UNIT 5 – GROUPS
Ties – various type of connections between nodes.
Lesson 1 – Primary and Secondary Groups
Social Group – unit of interacting personalities
Group – collection of people whose members interact with
each other
GROUPS ACCORDING TO SOCIAL TIES
• Primary Group – basic universal human relationship.
Family – group of people united by ties of blood
Neighborhood – geographically localized community
Peer Group – barkada, tropa, same age in a group
• Secondary Group – group which individual comes in contact
with later in life.
Lesson 2 – In and Out Groups
GROUPS ACCORDING TO SELF-IDENTIFICATION
• In-group – individual feels belongingness
• Out-group – individual feels indifferent, strange, dislike
GROUPS ACCORDING TO PURPOSE
• Task Group – formed to accomplish jobs, tasks (work group)
• Relationship Group – formed to fulfill the feeling of
companionship (barkada)
• Influence Group – formed to support a particular
cause/ideology (political parties/campaign group)
GROUPS ACCORDING TO SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
• Gemeinschaft – most relationships are personal/traditional
and often both. Composed of many primary groups.
“Community”
• Gesselschaft – society of bargaining and contract.
Relationships are individualistic, impersonal, formal, realistic.
“Society”
Peer Pressure – social pressure by members of one’s peer
group to take a certain action, adopt certain values, conform to
be accepted.
Lesson 3 – Reference Groups
Reference Group – group which individual refers, serves as a
model to which individual patterns his lifestyle. A group to
which we compare ourselves.
Formal RG – have specific goal/mission.
E.g. Labor unions, Greenpeace, Planet Savers
Informal RG – based on members’ shared
interests/goals
Lesson 4 – Social Networks
Social Network – social structure that exists between actors.
Node – personal/org participating in the network
Social Network Analysis/Social Network Theory – study of
social networks.
Social Network Theory – study of how people, org, or groups
interact with each other inside their networks.
Types of Social Networks
• Ego-centric networks – connected with a single node.
• Socio-centric networks – closed networks by default. E.g.
children in classroom, workers in an org.
• Open-system networks – boundary lines aren’t clearly
defined. Most difficult to study. E.g. America’s elite class.
UNIT 6 – CULTURAL, SOCIAL & POLITICAL INSTITUTION
Lesson 1 – Kinship, Marriage, Household
Kinship – relationships based on blood or marriage. Refers
both to patterns of social relationships themselves.
Fictive kinship – not related by blood/marriage
Consanguineal kin – based on bloodline
Affinal kin – based on marriage
KINSHIP BY BLOOD
Descent – membership depends on common descent from
ancestor.
Unilineal – membership may rest on patrilineal or
matrilineal descent.
Cognatic – refers to all descendants of ancestor who
enjoy membership of common descent group by
virtue of any combination of male/female linkages.
KINSHIP BY MARRIAGE
Marriage – institution that admits men and women to family
life.
Types of Marriages
• Polygamy – marriage of man to several women
• Polygyny – one man marries more than one woman
• Polyandry – marriage of 1 woman with more than 1 man
• Monogamy – one man marries one woman
• Serial Monogamy – allowed to marry again after the death of
first spouse or after divorce
• Group Marriage – marriage of 2+ women with 2+ men
KINSHIP BY RITUAL
Ritual Kinship in the form of godparenthood played an
important role in strengthening and extending ties of kinship.
VARIATION IN FAMILY PATTERNS
A. Based on Internal Organization
Conjugal Family – nuclear family, adult parents +
children
Extended Family – extends past nuclear family
B. Based on Origin Types of Political Authority
Family of Orientation – family we are born and
Authority – powers or rights to give commands.
reared.
Family of Pro-creation – family we establish when 1. Legal – based on a system of rules that is applied
we marry and have children of our own. administratively and judicially in accordance with
known principles. (legal procedures)
C. Based on Descent
2. Traditional – based on a system in which authority is
Patrilineal – trace their relationships and affiliations
legitimate because it “has always existed.”
with relatives on the father side.
3. Charismatic – based on charisma of leader, who
Matrilineal – trace their relationships and affiliations
shows he possesses the right to lead.
with relatives on the mother side.
Bilateral – trace their relationships and affiliations Lesson 3 – Economic Institutions
with relatives on both parents.
Economic Organization – act of coordinating the other factors
D. Based on who wields power of production. Entrepreneur is the captain of industry.
Patriarchal – authority vested in oldest male
member, father. Aspects of the Economic System
Matriarchal – authority is exercised by mother 1. Property – socially acknowledge right of ownership.
Egalitarian – both husband and wife exercise equal 2. Economic Exchange – process wherein valuable goods &
amount of authority. services are given in return for different goods & services.
3. Division of Labor – distribution of work.
E. Based on Residence 4. Economic Socialization – process by which people learn
Patrilocal – newly-married couple lives with or near values and behavior needed to fill position in economic society.
home of groom’s parents. 5. Price – monetary value of goods and services.
Matrilocal – newly-married couple lives with or near 6. Law of Supply and Demand – D>S, P↑ while S>D, P↓
home of bride’s parents.
Bilocal – newly-weds chose to satay with either
groom or bride’s parents. Sole
Owns capital and performs
Neolocal – family where couple resides Proprietorship
One-man business all functions of
entrepreneur
independently from their parents 2+ individuals share
Partnership Carried on by 2+ men
Avunculocal – family where couple is prescribed to capital
reside with or near the domicile of maternal uncle of groom. Legal entity Has right to
that is enter
Owns Referred to
Lesson 2 – Political & Leadership Structures Corporation
separate contracts,
assets and as “legal
and distinct loan, and
pay taxes person”
Political Science – systematic study of state and government. from
owners
borrow
money
Political – Greek word polis (city) Established for the
Science – Latin word scire (to know) Cooperative purpose of providing Non-profit business
services
Political Organization – entity that is involved in the political Type of Economic Organization
process.
4 Main Types of Political Organization Types of Cooperatives in the Philippines
1. Band – basic social unit found in many foraging societies. 1. Credit – promotes and undertakes savings and lending
• Has 20-50 members services among members.
• Nomadic group, hunter-gatherers. 2. Consumer’s – primary purpose is to procure and distribute
• Egalitarian societies (all are equal) commodities to members & non-members
2. Tribe – several bands or lineage groups. 3. Producer’s – undertakes joint production whether
• Has 100 to several thousands of people. agricultural or industrial
3. Chiefdom – political unit headed by chief. 4. Marketing – engages in supply of production input to
• Practice redistribution (accumulation of goods) members and markets their products
4. State – community of persons more or less numerous, 5. Service – engages in medical and dental care,
permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, having hospitalization, transportation, insurance, housing, labor,
government and enjoying freedom. electric, light and power, communication, professional, etc.
• 4 elements are people, territory, government and sovereignty. 6. Multipurpose – combines 2+ business activities of different
types of cooperatives.

Lesson 4 – Non-state Institutions
Bank – financial institution which deals with deposits and
advances and other related services.
ROLE OF BANKS
1. People can safely deposit savings, which banks
then pay interest on.
2. Banks are largely responsible for payments system
3. Banks issue loans to both people and companies.
Trade union – org made up of members and its membership
must be made up mainly of workers. It aims to protect and
advance the interests of its members in the workplace.
Non-governmental Organization (NGO) – not-for-profit- org
that is independent from states and int’l governmental orgs.
Lesson 5 – Education
Education – process of facilitation learning, acquisition of
knowledge, skills, values, beliefs and habits.
Formal – imparted by direct instructions.
Informal – spontaneous process of helping people to
learn.
Lesson 6 – Religion and Belief Systems
Religion – set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature, and
purpose of universe, esp when considered as the creation of a
superhuman agency. It is a specific fundamental set of beliefs
and practices generally agreed upon by a number of persons.
Institutionalized religion – social institution in which belief
systems and rituals are systematically arranged and formally
established.
WORLD RELIGIONS AND THEIR BELIEFS
1. Animism – all things have spirit or soul. They offer
sacrifices, prayers, dances etc. in hopes of blessing
or protection from harm.
2. Hinduism – person’s position in his present life was
determined by his actions in previous life.
3. Buddhism – don’t worship any gods. Believe a
person has countless rebirths – they seek to end it.
Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) who attained spiritual
enlightenment – and with it is freedom from
continuous cycle of life and death.
4. Islam – believe that everything happened is Allah’s
will. Mohammad is the last prophet.
a. Repeat a creed about Allah and Muhammad
(Shahadah)
b. Recite certain prayers in Arabic 5x a day (Salah)
c. Give alms to needy (Zakat)
d. 1 month each year, fasting (Ramadan)
e. Pilgrimage once in one’s lifetime to worship at a
shrine in Mecca (Hajj)
5. Christianity – God can be known in a personal way.
Faith in Jesus is the real key to experience joy and
meaningful life.
Monotheism is the belief in singular God while polytheism is
the belief of multiple deities, gods and goddesses.
Lesson 7 – Health
Health – absence of disease, freedom from pain. WHO defines
it as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being
and not merely absence of disease or infirmity.
SLEEP HOURS
Children (6-13): 9-11 hrs Younger & adults (18-64): 7-9 hrs
Teenagers (14-17): 8-10 hrs Older adults (65+): 7-8 hrs
Medical Pluralism – adoption of more than one medical
system, simultaneous integration of both orthodox medicines
with complementary and alternative medicine.
Folk illness – combination of psychiatric and somatic
symptoms that are considered to be recognizable disease.
Bughat (Ilonggo) / Binat (Tagalog) – ailments a mother
experiences after giving birth or after abortion or miscarriage.
Usog/Buyag – superstition that attributes an illness to the
greetings of a stranger. Young children are susceptible to this.
Folk Medicine – phenomena in which physical illness appear
to be cured by means other than drugs, surgery, etc. God’s will
Alternative Medicine – consists of wide range of health care
practices, products and therapies. Not based on the scientific
method.
UNIT 7 – SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STRATIFICATION
Lesson 1 – Social Desirables
Social Stratification – arrangement of any social group into a
hierarchy of positions that are unequal with regard to power,
property, social evaluation and/or psychic gratification. A
particular form of social inequality.
Social Class – level or category where persons have more or
less the same socio-economic privileges in the society.
Social Status – position of an individual or group within a
social structure
Social Role – behavior expected of a person who occupies a
particular status
Power/Authority – ability to secure one’s ends in life. Degree
which one directs, manages others.
Property/Wealth – rights over goods and services.
Prestige/Social Evaluation – implies social judgement that a
status or position is more prestigious and honorable than
others.
CAUSES OF INEQUALITY
• Corruption and Political Dynasty
• Education
• Concentration of Gov’t to Metropolis
Karl Marx – insisted in his Communist Manifesto, that private
property is the main cause of social inequality. He also
included division of labor as a significant cause in formation of
classes, which led to social inequality. Socialism’s ultimate
goal is to abolish private property. History Materialism is the
record of class struggles; a history of class antagonism.
Upper Class – elite families, most productive & successful
Middle Class – their income provides comfortable lifestyle
Lower Class – lowest status in society
Lesson 2 – Social Mobility System
Social Mobility – movement of persons from one position to
another in the stratification system.
Horizontal SM – move from one position to another which
doesn’t involve a shift into higher or lower stratum.
Vertical SM – movement of individuals into either a higher or
lower stratum.
Career Mobility – experience change in their social position
over the course of their lifetime.
Intergenerational SM – person acquires position from parents’
social stratification level.
2 GENERAL SYSTEMS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
• CLOSED SYSTEM – based on ascribes statuses or statuses
assigned to people because of either innate traits or social
characteristics of parents.
Slave System – individuals are considered property
from time of birth.
Estate System – based on ownership of land. Land
were inherited rather than achieved.
Caste System – stratum is arranged in the order of
superiority to inferiority. Individual born into one stratum
remains there for life.
• OPEN SYSTEM – classes exist but they are not
institutionalized; boundaries are unclear. Based on
achievements rather than ascribed.
Lesson 3 – Social Inequality
Social Inequality – occurs when resources in a society are
distributed unevenly.
FORMS OF INEQUALITY: Gender, Racial or Ethnic, and
Global
Ethnicity – term that described shared culture of a group.
Ethnic minority or minority group – any group who because
of their physical/cultural characteristics, are singled out from
others in the society in which they live. E.g. LGBTs and PWDs
UNIT 8 – CULTURAL, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CHANGE
Lesson 1 – Innovation
Social Change – alteration of mechanisms within the social
structure.
Theories of Social Change
1. Evolution Theory – unilinear (simple to complex
society) and multilinear (change from multiple line that
don’t lead to a single result)
2. Conflict Theory – proposed by Marx and Engels and
later by Marxist sociologists. Inevitability of social
change as a result of conflict among members caused
by struggle over property
3. Cyclical or Rise and Fall Theory – proposed by
Oswald Spengler and Arnold Toynbee. This theory
describes the rise and fall of societies.
4. Functionalist Theory – espoused by Emile
Durkheim. It views society as a social system of
interconnected parts, with each part depending on the
other to function.
Explanations for Change
1. Theological Explanation – all social changes come about
because of the divine intervention in human affairs.
2. Null Explanation – there is no cause or reason for change.
3. Geographic Determinism – social change is caused by the
changes in the natural environment.
4. Material Determinism – social change is brought by
changes in material culture or inventions.
5. Biological Determinism – social changes is caused by the
biological evolution of mankind.
6. Cultural Determinism – social change is brought by
changes in the non-material culture to which one is exposed.
Sources of Social Change
1. Environmental 4. Values and Beliefs
2. Population Growth 5. Diffusions
3. Technology
Lesson 2 – Diffusion
Cultural Diffusion – spread of cultural item from its place of
origin to other places. Diffusion is the process by which
discrete culture traits are transferred from one society to
another, thru migration, trade, war, or other contacts.
Primary Diffusion – process brought about by migration
Secondary Diffusion – involves direct transfer of material
culture
Stimulus Diffusion – transfer of ideas
Lesson 3 – Acculturation and Assimilation
Acculturation – process by which group adopts the dominant
culture. Transmission of values and customs from one group to
another. Exchange of cultural features.
Assimilation – cultural blending of 2 or more different
societies. Cultural absorption of a minority group to be part of
the majority. This happens when a group’s culture become
similar to another culture.
Lesson 4 – Social Problems
Social Problem – condition that people in a community view
as being undesirable.
Characteristics of Social Problems
• relative • diverse through time
• akin to one another • may be distinguished
• complicated
Explanations on the Causes of Social Problems
1. Sociological Explanation – society is the culprit –
responsible for social problems.
2. Psychological Explanation – social problems happen
because of individual differences of the members of
society.
3. Biological Explanation – social problems could be to a
certain extent being inherited biologically.
UNIT 9 – NEW CHALLENGES TO HUMAN ADAPTATION
AND SOCIAL CHANGE
Lesson 1 – Global Warming and Climate Change
Global Warming – term used to describe a gradual increase in
the average temperature of Earth’s atmosphere.
• Scientific consensus in climatic changes related global
warming is that the average temperature of the Earth has risen
between 0.4 and 0.8 degree Celsius over the past 100 years.
Compelling Evidences for Rapid Climate Change
• Global sea level rose about 17cm in the last century.
• All 3 major global surface temp reconstructions show that
Earth has warmed since 1880.
• The oceans have absorbed much of this increased heat, with
the top 700m of ocean showing warming of 0.302 degrees F
since 1969.
• Greenland and Antarctic Ice sheets have decreased in mass.
• Both the extent and thickness of Arctic sea ice has declined
rapidly over the last several decades.
• Glaciers are retreating almost everywhere around the world –
including in the Alps, Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alaska, and
Africa.
• Number of record high temp events in US has been
increasing, while number of record low temp events has been
decreasing, since 1950.
• Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, acidity of
surface ocean waters has increased by about 30 percent.
• Satellite observations reveal that the amount of spring snow
cover in the Northern Hemisphere has decreased over the past
5 decades and that the snow is melting earlier.
Gases that Contribute to the Greenhouse Effect
1. Water Vapor. Most abundant greenhouse gas, acts
as feedback to the climate.
2. Carbon dioxide. Minor but very important component
of atmosphere, released thru natural processes. Most
important long-lived forcing of climate change.
3. Methane. Hydrocarbon gas produced both thru
natural sources and human activities.
4. Nitrous oxide. Powerful greenhouse gas produced
by soil cultivation practices.
5. Chlorofluorocarbons. Synthetic compounds entirely
of industrial origin used in a number of applications.
Effects
• Warmer Earth, more evaporation and precipitation.
• Melting of glaciers and rise of sea level
Solutions
• Mitigation – reducing emissions of and stabilizing the levels of
heat-trapping greenhouse gases in atmosphere
• Adaptation – adapting to climate change, adjusting to actual
or future climate.
Lesson 2 – Transnational Migration and OFWs
Transnational Migration – process by which immigrants forge
and sustain simultaneous multi-stranded social relations that
link together their societies of origin and settlement.
OFWs – Filipino working abroad that are expected to return
permanently either upon the expiration of work contract or
retirement.
Balikbayans – Filipino citizens who have been continuously
out of the Philippines for a period of at least a year. Filipinos
who have become citizens of another country and have
returned to Philippines.
OFIs (I = Investor) – Filipino expatriates who contribute to the
economy thru remittances. Coined by 14th Pres Arroyo.
UNIT 10 – RESPONDING TO SOCIAL, POLITICAL AND
CULTURAL CHANGE
Lesson 1 – Inclusive Citizenship and Participatory
Governance
Civic Responsibility – responsibility of a citizen
Civic – belonging to a city, a citizen, citizenship, civil society.
Responsibility – state or quality of being responsible
Citizen – person having the title of citizenship, member of
democratic community
Citizenship – membership in a political community, status or
character of being a citizen.
US President John F Kennedy: Ask not what your country
can do for you, but what you can do for your country.
President Jose P Laurel: Love of country is not shown by
words, but by deeds
: The essence of life is work.
Hector S De Leon: The constitution is the expression of the
sovereign will of people. It is the shrine for all the hopes and
vision for our nation.
Apolinario Mabini: Liberty is freedom to do right and never
wrong.
Participatory Governance – consists of state-sanctioned
institutional processes that allow citizens to exercise voice and
vote, which then results in the implementation of public policies
that produce some sort of changes in citizens’ lives.
Lesson 2 – New Forms of Media & Networking
New Media – content available on-demand thru internet,
accessible on any device, containing interactive user feedback
and creative participation.
E.g. newspapers, blogs, wikis (Wikipedia), video games and
social media (Facebook).
Personal Media– used by a specific person (speech, gestures,
mail, telephony – blogging, podcasting)
Mass Media – used by large sets of people. (printing, radio
and tv)
Social Networking Service – online service, platform or site
focusing on facilitating the building of social networks or
relations among people. It allows users to share ideas,
activities, events and interests within their individual networks.
Functions of Social Media
• International Linkage • Targeted Advertising
• Commonality of Interest • Increased News Cycle Speed
• Real-Time Information Sharing
Disadvantages of Social Networking
1. Backlash
2. Cyber-bully and Crimes against children
3. Risks of Fraud or Identity Theft
4. Time Waster (28% of time is on social networks -
GlobalWebIndex)
Lesson 3: Social Movements
Social Movement - collective action of groups which aims to
promote or resist change in the society.
Orientations of Social Movements
1. Power-Oriented – members use coercion and often
illegitimate means to reach objectives.
2. Persuasion-Oriented – uses legal means to accomplish
objectives
3. Participation-Oriented – relatively unconcerned about
changing society but attempts to create a following of
dedicated believers.
Stages of the Development of Social Movements
1. Incipient Phase – stage when social movement is
characterized by confusion and disorganization.
2. Organized Phase – stage when social movement has
already established leadership, goals, ideologies, and defined
and elaborated programs.
3. Stable Phase – stage when social movement has evolved
into a bureaucratic organization.
3 Reasons for the Emergence of Social Movements
• Changing cultural values, disorganization in the society and
injustices in the society.
Theories of Social Movements
1. Absolute Deprivation Theory – working class even with
longer hours of work could barely support their family’s basic
needs.
2. Relative Deprivation Theory – feelings of negative
discrepancy between legitimate expectations and present
realities.
3. Resource Mobilization Theory – mobilization of resources
to articulate group’s grievances and frustrations.
Types of Social Movements
• Redemptive or "Messianic" Movement – usually religious
in character and do not attempt to change society, but engage
in attracting people to their religion and beliefs
• Revolutionary Movement – seeking radical changes making
their ideological beliefs as their guide and weapon
• Reform Movement – seek only to improve, to reform or
revise the existing order, and do not attempt to abolish it
• Reactionary Movement – seek to restore the status quo
after social changes. It aims to revert back to the old practices
in the system
• "Utopian" Movement – promising an ideal if not perfect and
harmonious existence in society for its member.
• Terrorism – violence against the civilian targets for the
purpose of intimidation to achieve political ends.
Trust yourself.
You are capable of
more than you know.