Motion and Force

Energy and Equilibrium

Fluids

Electricity
Static Electric Charge

1. Electric Force – a force that exist b/w charges; can be repulsive or attractive
2. Charge (q) – given in units of Coulombs
a. Opposite charges attract
b. Like charges repel
c. Coulomb’s Law – the magnitude of the force of the repulsion or attraction b/t two charge objects
𝑞 𝑞
i. 𝐹 = 𝑘 1 2 2 = 𝑞𝐸
𝑟
𝑁𝑚2
k = Coulomb’s constant (𝑘 = 8.988 × 109 ); q = the respective charges; r = the distance b/t the charges of
𝐶
charges
3. Law of Conservation of Charge
a. ∑ 𝑞 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
4. Center of Charge – pt. fm which charge generated by objects or sys. of objects can be considered to originate
a. Field – type of distortion or condition in space that create fields
i. Represented by lines of force (points fm (+)  (-) for electric field, towards mass creating field for gravitational field)
ii. Electric Field (E) - vector pointing in the direction of the field (Units: N/C or V/m)
𝑞
1. 𝐸 = 𝑘 12
𝑟
5. Electric Potential Energy (PE)
𝑞 𝑞
a. 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑘 1 2 = 𝑞𝐸𝑑
𝑟
6. Voltage (V) – potential for work by electric field in moving point to another (Units: volts (V) = J/C)
𝑞
a. 𝑉 = 𝑘 1 = 𝐸𝑑
𝑟

Concept Gravity Electricity

Analogy Name Formula Units
Force 𝐺𝑀𝑚 Electric Force 𝑞1 𝑞2 N
𝐹= = 𝑚𝑔 𝐹 = 𝑘 2 = 𝑞𝐸
𝑟2 𝑟

𝐹 Electric Field 𝐹 N/C or V/m

𝑔= 𝐸=
𝑚 𝑞
Energy 𝑃𝐸 = 𝐹𝑑 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ Electric Potential Energy 𝑞1 𝑞2 J
𝑃𝐸 = 𝐹𝑑 = 𝑘
𝑟
= 𝑞𝐸𝑑
𝑃𝐸 Electric Potential 𝑃𝐸 𝑞1 J/C or V
= 𝑔ℎ 𝑉= = 𝑘 = 𝐸𝑑
𝑚 (gravitational/electric) 𝑞 𝑟

Moving Electricity

1. Conductivity
a. Conductors – allow electrons to flow relatively freely (Ex. Metals)
b. Insulator/Resistors – holds electrons tightly in place (Ex. Diamond & Glass)
2. Current – moving charge (Units: amps (A) or C/s)

Circuit Elements

1. Circuit – a cyclical pathway for moving charge, a battery provides the potential difference needed to maintain charge flow
2. Resistivity (ρ) – measure of the substance resistance to charge
a. Resistance (R) – quantitative measure of a measure of this property (Units: ohms (Ω))
 𝐿
b. 𝑅 =𝜌
𝐴
L = length (m); A = area (m2)
c. Temperature increase the kinetic energy of the electron, and thus, produces more resistance.
3. Ohm’s Law
a. Current (I) is equal to the potential difference (∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 ).
𝑉
i. 𝐼 = ∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 =
𝑅
4. Battery – add energy to the circuit (pumps the fluid to a greater height); rated by electromotive force (EMF) or voltage (V)
5. Capacitor (C) – temporarily store energy in a circuit; stores it in the form of separated charge
a. Parallel plate capacitor – two plates made fm conductive material are separated by a small distance. *Both plated have
opposite charge that creates an electric field that is constant everywhere b/t the plates
1 𝑄
i. Electric Field 𝐸 =
𝜅 𝐴𝜀𝑜
1
κ = dielectric constant; Use Coulomb’s constant 𝑘 = to derive 𝜀𝑜
4𝜋εo
ii. High capacity can store a lot of charge at low voltage
𝑄 𝐴𝜀𝑜
iii. 𝐶= =𝜅 ; C = capacitor, Q = charge, V = voltage
𝑉 𝑑
iv. Capacitor Job is to store energy. Derived from Q = CV
1 1 1 𝑄2
1. Energy stored 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑄𝑉 = 𝐶𝑉 2 =
2 2 2 𝐶
v. Dielectric constant () – the substance b/t the plates of a capacitor; resist the creation of the electric field, allowing the
capacitor to store more charge (to have grater capacitance)

Resistance Capacitance
Series 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ 1 1
𝐶𝑡𝑜𝑡 = + +⋯
𝐶1 𝐶2
Resistance ∝ Length of the resistor
Parallel 1 1 𝐶𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + ⋯
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = + +⋯
𝑅1 𝑅2
1
Resistance ∝
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟

6. Meter
a. Ammeter – instrument that measures the current flowing through ta circuit
b. Voltmeter – an instrument that measures the potential difference b/t any two points on a circuit

Magnetism

1. Magnetic Field – measured in Tesla (T)

a. 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃
𝑣2
b. 𝑞𝑣𝐵 = 𝑚 , 𝜃 = 90°  𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 1
𝑟
c. Predicting magnetic field (B) using direction of current (I): Thumb (I) and Fingers (B)
d. Right-hand rule: 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃
i. Thumb: force
ii. Index finger: velocity/current
iii. Middle Finger: magnetic field

Waves: Sound and Light

Wave Features

1. Production of sound – vibration of a source such as vocal cords

2. Wave – propagation of that vibration fm one pt. to another; transfer of energy from one point to another
a. Oscillation – created by waves when they propagate as regular variation, between high and low pressure
b. Mechanical waves – obey the laws of classical mechanics that require a medium/substance through which the wave travel
c. Electromagnetic waves – do not require a medium through which to travel and can propagate in vacuo or in a vacuum (Ex.
Light)
3. Wavelength, Frequency, and Period of Wave
a. Velocity (v) – distance over which the wave travels per unit of time and is determined by medium through which the wave
travels
𝜆
i. 𝑉 = 𝑓𝜆 =
𝑇
 b. Wavelength (𝜆) – the distance fm any pt. in which wave to the pt. where the wave begins to repeat itself
c. Frequency (f) – number of wavelengths that pass a fixed pt. in one second (Units: 1/s = Hz)
d. Period (T) – the time it takes the wave to travel the distance of one wavelength and is the reciprocal of frequency
1
i. 𝑇=
𝑓

Waves: Within and Between Media

1. Frequency of sound set by the source and does not change as waves passes from one medium to an another
2. Velocity is determined by the medium
3. Characteristic of the medium determine the velocity of waves traveling
a. Medium elasticity or resistance to change in shape
b. Medium’s inertia or resistance to change in motion
𝐵
c. 𝑣 = √ ; 𝐵: 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦; 𝜌: 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
𝜌
4. Change in Temperature  ↑ 𝑇 → ↑ 𝑣𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

Velocity as a Function of Changing Medium

Type of Change Waves comes from … Waves Enters … Changes in Waves Properties
Elastic Less elastic medium More elastics medium 𝑣, ʎ ↑
More elastics medium Less elastic medium 𝑣, ʎ ↓
Inertial (mass and density) Less dense medium Denser medium 𝑣, ʎ ↓
Denser medium Less dense medium 𝑣, ʎ ↑

𝑣𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 > 𝑣𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 > 𝑣𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠

Waves Characteristics

Wave Characteristics Symbol Unit Definition Determined by

Frequency f Hz Humber of wavelength Wave source
that pass a fixed point in
one second
Period T s Number of sounds Wave source
required for one
wavelength to pass a fixed
point
Velocity v m/s Distance a wave travels Medium
per unit time
Wavelength ʎ m Distance from any point Medium
on a wave to the point
where the waves begins
to repeat

Representing Waves as Sine Functions

1. Amplitude (A) – represent by a sine function can be measured as the distance between the x-axis and either the top of the crest or
bottom of trough
2. Constructive interference – sum of displacement results in greater displacement
3. Destructive interference – sum of displacement results in smaller displacement
Sound and Intensity

1. Sound – transfer of energy through oscillations between high and low pressure
2. Pitch – a measure of how “high”or “low” a note sounds, relate to frequency  ↑ 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝜶 ↑ 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
3. Power of a Wave (𝑃 = ∆𝐸⁄𝑡 ) is typically discussed in terms of intensity, or average rate of energy transfer per unit area
4. Intensity level (dB) – measure of loudness, describe how intense a sound seems to be
a. Reflex how our human brain perceives the varying intensity of sound
𝐼
b. 𝛽 (𝑑𝐵) = 10 log ; Io: threshold intensity of human hearing (lowest intensity audible by typical human)
𝐼𝑜
∆𝐼 ∆𝛽
× 10 +10
× 102 +20
× 103 +30
c. Intensity of the waves depends on the square of both frequency and amplitude
Resonance: Pipe and Strings

1. Resonance – the condition where the natural frequency and the driving frequency is equal
a. Resonance is impacted by the fact that real waves undergo (damping)  decrease in the intensity of the waves propagating
 2. Resonance on a String
1 ʎ = 2𝐿
𝐿= ʎ
2

𝐿=ʎ ʎ=𝐿

3 2
𝐿= ʎ ʎ= 𝐿
2 3

3. Resonance in a Pipe
a. Pipe Open at both end
1 ʎ = 2𝐿
𝐿= ʎ
2

𝐿= ʎ ʎ=𝐿

b. Pipe Close at one end

1 ʎ = 4𝐿
𝐿= ʎ
4

3 4
𝐿= ʎ ʎ= 𝐿
4 3

Doppler Effect – the change in perceived frequency that occurs when the wave source and observer source move towards it away from each other

𝑐 ± 𝑣𝑜 ∆𝑓 𝑣 ∆ʎ 𝑣
𝑓𝑜 = 𝑓𝑠 ( )→ = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝑐 ∓ 𝑣𝑠 𝑓𝑠 𝑐 ʎ 𝑐
fo : observer frequency

fs : source frequency

c: velocity of the wave in the given medium

vo : velocity of the observer

 vs : velocity of the source

To find the change in frequency or wavelength

𝑓𝑜 = 𝑓𝑠 ± ∆𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ʎ𝑜 = ʎ𝑠 ± ∆ʎ

Beat frequency

𝑓𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡 = |𝑓𝑜 − 𝑓𝑠 |

∆𝑓 2𝑣 𝑐∆𝑓
= 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 =
𝑓 𝑐 2𝑓𝑠

Relative Velocities and the Doppler Effect

Source Observer Relative Velocity v

Same Direction ← 5𝑚/𝑠 ← 6𝑚/𝑠 1m/s
Same Direction → 5𝑚/𝑠 → 6𝑚/𝑠 1m/s
Opposite Direction → 5𝑚/𝑠 ← 6𝑚/𝑠 11m/s
Opposite Direction ← 5𝑚/𝑠 → 6𝑚/𝑠 11m/s

Shock wave – conical wave front, produced when the velocity of the sound source exceed the velocity of the sound wave

Light Waves

1. Light – transfer of energy through electric and magnetic fields

2. Light is emitted in the form of photons, pulses of electromagnetic radiation that can be thought of as localized particles of energy
3. Emitted photon’s energy change: 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
a. h is proportionality constant known as Planck’s constant
b. f is frequency
1. electron bombarded by high speed particles, such as electrons
2. atom could absorb a photon of light
3. atom is subjected to thermal agitation
𝐸 𝑚
4. Speed of light (c): 𝑐 = = 3 × 108
𝐵 𝑠
𝑐
5. 𝑓=
ʎ
6. Absorption: a wave will be absorbed depends both on the medium and on the frequency of the wave
a. Waves most likely to be absorbed are those whose frequencies match resonant frequencies of the medium
7. Polarized light – its electric and magnetic fields are oriented in a particular, rather than random, way
a. Light is said to be circularized when consists of electric fields of constant magnitude that change direction in a rotary manner
(can rotate in either a clockwise or counterclockwise)
b. Reflection – light bouncing off the boundary off the boundary between media
i. Angle of incidence: angle at which a wave strikes an interface
ii. Angle of reflection: angle at which a wave reflects
𝜃𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
iii. Medium’s index of refraction (n)
𝑐
𝑛=
𝑣
iv. Reflects off a medium that is denser: changes the phase not wavelength
v. Reflects off a medium that is less dense: changes neither wavelength nor phase
 NO waves can exceed the speed of light, all medium haves and index of refraction greater than one

𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2

 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION – light coming from medium with higher index of refraction, the angle of incidence is so great
vi. Critical angle – all photon will be reflected at the angle of reflection and non will refract (sin90=1)
𝑛2
𝜃𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = sin−1 ( )
𝑛1

c. Refraction – light bending as it passes into a new medium

i. Changes the wavelength but not its phase
d. Dispersion – a type of refraction, splitting of light according to frequency
 i. Chromatic dispersion – white light, which is made up of all frequencies in visible spectrum, is split by a prism
e. Diffraction – spreading of light when it encounters an edge

Gamma X-rays UV V B G R Microwav Radio Long

Rays es waves Waves
Hz 1021 – 1024 1018 – 1021 1015 - 1017 109 - 1012 105 - 108 1 – 104

m 390 x 10-9 450 x 10-9 500 x 10-9 700 x 10-9

eV

Optics: Convergers and Divergers

1. Spherical mirrors – mirrors in the shape of a portion of a sphere

2. Focal point – point at which parallel light converges or appear to converge after reflecting of the mirror is passing through the lens
1 1 1
a. = +
𝑓 𝑑𝑜 𝑑𝑖
b. Center of curvature – at the center of the imaginary sphere would be a point
c. Radius of curvature (R) – distance between the surface of the mirror and its center of curvature

𝑅
𝑓=
2
d. Power – strength of the lens is determined by its focal length (UNIT: 1 diopters = m -1)
1
𝑃=
𝑓
𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖
3. Magnification: 𝑚 = − =
𝑑𝑜 ℎ𝑜
4. Lenses and Mirrors
a. Converging mirror – reflects light rays such that they converge at a point in front of the mirror
b. Converging lens – refracts rays such that they converge at a point on the side of the lens opposite the light source
c. Concave mirror – looks like the entrance to a cave
d. Convex lens – center that is thick relative to it periphery
5. Multiple Lens System
a. Magnification: 𝑀 = 𝑚1 𝑚2
b. Power: 𝑃𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2