to an external
circuit, electrons flow from „n‟ layer to „p‟ layer and current is generated.
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4.3 Application of Solar Cell

1. Lighting purpose

Now a days electrical street lights are substituted by solar street lights.

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2. Solar pumps are run by solar battery

A large number of solar cells are connected in series to form a solar battery. Solar battery
produces enough electricity to run water pump, etc., They are also used in remote areas where
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conventional electricity is not available.

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SOLAR BATTERY
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Solar cells are used in calculators, electronic watches etc.

Solar cells are superior to other type of cells, because they are non-polluting and eco-friendly.
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Solar cells are used to drive vehicles.

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Silicon solar cells are used as a source of electricity in space crafts and satellites.
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Advantages of Solar cells

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Solar cells are used in remote areas, forests and hilly regions.
Maintenance cost is minimum.
Solar cells are pollution free.
They have long life.

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Disadvantages

Solar cells are costly.

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Storage of energy is not possible with solar cells.

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5 WIND ENERGY

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Moving air is called wind. Energy recovered from the forces of wind is called wind energy.

5.1 Generation of electricity from wind mill

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Wind energy is used to generate electricity with the help of wind mills. The crank of the
wind mill is connected to a dynamo. When the blades of wind mill rotate, they turn the coil
of the dynamo and produce electricity. Usually a number of wind mills are erected side-by-
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side. The outputs from the wind mills are coupled to generate electricity for commercial
purpose. This type of system is wind energy farms.
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Condition: Wind speed should be more than 15km/hr.

Advantages of wind energy

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(i) It is cheap and economical. (ii) It is renewable

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(iii) It does not cause pollution.

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Disadvantages

They produce noise.

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Wind farms erected on the migratory routes of birds create problems. (iii) Wind turbines
interfere with electromagnetic signals.

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6 BATTERIES (or) ENERGY STORAGE DEVICES
Battery:
It is an arrangement of several electrochemical cells connected in series that can be used as a

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source of direct electric current.

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6.1 TYPES OF BATTERIES

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Secondary battery or secondary cells

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In these cells, the electrode reactions can be reversed by passing an external

energy.
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They can be recharged by passing electric current.

They are called storage cells or accumulators.

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Ex: Lead acid storage cell, Nickel- cadmium cell.

6.2 Alkaline Battery

Here the powdered zinc is mixed with KOH and MnO2 to get a gel. A Carbon rod acts

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as cathode. IT is immersed in KOH The outside cylindrical body is made up of zinc.

Cell reactions

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Uses: It is used in calculators, watches etc.,

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6.3 Lead storage cell Description:

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It consists of number of voltaic cells connected in series Pb is anode and

PbO2 is cathode
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Number of Pb plates and PbO2 plates are connected in parallel.

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Plates are separated from adjacent ones by insulators like rubber or glass
fiber.
This arrangement is immersed in dil. H2SO4

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Cell reactions

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Overall reaction:

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Pb (s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4 → PbSO4 + H2O + energy

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Uses:

It is used to supply current mainly in automobiles such as cars. Buses, trucks, etc.,
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* It is also used in gas engine ignition, telephone exchanges, hospitals, power stations.
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6.4 Nickel – Cadmium Battery

Description
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It consists of a cadmium anode. A metal grid containing a paste of NiO2 acting as a cathode.
KOH is electrolyte
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Ni-Cd battery
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Cell reactions

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Overall reaction:
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Cd(s) + NiO2 + 2H2O(l) → Cd(OH)2(s) + Ni(OH)2 (s) + energy

Uses: It is used in calculators. Electronic flash units, transistors and cordless appliances.
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6.5 Lithium Battery

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Description
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It consists of a lithium anode and a TiS2 cathode.

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A solid electrolyte generally a polymer is packed in between the electrodes.

The electrolyte permits the passage of ions but not electrons.

Cell reactions

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Other types of secondary lithium batteries

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Li/ MnO2

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Li/V2O5
Li/MoO2
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Li/Cr3O8

Advantages of Li battery
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It is the cell future. Why?

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Its cell voltage is high, 3.0VSince Li is a light weight metal, only 7kg material required to
produce 1mole of electrons.Since all the constituents of the battery are solids, there is no risk
of leakage from the battery. This battery can be made in a variety of shapes and sizes.
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Disadvantages of Li battery
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Li battery is more expensive than other batteries

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Uses

Button sized batteries are used in calculators, watches, cameras, mobile phones, laptop
computers.

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Lithium Battery

It is a solid state battery. Solid electrolyte is used.

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Construction

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It has a lithium anode and a TiS2 cathode. A solid electrolyte, a polymer, is packed in
between the electrodes. The polymer electrolyte permits the passage of ions but not that of
electrons.

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Working (Discharging) ee
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The anode is connected to cathode through the polymer electrolyte. Lithium ions and electrons
are produced at the anode . The cathode receives the lithium ions and electrons.
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Overall reaction: Li(s) + TiS2(s) -- --- > Li+ + TiS2- LiTiS2

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Recharging
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The battery is recharged by passing an external current, which drives the lithium ions
back to the anode. The overall reaction is
LiTiS2 Li+ + TiS2

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This cell has a voltage of 3.oV.

Uses:

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It possesses very small size and high energy density. So it is used in calcutors, electronic
flash units, computers, transistors head phones etc.

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Advantages

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The cell has a voltage of 3.0V.

Li is a light-weight metal. Just 7g (1 mole) of Li is required to produce 1 mole of electrons.

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Li has the most negative Eo value. So it gives a higher voltage than other cells. (iv)
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It is a total solid state battery. There is no risk of current leakage from the battery. (v) It is
manufactured in a variety of sizes and shapes.

Disadvantages
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It is more expensive than other batteries.

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7 FUEL CELLS:
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Definition

Fuel cell is a voltaic cell. It converts chemical energy of the fuels directly into electricity
without combustion. In these cells, the reactants and electrolytes are continuously

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supplied to the cell.

Fuel + Oxygen -- -- > Oxidation products + Electricity.

Examples : Hydrogen - oxygen fuel cell.

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7.1 Hydrogen - oxygen fuel cell

It is the simplest and most successful fuel cell. The fuel-hydrogen and the oxidiser-

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oxygen and the liquid electrolyte are continuously supplied to the cell.

Description
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The cell has two porous electrodes, anode and cathode. The electrodes are made of
compressed carbon containing a small amount of catalyst (Pt, Pd, Ag). Between the two
electrodes an electrolytic solution, 25% KOH is filled
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Working
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Hydrogen passes through the anode compartment, where it is oxidised. Oxygen passes
through the cathode compar tment, where it is reduced.
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Advantages of Fuel Cells

They are efficient and instant in operation.
They are pollution free.

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They produce electric current directly from the reaction of a fuel and an oxidiser.
They are light in weight

Disadvantages
Fuel cells cannot store electric energy.

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Electrodes are expensive and short lived.

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H2 should be pure.

Applications

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H2 - O2 fuel cells are used in space crafts, submarines to get electricity
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In H2 - O2 fuel cell, the produt water is a valuable source of fresh water for astronauts
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8 Glossary
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Nuclear fission
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The process of splitting of heavier nucleus into two or more smaller nuclei with
simultaneous liberation of large amount of energy is called Nuclear Fission.
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Nuclear Fusion

The process of combination of lighter nuclei into heavier nuclei, with simultaneous
liberation of large amount of energy is called Nuclear Fusion.

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Nuclear Chain Reaction

A fission reaction, where the neutrons from the previous step continues to propagate
and repeat the reaction is called Nuclear Chain Reaction.

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Breeder reactor
Breeder reactor is the one which converts non-fissionable material ( U238, Th232)
intofissionable material ( U235, Pu239 ). Thus the reactor produces or breeds more fissionable

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material than it consumes.
Fissionable nucleides (or ) Fissile nucleides

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The nucleides like U235, Pu239 which undergo fission reaction is known
as Fissle nucleides.
Non- fissionable nucleides (or) Fertile nucleides
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The nucleides like U238, Th232 which do not undergo fission reaction is known as
Fertile nucleides.
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Critical Mass:

The minimum amount of fissile material (U235) required to continue the nuclear chain
reaction is called critical mass.
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Solar energy
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The energy that derive directly from sunlight and can be converted into more
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useful forms is known as Solar energy.

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Photogalvanic cell

Photogalvanic cell is one, which converts the solar energy (energy obtained from the sun
) directly into electrical energy.

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Wind energy

Moving air is called wind. The energy possessed by wind is because of its high speed.
Thewind energy is harnessed by making use of wind mills, sky sail, ladder mill, kite ship etc.

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Fuel cell

Fuel cell is a voltaic cell which converts the chemical energy directly into

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electricitywithout combustion. In these cells, the reactants, products and the electrolytes pass
through the cell.

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Battery

Battery is an arrangement of several electrochemical cells connected in series that

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can be used as a sources of direct electric current.

Electrolytic Cell
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Electrolytic Cell converts electrical energy into chemical energy. Eg.

Decomposition of water into hydrogen and hydroxide ion.
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Electrochemical Cell
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Electrochemical Cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Eg. Galvanic
(or) Voltaic cell.
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