WRITE YOUR

RESEARCH
RIGHT
M E L A N I E C . M A DA M B A , R P H , M S P H , M S P H A R M
 CONCEPT MAP

• RESULTS
• DISCUSSION

• REQUISITES OF WRITING THE FINAL PAPER

• GUIDE IN THE PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

• SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
• CONCLUSIONS
• RECOMMENDATIONS AND DIRECTIONS OF FUTURE
RESEARCH
ESSENTIALS IN FINALIZING
THE CONCEPT PAPER

Well-defined Identified Identify the quantitative Qualitative Data

purpose of research research research research collection
research questions design technique
and
hypothesis(if
there’s any)
experimental
Non-experimental
QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH METHODS

• NON EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

– survey (descriptive)
• cross-sectional
• Longitudinal
– correlational research
– Causal-comparative research
– evaluation research
• formative / process evaluation
• summative evaluation
CONSIDER THESE SAMPLES:

• A study determining the relationship between valentine’s day celebration

of couples and pregnancy
• engaging in youth organization prevents students from alcohol and drug
addiction
• study dealing with relationship of work stress and life satisfaction
• study seeking to know the attitude of SHS students towards research
• poll seeking the opinion of health professionals whether to repeal CPD
law or not
• a study seeking to assess how a program is implemented
• a study that assesses the final effects/ benefit of a program
TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS
FOR DATA COLLECTION
• Mail
• personal interview)
– telephone survey
– face to face interview
• Group administration / FGD
• Electronic questionnaire (web-based, software system poll)
• multi-mode surveys
KEEP IN MIND:
• Choose your target wisely
– minimize coverage error
– avoid /minimize bias
• select whether using non-probability
sampling and prob sampling
– Choose the most appropriate
sampling technique
• desired response rate is
achieved
– Set sufficient number of
samples/subjects
• error of sampling is
minimized
• Validated, well-designed, clear ,
unambiguous questions should be
asked
– measurement error is avoided
– reliability is increased
RESULTS

• should build up to your results by showing how you arrived at your

results (Methods) and their significance (Introduction).
BEFORE WRITING THE RESULTS
AND DISCUSSION SECTION
• data entries are complete
– done with experiments and/or data collection

• Sound choice of the mode of Data analysis

– nominal data and ranking
– Correlation
– Descriptive statistics
– inferential statistics
• test of significance (observing real differences)
– f value < 0.05 (95%sure) not a result of
chance
• T-test (for 2 independent groups)
• ANOVA (for 3 or more groups)
PRESENTATION GUIDE

actual results of the research

It must be presented in an
are presented (only those
absolutely clear manner in just
gathered from the study are
the right number of words
used and presented)

It is usually easiest to follow the each research question or

results if they are presented in hypothesis is repeated and
the same order as the presented (with headings
statement of the problem serving as the title for every
presented in the Introduction. result presented)
 this section is used to show tables, charts,
and graphs from your research to fully
explain data and relationship (organized in
columns and rows, charts for easy
comprehension)

At this point, you are building your reader

towards drawn conclusions, but you are not
yet providing a full analysis. You are simply

RESULTS
showing what the data says.

may present practical implications of the

result

Make comparisons with other studies (those

cited in the RRL)
• Inferential statistics must be
presented when there is
hypothesis
– include sufficient
information to allow the
reader to fully
understand the analyses
conducted
– thoroughly present
information even if no
significant effect is
reported.
• straightforward presentation of data and
analysis with no interpretation of their
meaning
• “ nothing can be written without
supporting data”
• Reporting results
began by providing
descriptive
statistics (mean
scores) for both
groups.
• Next, Identify the
statistical test and
provide the
specific result of
the test.
 DOES STATISTICAL
SIGNIFICANCE
EQUALS
PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE?
SAMPLE
RESEARCH
QUESTIONS AND
P R E S E N TAT I O N
SAMPLE RESEARCH QUESTION
WITHOUT HYPOTHESIS

• “how are health promotion and

education programs offered through
communities coordinated and
managed?”
COORDINATION AND
MANAGEMENT OF HEALTH
PROMOTION AND EDUCATION
PROGRAMS IN THE BARANGAY
COORDINATORS FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE

Nurses 102 61

Barangay health workers 59 35

others 6 4

167 100%
• Based on the data collected in the study 167 (57%) of communities
indicated there was a coordinator for their health promotion and
education programs. As a whole, barangay nurses (n= 102, 35%) were
most likely to coordinate health promotion and education programs
followed by BHWs ( 59, 20%), 6 (11%) listed as others. Of those who
indicated others, those mentioned were school health volunteers, city
health officers and officers of the DOH.
RESEARCH QUESTION WITH
HYPOTHESIS
• Begin by providing descriptive statistics
• statistical test was identified
• Specific results are provided (significance)
• define the meaning of statistical test in terms of null hypothesis
• conclusions are stated
• Sample data are
used for decisions
• sampling error is
inevitable and how
can we make right
interpretation and
decisions if raw data
are used?
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL
STATISTICS
• DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
– describes the characteristics of data
– example: mean/average, frequency
• INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
– are more concerned with issues of significant differences in any aspect
of the research
– seeks to determine the reproducibility of the obtained results by means
of a probability, thus eliminating the influence of chance factors
SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE
INFERENTIAL TEST
TWO GROUPS THREE OR MORE GROUPS

SCALE INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT

NOMINAL X2 test Mc Nemar’s test X2 test Cochran’s Q test

ORDINAL Mann-whitney U Sign test Kruskall-wallis H Friedman’s Two-

test test way analysis of
variance
INTERVAL OR T-test T test ANOVA (F test) ANOVA test
RATIO
CONSIDERATIONS :
1. The scale of measurement used to obtain the data
2. the number of groups used in the investigation
3. whether the measurements were obtained from
independent participants or from related samples ,such
as those involving repeated measurements of the same
participants
4. the assumptions involved in using a statistical test, such
as the distribution of the scores or the minimum
required sample size
SAMPLE STUDY

• A small study is conducted involving 17 infants to

investigate the association between gestational
age at birth, measured in weeks, and birth weight,
measured in grams.
CORRELATION OF GESTATIONAL
AGE AND BIRTH WEIGHT
•

birth weight is the dependent variable and gestational age is

the independent variable. Thus y=birth weight and x=gestational
age. The data are displayed in a scatter diagram in the figure
below.
• Each point represents an (x,y) pair (in this case the gestational age,
measured in weeks, and the birth weight, measured in grams). Note
that the independent variable is on the horizontal axis (or X-axis), and
the dependent variable is on the vertical axis (or Y-axis). The scatter
plot shows a positive or direct association between gestational age
and birth weight. Infants with shorter gestational ages are more likely
to be born with lower weights and infants with longer gestational ages
are more likely to be born with higher weights.
STAT TOOL

• Pearson’s r
– determine the coefficient of correlation
INTERPRETATION
• the sample correlation coefficient (0.82) indicates a strong positive
correlation.
– Note: sample correlation coefficients range from -1 to +1.
– In practice, meaningful correlations (i.e., correlations that are clinically
or practically important) can be as small as 0.4 (or -0.4) for positive (or
negative) associations.
– There are also statistical tests to determine whether an observed
correlation is statistically significant or not (i.e., statistically significantly
different from zero).
CAUSES OF DEATH FOR
PERSONS OVER 50
CAUSE OF DEATH PERCENTAGE OF DEATHS

Coronary heart disease 50

cancer 25

Stroke 10

Accident 5

Infection 5

Other causes 5
DISCUSSION

own ideas,
Discussion section
interpretations and
include an in-depth
explanations of results
analysis of results
can now be shared

analysis of
findings and
lack of findings
 process of critiquing own
research,identifying its
strengths and weaknesses

SUMMARY,
emphasizing salient results
CONCLUSIONS,
of the research and its
RECOMMENDATIONS implications and future
AND DIRECTIONS FOR practical applications/ use
FUTURE RESEARCH

making suggestions for

future research
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

Recap the main findings of the research following the

organization of the problems statement /objectives in
Chapter 2.

no need to present the results of statistical analysis

 CONCLUSIONS
– should recap findings from the result section ( structured paragraph
only)
• should, rather than just repeating results, state well-articulated
outcomes of the study and briefly suggest future lines of research in
the area based on findings reported in the paper.
• sums up the research, offers a final description (always concise,
sometimes eloquent)of the answers to the research problems, and
provide a closure to the manuscript as a whole.
 RECOMMENDATIONS AND
DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

– critique own research , identify strengths

and weaknesses and make suggestions for
future research in the same area you studied
– The writer may provide a rhetorical
suggestion for how the study could be used
in furthering our understanding and
providing solution of the problem dealt with.
RECOMMENDATION