Apen D 19 02693R1 PDF

Applied Energy
Manuscript Draft
Manuscript Number: APEN-D-19-02693R1
Title: Effects of engine operating conditions on flame propagation

processes in a compression ignition optical engine
Article Type: Research Paper
Keywords: Diesel optical engine, KIVA-3V code, swirl ratio, Injection

timing, EGR rate
Abstract: This paper describes the effects of swirl flow in the diesel
optical single cylinder engine with experimental results and simulation
results using KIVA code. Experiments were conducted with an optical
single cylinder engine for various operating conditions such as injection
timing, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and swirl ratio, and a numerical
study was also conducted to analyze the effects of swirl flow and
combustion characteristics in detail. The correlation in-cylinder flow
from numerical simulation and flame propagation process from experiment
was conducted. The optical experimental and simulation results
demonstrated that retarded injection timing and high EGR rate reduced the
luminosity of flame and the wall heat transfer. However, a high EGR rate
simultaneously reduced the combustion efficiency. The average luminosity
of optical image was determined by the flame in the high temperature
region above 2400K. The luminosity and volume fraction of the temperature
region above 2400K showed the same trends. Correlation results between
experiment and simulation shows that swirl flow affects to the
propagation process. The flame region was generated in the center of the
combustion chamber due to swirl flow based on visualization and analysis
results. That is, swirl flow caused separation of the flame by breaking
the continuity of the spray.
Detailed Response to Reviewers
School of Mechanical Engineering

222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu, Seoul 04769, Korea
May 5, 2019
Prof. J. Yan, PhD
Editor-in-chief
Applied Energy
Ms. Ref. No.: APEN-D-19-02693
Title: Effects of engine operating conditions on flame propagation processes in a compression

ignition optical engine
(Original title : Effects of injection timing, EGR rate and swirl ratio on flame propagation
processes in a compression ignition optical engine)
Authors: Seungpil Lee, Sungjun Yoon, Hyuckmo Kwon, Joonkyu Lee, Sungwook Park
Dear Prof. J. Yan:
We would like to thank you and the reviewers of the Applied Energy for taking the time to
review our article. We have made some corrections and clarifications in the manuscript after
going over Reviewer #1’ comments. We marked the revised parts in Highlighted Italic for
“Marked” version manuscript. The changes are summarized below:
Responses to the Editor’s comments
Comment 1: The relevance to Applied Energy should be enhanced with the considerations of
scope and readership of the Journal.
Our response: We have address the relevance to Applied Energy in Introduction, as follows,
“In spite of the above studies on EGR rate, injection strategies and swirl ratio in diesel
engines, there are lack of understanding on the correlations between in-cylinder flow
including fuel-air mixture formation and flame propagation process for various engine
operating conditions. Considering that it is difficult to obtain reliable in-cylinder flow results
from experiments, numerical approach using a 3-dimensional CFD (Computational Fluid
Dynamics) code is mandatory. Thus, we investigated the effects of the injection timing, EGR
rate and swirl ratio on the combustion characteristics and combustion flame characteristics in
a single cylinder optical engine with an experimental and numerical approach at operating
conditions, The visualization experiments were conducted using the bottom-view method
with a high-speed camera, and a numerical approach was conducted using the KIVA-3V code
coupled with CHEMKIN chemistry solver to analyze each combustion phenomenon and wall
heat transfer loss when the variables are changed. The in-cylinder flow and combustion
characteristics were investigated using visualization images, HRR and in-cylinder pressure
measured results. In addition, the distinct combustion phenomena were captured in visualized
images and were analyzed using numerical methods according to the swirl ratio.”
Comment 2: A proof reading by a native English speaker should be conducted to improve

both language and organization quality.
Our response: We have improved English in both language and organization quality.
Comment 3: Please avoid using abbreviations in the TITLE, HIGHLIGHTS, ABSTRACT

and CONCLUSION if possible.
Our response: We have modified the abbreviations to full word or avoided using
abbreviations as possible.
Title : “Effects of injection timing, EGR rate and swirl ratio on flame propagation processes
in a compression ignition optical engine”  “Effects of engine operating conditions on
flame propagation processes in a compression ignition optical engine.”
Highlights: There are no abbreviation in highlights
Conclusions: we defined the each abbreviations at their first mention in the conclusions.
1. In the present study, effects of injection timing, EGR rate, and swirl ratio on flame
propagation processes were analyzed based on the flame images from a single
cylinder optical engine.  In the present study, effects of injection timing, exhaust
gas recirculation (EGR) rate, and swirl ratio on flame propagation processes were
analyzed based on the flame images from a single cylinder optical engine.
2. A high EGR rate, retarded injection timing and high swirl ratio were the main
variables of MK combustion. Even in optical engine,  A high EGR rate, retarded
injection timing and high swirl ratio were the main variables of modulated kinetics
(MK) combustion. Even in optical engine,
Comment 4: Please also avoid "lump sum references", such as¬ XXXXX [1-5]; all
references should be cited with detailed and specific description. In the references, all authors
should be included, avoiding using "et. al.";
Our response: Thank you for your comment. We originally cited with detailed and specific
description each reference after lump sum reference. For example, reference [4-7] are
described in below paragraphs. However according to your comment, we thought that it is not
appropriate to use “lump sum references’, thus, we tried to avoid “lump sum reference” and
revised the references. And included the all author in the references.
“Author name”
Original reference Revised reference

[22] Jeon J, Lee JT, Lim YS, Kwon SI, [22] Jeon J, Lee JT, Lim YS, Kwon SI,
Park YH, Cha J, et al. Flame temperature Park YH, Cha J, Lee K, Park S. Flame
distributions of biodiesel fuel in a single- temperature distributions of biodiesel fuel
cylinder diesel engine. Fuel Processing in a single-cylinder diesel engine. Fuel
Technology. 2013;110:227-34. Processing Technology. 2013;110:227-34.
“The lump sum reference”

To reduce these emissions while To reduce these emissions while
maintaining fuel efficiency is difficult. maintaining fuel efficiency is difficult.
Methods for reducing exhaust emissions Methods for reducing exhaust emissions
are divided into two parts; introducing are divided into two parts; introducing
after-treatment systems [1-3]. after-treatment systems such as 3-way
catalyst [1], diesel particulate filter (DPF)
[2] and selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
[3]

and improving combustion techniques such and improving combustion techniques such
as the modulated kinetic (MK) as the homogeneous charge compression
combustion, homogeneous charge ignition (HCCI), and the gasoline direct-
compression ignition (HCCI), and the injection compression ignition(GDICI)
reactivity controlled compression ignition engine [4, 5].
(RCCI) engine [4-7].

The optimization of injection strategies has The optimization of injection strategies has
been studied for various engine types and been studied for pre-blended dual-fuel
engine condition to improve combustion engine [14], RCCI engine [15] and
efficiency and reduce emissions [14-16]. stoichiometric diesel engine type [16] and
for various engine condition to improve
combustion efficiency and reduce
emissions.
Comment 5: Please use 'Highlights' in the file name and include 3 to 5 bullet points
(maximum 85 characters, including spaces, per bullet point).
Our response: According to your comment, we have revised the ‘Highlights’, as follows,
Original highlights Revised highlights

Coupled investigation using optical
single cylinder and KIVA code of the single cylinder and KIVA code was
effects of injection timing, EGR rate and performed.
swirl ratio was conducted. Flame intensities are dependent on the
Visualized images’ brightness is combustion timing and diffusion
dependent on the combustion timing and combustion.
diffusion combustion. d based
Wall heat transfer was calculated on the KIVA code.
according to injection timing and EGR
rate.
Predicted PM and NOx decreased
simultaneously even though EGR rate
increased and injection timing is retarded.
Comment 6: TITLE: It normally consists of about 12-15 keywords which shall not be too
general or too narrow
Our response: According to your comment, we have revised the title as follows,
Original title Revised title

Effects of injection timing, EGR rate and Effects of engine operating conditions on
swirl ratio on flame propagation processes flame propagation processes in a
in a compression ignition optical engine compression ignition optical engine
Comment 7: ABSTRACT: It should be about 150-250 words with concise text in a single
paragraph. Answer the questions: What problem did you study and why is it important? What
methods did you use? What were your main results? And what conclusions can you draw
from your results? Please make your abstract with more specific and quantitative results
while it suits broader audiences. Abstract stands alone, no references, figures, tables or
equations are cited;
Our response: We tried to imply the answers of your comments to abstract as many as
possible.
 What problem did you study and why is it important?
This paper describes the effects of swirl flow in the diesel optical single cylinder engine
with experimental results and simulation results using KIVA code.
With only optical experimental results, the in-cylinder flame propagation process and
cylinder flow cannot be analyzed. Correlating in-cylinder flow from numerical simulation
and flame propagation process from the experiment can reduced knowledge gap about the
combustion characteristics of updated diesel engines by understanding the relationship
between in-cylinder flow including fuel-air mixture formation and flame propagation process.
 What methods did you use?
Experiments were conducted with an optical single cylinder engine for various operating
conditions such as injection timing, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and swirl ratio, and a
numerical study was also conducted to analyze the effects of swirl flow and combustion
characteristics in detail.
 What were your main results?
The optical experimental and simulation results demonstrated that retarded injection
timing and high EGR rate reduced the luminosity of flame and the wall heat transfer.
However, a high EGR rate simultaneously reduced the combustion efficiency. The average
luminosity of optical image was determined by the flame in the high temperature region
above 2400K. The luminosity and volume fraction of the temperature region above 2400K
showed the same trends. Correlation results between experiment and simulation shows that
swirl flow affects to the propagation process. The flame region was generated in the center
of the combustion chamber due to swirl flow based on visualization and analysis results.
That is, swirl flow caused separation of the flame by breaking the continuity of the spray.
 And what conclusions can you draw from your results?
The visualization image (combustion characteristics) of MK combustion was acquired and it

analyzed with simulation method. It can offer deep findings on the combustion process under
updated engine operating conditions. Also, this paper reduced knowledge gap about the
combustion characteristics of updated diesel engines by understanding the correlations
between in-cylinder flow including fuel-air mixture formation and flame propagation process
for various operating conditions (injection timing, EGR rates).
According to your comment, we have revised the title as follows,
Original abstract Revised abstract

This paper describes the effects of swirl This paper describes the effects of swirl
flow in the diesel optical single cylinder flow in the diesel optical single cylinder
engine with experimental results and engine with experimental results and
simulation results using KIVA code. simulation results using KIVA code.
Experiments were conducted with an Experiments were conducted with an
optical single cylinder engine for various optical single cylinder engine for various
operating conditions such as injection operating conditions such as injection
timing, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) timing, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
and swirl ratio, and a numerical study was and swirl ratio, and a numerical study was
also conducted to analyze the effects of also conducted to analyze the effects of
swirl flow and combustion characteristics swirl flow and combustion characteristics
in detail. The optical experimental and in detail. The correlation in-cylinder flow
simulation results demonstrated that from numerical simulation and flame
retarded injection timing and high EGR propagation process from experiment was
rate reduced the luminosity of flame and conducted. The optical experimental and
the wall heat transfer. However, a high simulation results demonstrated that
EGR rate simultaneously reduced the retarded injection timing and high EGR
combustion efficiency. The average rate reduced the luminosity of flame and
luminosity of optical image was the wall heat transfer. However, a high
determined by the flame in the high EGR rate simultaneously reduced the
temperature region above 2400K. The combustion efficiency. The average
luminosity and volume fraction of the luminosity of optical image was determined
temperature region above 2400K showed by the flame in the high temperature region
the same trends. Furthermore, we found above 2400K. The luminosity and volume
that the flame region was generated in the fraction of the temperature region above
center of the combustion chamber due to 2400K showed the same trends. Correlation
swirl flow based on visualization and results between experiment and simulation
analysis results. That is, swirl flow caused shows that swirl flow affects to the
separation of the flame by breaking the propagation process. The flame region was
continuity of the spray. generated in the center of the combustion
chamber due to swirl flow based on
visualization and analysis results. That is,
swirl flow caused separation of the flame
by breaking the continuity of the spray.
Comment 7: CAPTIONS: Captions for figures and tables should be presented with more
specific description rather than a general sentence like "Results of the experiments ...", "A
studied system ....".
Our response: According to your comment, we revise the captions
Fig. 2
Original caption Revised caption

Piston bowl geometry Comparison of bowl geometry between
metal and quartz piston
Fig. 8

Visualization results of optical single Comparison of ignition and flame
cylinder engines for various operating propagation on visualization results of
condition variables: (a) injection timing optical cylinder engines for various
sweep, (b) EGR rate sweep operating condition variables: (a) injection
timing sweep, (b) EGR rate sweep
Fig. 10

Maximum average luminosity and soot Effect on maximum average luminosity
concentration (simulation results) for and soot concentration (simulation results)
various (a) injection timings and (b) EGR for various (a) injection timings and (b)
rates EGR rates
Fig. 11

The NOx and soot emission results as a The trend of NOx and soot emission results
function of (a) injection timing sweep and as a function of (a) injection timing sweep
(b) EGR rate sweep (simulation results) and (b) EGR rate sweep (simulation
results)
Fig. 15

The in-cylinder pressure and heat release The difference of the in-cylinder pressure
rate for various initial swirl ratios and heat release rate for various initial
(simulation results) swirl ratios (simulation results)
Comment 8: The originality of the paper needs to be further clarified. It is of importance to

have sufficient results to justify the novelty of a high quality journal paper.
Our response: We already explained the originality of the present paper lies in that we
successfully correlated in-cylinder flow from numerical simulation and flame propagation
processes from experiment. In addition, this approach reduced knowledge gap about the
combustion characteristics of updated diesel engines by understanding the correlations
between in-cylinder flow including fuel-air mixture formation and flame propagation process.
We also believe that this research will be cited frequently because this paper offers significant
and deep findings on the combustion processes under updated engine operating condition
(e.g., low temperature combustion). And moreover, the present results have sufficient
contents to justify the novelty that we validate the simulation model with optical engine
experiments and correlated in-cylinder flow from numerical simulation and flame
propagation process from experiment. The operating conditions have a distinction from
conventional engine conditions and some condition is similar to MK combustion that high
EGR rate, sufficient swirl flow and multiple injections with 2 pilot injection and 1 main
injection. And other researchers can be found the combustion phenomenon and flame
propagation characteristic in the cylinder under updated engine operating conditions and it
could be helpful to the researchers.
Comment 9: An updated and complete literature review should be conducted to present the
state-of-the-art and knowledge gaps of the research with strong relevance to the topic of the
paper.
Our response: In progressing the present paper, we reviewed various literatures related with
this paper such as diesel optical engine, correlation with experiment and simulations, and
researching the effects of operating conditions (injection timing, EGR rates, and swirl ratio)
and it was referred in the paper.
Comment 10: The results should be further elaborated to show how they could be used for
the real applications. Modeling results should be validated by experiments.
Our response: Our paper is more close to the understanding of knowledge and phenomenon
rather than applying the real engine directly. Thus, it can be a little bit difficult to use for the
real engine applications. It could give to the reader of the insight of engine phenomenon
between in-cylinder flow and flame propagation process. And the numerical model was
validated by experiments. The validation result is shown in Fig. 6. And the simulation results
of in-cylinder pressure and heat release rate were agreed well with experiment.
Responses to the reviewers’ comments
Reviewer #1:
Comment 1: There are too many similar figures in the manuscript, such as Figures 8, 9 and
Figures 11-13, they can be merged to one image or put in the Supporting Information, as well
as Table 2, 3, to give a better reading.
Our response: According to the reviewer’s comment, we merged the figures 8, 9 and
figures 11,12. In addition, supporting contents were slightly modified to match the figure
number and each information. Tables 2 describes the basic operating conditions of the engine
and Table 3 show the SOI and EGR sweeps used in the experiment respectively. We
maintained each table as the original so that the reader can understand it more clearly.
250 250
Nomarlized luminosity (-)
Experimental results Case 1 (4º Adv.) Case a (23.8%)

Average luminosity (-)
200 Case 2 (2º Adv.) 200 Case b (28.8%)

Baseline case Baseline case (33.8%)
150 150
Case 3 (2º Retard.) Case c (38.8%)
Case 4 (4º Retard.)
100 100
50 50
0 0
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
10 10
Simulation results
Volume fraction (%)
Volume fraction (%)
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Crank angle (ATDC deg.) Crank angle (ATDC deg.)
(a) Injection timing sweep (b) EGR rate sweep
Fig. 9 Average luminosity of the visualization results and the volume fraction of in-cylinder
temperature over 2400K at different at (a) injection timing and (b) EGR rates
650
Total heat release Piston bowl
Wall Heat loss 80 Cylinder liner
600
Cylinder head
550
60
Wall heat transfer (J)

Heat (J) 500
40
26.02
140 24.84
23.73
20
22.6
120 21.77
Solid line : Baseline
0 Dashed line : Case 1(4º Adv.)
Dashed dot line : Case 4 (4º Retard.)
100
-4 -2 Ref. +2 +4 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
SOI_main (deg.) Crank angle (aTDC deg.)
(a) Injection timing sweep
650
Total heat release Piston bowl
Wall Heat loss 80
600 Cylinder liner
Cylinder head
550
60

500
Heat (J)
40
140 24.7
23.81 23.73
23.41 20
120
Solid line : Baseline (33.8%)
0 Dashed line : Case a (-10 %, 28.8%)
Dashed dot line : Case c (+5 %, 38.8%)
100
23.8(-10%) 28.8 (-5%) 33.8 (Ref.) 38.8 (+5%) -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
EGR rate (%) Crank angle (aTDC deg.)

(b) EGR rate sweep
Fig 13. Comparisons between the accumulated heat release of chemical reactions and wall
heat transfer and the difference in wall heat transfer for each location for (a) various injection
timings and (b) EGR rates (simulation results).
Reviewer #2:
Comment 1: The readability of whole manuscript is very poor. Sentence by sentence only
less connectivity.
Our response: We improved English throughout the paper and modified the parts where are
lacking connectivity as follow:
(Page 15, in 10-12 lines)
Original sentence Changed sentence

, the ignition timing was reversed , the ignition timing was reversed
compared with Case 2 (2° advanced), and compared with Case 2 (2° advanced), and
this result was found in both the this trend was found in both the
experiments and simulation results. The experiments and simulation results. It is
ignition timing reversed because of the low believed that the trend was caused by the
temperature of the piston wall due to the low temperature of the piston wall due to
quartz piston. the quartz piston.

Case a (EGR rate is 23.8%) shows a lower Contrary to the above results, Case a
IMEP than other cases. (EGR rate is 23.8%) shows a lower IMEP
than other cases.

However, the soot level increased for the Usually, the soot level increased with
baseline, and decreased in Case c (EGR higher EGR. In contrast, the soot level
rate is about 40%) even though the EGR decreased in Case c, though the EGR rate
rate increased. increased (EGR rate is about 40%).

On the contrary, the pilot injected fuel On the contrary, when the initial swirl
ignited and combusted well compared with flow approached zero (i.e., no radial flow
a high swirl ratio when the initial swirl in the cylinder) the pilot injected fuel
flow was reduced to zero (i.e., no radial ignited quickly and caused active
flow in the cylinder). This shows the combustion compared with a high swirl
advanced heat release rate and rising in- ratio.
cylinder pressure.

Specifically, the axial direction momentum Due to increased swirl flow, the axial
of the spray was reduced, and the radial direction momentum of the spray was
momentum increased due to the swirl flow. reduced, and the radial momentum
increased.
(Page 28, in 14 line ~ page 29, in 1 line)

First, the combustion is most active in case When the initial swirl ratio is zero, the
of no swirl flow at 10 degree crank angle. fuel spray penetrated exactly in the axial
Here, the fuel spray penetrated exactly in direction without any interference, collided
the axial direction without any with the cylinder bowl wall and was divided
interference, collided with the cylinder into two directions.
bowl wall and was divided into two
directions.

As the swirl intensity increased, the As the swirl intensity increased, although
ignitability of the injected fuel decreased. the ignitability of the injected fuel
On the other hand, it induced active mixing decreased, it induced active mixing of fuel-
of fuel-air and an increase in the efficient air and an increase in the efficient usage of
usage of oxygen in the cylinder. oxygen in the cylinder.
Comment 2: Revise the abstract. It is suggested that author beginning itself mentioned that
KIVA code. Next, experimental work is specified. This zone must be revised and enhance
readability to the readers.
Our response: Thank you for your valuable comment. As your comment, we mentioned only
the simulation at the beginning of the abstract, and I thought that the following sentence
might confuse the reader because I mentioned the experimental work. Thus, we revised the
abstract to make it easier to understand. The revised abstract is as below:
(Page 2, in 2-6 lines line)

This paper describes the effects of swirl This paper describes the effects of swirl
flow in the cylinder on a diesel optical flow in the diesel optical single cylinder
single cylinder engine with simulation engine with experimental results and
results using KIVA code. Experiments simulation results using KIVA code.
were conducted with a single cylinder Experiments were conducted with an
optical engine and a numerical study was optical single cylinder engine for various
also conducted to analyze the combustion operating conditions such as injection
characteristics for various operating timing, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
conditions such as injection timing, and swirl ratio, and a numerical study was
exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and swirl also conducted to analyze the effects of
ratio. swirl flow and combustion characteristics
in detail.
Comment 3: The prepared introduction section is good. But, many places finding that the
word "However". This word directing the positive research theory into negative research
theory. It is possible modify sentence in appropriate way.
Our response: Thank for your comment. As your comment, Since the word "however" has
negative nuance, the word "however" has been removed and also, in the area where we have
to write "however", we were replaced the expression in a different way than the word. The
revised contents are as follow:
(Page 5, in 3 line)

However, Compared to SI engine

However, In spite of the advantages of
simultaneous reduction of NOx and PM,
(Page 8, in 12 line)

However, since ~ (However)Since ~

However, when ~ (However)When ~

However, the ignition timing reversal Compared to the Fig. 6 (a), the ignition
phenomenon between Case 1 and Case 2 as timing reversal phenomenon between Case
mentioned above is not clearly observed in 1 and Case 2 is not clearly observed in Fig.
Fig. 9 (a). 9 (a).
(Page 19, in 18 lines)

However, the overall ~ (However) The overall ~

However, In contrast,

However, the soot was reduced even Nevertheless, the soot can be reduced
though the injection timing was retarded even though the injection timing was
because the high EGR rate prolongs the retarded because the high EGR rate
ignition delay and the high swirl ratio prolongs the ignition delay and the high
improved the mixing of air and fuel. swirl ratio improved the mixing of air and
fuel.

However, the soot level increased for the Usually, the soot level increased when
baseline, and decreased in Case c (EGR EGR rate is increased. In contrast, the soot
rate is about 40%) even though the EGR level decreased in Case c, though the EGR
rate increased. rate increased (EGR rate is about 40%).

However, the difference ~ (However) The difference ~

Therefore, the fuel injected in the latter Therefore, the fuel injected in the latter
period cannot reach the wall of the piston period cannot reach the wall of the piston
bowl; however, it is present in the center of bowl, thus, it is present in the center of the
the cylinder. cylinder.

However, when the swirl was present, In contrast, when the swirl was present,
Comment 4: In section Experimental apparatus and procedure(pg.no:8): Why author

preferred 1500rpm. justify?
Our response: Thank you for your kind comment. We experimented at 1500 rpm because the
optical engine cannot operate at high speed due to stability reasons and also the low-speed
range is not used usually, thus we chose 1500 rpm to conduct the experiment as the
appropriate engine speed.
Comment 5: Pg.No:9-10: The calculation procedure (equations 1-14) is not necessary. It is

possible to represent in another way. Because the journal standard is very high.
Our response: We appreciate your valuable comments. As your comment, we use the simple
diagram to express the process of modeling of the external EGR to simulated EGR more
easily, and it substitutes the EGR calculation procedure. And a sentence is added to introduce
the figure as below:
B : EGR air [g]

x : EGR rate [%]
A : Fresh air [g] A+B : Fresh C : Total air

air + EGR air
C : Total air [g]
F : Fuel
Z : In-cylinder O2, quantity [g] F : Fuel
CO2 and H2O Z : In-cylinder O2,
quantity [g]
CO2 and H2O
[ Model the external EG R]
(a) e xternal EG R (b ) s imulated EGR
Fig. 3 Diagram of modeling procedure from (a) the external EGR (actual EGR) to (b) the
simulated EGR.
Added sentences
Fig. 3 shows the simple diagram of the modeling procedure from the external EGR to the
simulated EGR.
Comment 6: In Numerical approach section: The word having error (3-dimensinal CFD )
Our response: Thank you for your comment. As your comment, we correct the typo.

Along with the experiments, numerical Along with the experiments, numerical
simulations based on the 3-dimensinal simulations based on the 3- dimensional
CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics)
Comment 7: Restructure the below sentence. On which basis the work is selected the Patel et
al(27) reference.
Patel et al. [27] developed the reduced chemical reactions of normal heptane from an existing
n-heptane mechanism (40 species and 165 reactions). The reduced mechanism consists of 29
species and 52 reactions. It shows reliable accuracy of prediction and better computational
efficiency compared with the detailed mechanism. In this study, the reaction constants were
slightly changed to validate the experimental results. Moreover, the sector computational
mesh was applied as shown in Fig. 3 (a) to increase the calculation efficiency. The calculation
proceeded from the intake valve closing (IVC) timing to the exhaust valve opening (EVO)
timing. As shown in Fig. 3 (b), the full mesh, including port, swirl valve, intake and exhaust
valve, was used for predicting the swirl ratio as a function of swirl control valve angle [20].
Swirl ratio calculated by full mesh was used as the initial input value of the sector mesh
calculation.
Our response: In the present paper, we referenced and used the reduced-chemical reaction
mechanism of normal heptane researched by Patel et al for combustion validation. And we
slightly changed the reaction constants, because the original mechanism was based on HCCI
combustion. And the sector computational mesh was generated from our experiment engine’s
piston. To clarify the work of Patel et al and what we reference, we modify the sentence as
below:

It shows reliable accuracy of prediction It shows reliable accuracy of prediction
and better computational efficiency and better computational efficiency
compared with the detailed mechanism. In compared with the detailed mechanism.
this study, the reaction constants were The reduced mechanism was used as the
slightly changed to validate the combustion model. In the present work, we
experimental results. Moreover, the sector slightly changed the reaction constants to
computational mesh was applied as shown validate the experimental results. The
in Fig. 3 (a) to increase the calculation sector computational mesh was applied as
efficiency. shown in Fig. 4 (a) to increase the
calculation efficiency.
Comment 8: In pg.No:14, Not "The present paper compares visualization experimental

results with simulation results". Instead, the present work ...
Our response: Thank you for your comment. As your comment, we correct the sentence.

The present paper compares visualization The present work compares visualization
experimental results with simulation experimental results with simulation
results. results.
Comment 9: In pg. No 15-16: As the EGR rate increased, the concentration of internal
oxygen decreased, and the concentration of CO2 increased, so that the internal air was diluted,
reducing the reactivity. Justify with prior research work done by the different researchers. In
same way cite the appropriate references in line with your research results.
Our response: As the reactivity in the sentence refers to the reactivity with which the
ignition characteristics of the injected fuel. In other words, we intended to the delay of
ignition. I modified the sentence somewhat because I thought that the ambiguous word might
cause some confusion to the reader. EGR increases combustion products such as CO2, and
N2 inside the cylinder and thereby reduces the concentration of internal oxygen. As a result,
CO2 has the effect of delaying the ignition by suppressing the temperature increase inside the
cylinder due to high specific heat. The sentence was revised as follows so that this meaning
can be conveyed. In addition, the research that we found related to this content is as follows.
Previous research work :
1. Effect of EGR on Combustion Development in a 1.9L Di Diesel Optical engine, C.

Arcoumanis et al, 1995, SAE Technical paper
EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION - In most diesel engines today, a percentage of the

exhaust gases which varies between 0-50% and consists mainly of N2, CO2, H2O and O2 is
recycled to the intake system to dilute the fresh mixture for control of NO x emissions.
Although a number of papers have been written on various aspects of EGR (see for example
[7-13]), there are still unresolved questions especially in the case of practical EGR levels and
composition in engines with nearly production geometries operating at realistic speed and
load and using commercial fuel injection systems. A summary of the findings reported in the
literature concerning the effects of EGR on spray development, combustion and emissions is
given below :
1. EGR reduces the flame temperature and, thus NO x by increasing the heat capacity of the
cylinder charge.
2. EGR affects ignition delay through two competing mechanisms; the increased average
intake temperature leads to reduced ignition delay while the reduced O2 concentration due to
dilution with CO2 and N2 (lower air/fuel ratio) increases ignition delay. In general the latter
effect is considered predominant and most researchers have reported a tendency of increasing
ignition delay with higher EGR rates.
3. Components of EGR such as NOx increases the rate of pressure rise while CO2 reduces
maximum pressure.
4. EGR generally increases the particulate emissions although some reduction was also
reported due probably to the dilution of the intake charge by CO2.
5. EGR increases engine wear.
6. EGR at low levels and loads has only a minor effect on specific fuel consumption .
7. EGR affects spray formation through the increased average intake temperature and
incylinder charge density.
8. EGR affects the duration of combustion through its influence on the intake oxygen
concentration, the stoichiometric flame temperature and flame structure.
9. EGR components such as NOx and CO2 decrease flame luminosity as a result of the
reduction of combustion temperature and decrease in soot mass through dilution, respectively.
(Page 15, in 28 ~ lines)

As the EGR rate increased, the As the EGR rate increased, the
concentration of internal oxygen concentration of internal oxygen
decreased, and the concentration of CO2 decreased, and the concentration of CO2
increased, so that the internal air was increased. It causes highly diluted
diluted, reducing the reactivity. conditions inside of the cylinder. Thus it
prolonged the ignition delay [30].
Comment 10: Reduce the size of highlights and add the graphical abstract.
Our response: As your comment, we have added graphical abstract and revised the
‘Highlights’, as follows,
Original highlights Revised highlights

Coupled investigation using optical
single cylinder and KIVA code of the single cylinder and KIVA code was
effects of injection timing, EGR rate and performed.
swirl ratio was conducted.
Visualized images’ brightness is combustion timing and diffusion
dependent on the combustion timing and combustion.
diffusion combustion.
Wall heat transfer was calculated on the KIVA code.
according to injection timing and EGR
rate.
Predicted PM and NOx decreased
simultaneously even though EGR rate
increased and injection timing is retarded.
Graphical abstract
6 200
Baseline case
R1 = outer(biggest) blue circle
R2 = middle blue circle
150
R3 = inner (smallest) blue circle
In-cylinder pressure (MPa)
Heat release rate (J/deg.)

(b)
4 (a)
(c)
100
2
50
0
0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Crank angle (aTDC deg.) (b) Crank angle = 16.76 ATDC degree
(a) Crank angle = 9.76 ATDC degree (c) Crank angle = 20.76 ATDC degree
*Highlights (for review)
Highlights
 Coupled investigation using an optical single cylinder and KIVA code was performed.
 Flame intensities are dependent on the combustion timing and diffusion combustion.
 Wall heat transfer was calculated based on the KIVA code.

SungwookMarked
*Revised Manuscript with Changes Park, Ph.D.
Prof., School
Click here to download Revised Manuscript of Mechanical
with Engineering,
Changes Hanyang University
Marked: Manumscript_Applied_Energy(Marked_version).docx
222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-du, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
Tel : +82-2-2220-0430, Fax : +82-2-2220-4588, Email: parks@hanyang.ac.kr
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2 Effects of engine operating conditions on flame
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propagation processes in a compression ignition
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optical engine
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15 Seungpil Lee1, Sungjun Yoon1, Hyuckmo Kwon2, Joonkyu Lee2, Sungwook
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17 Park3, *
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22 Graduate School of Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu,
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23 Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea

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26 Powertrain Thermo-Fluid CAE Team, Hyundai Motor Company, 150 Hyundai
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27 yeonguso-ro, Hwaseong-si, Gyeonggi 44-706, Republic of Korea

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30 School of Mechanical Engineering, Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-ro,
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Seongdong-gu, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
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41 Corresponding Author:
*
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Sungwook Park, Ph.D
44 Professor
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46 School of Mechanical Engineering
47 Hanyang University
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49 222, Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
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51 Tel: +82-2-2220-0430
52 Fax: +82-2-2220-4588
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54 Email: parks@hanyang.ac.kr
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1 Abstract
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4 This paper describes the effects of swirl flow in the diesel optical single cylinder engine
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with experimental results and simulation results using KIVA code. Experiments were
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9 conducted with an optical single cylinder engine for various operating conditions such as
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11 injection timing, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and swirl ratio, and a numerical study
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14 was also conducted to analyze the effects of swirl flow and combustion characteristics in
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16 detail. The correlation in-cylinder flow from numerical simulation and flame propagation
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19 process from experiment was conducted. The optical experimental and simulation results
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21 demonstrated that retarded injection timing and high EGR rate reduced the luminosity of
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flame and the wall heat transfer. However, a high EGR rate simultaneously reduced the
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26 combustion efficiency. The average luminosity of optical image was determined by the
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28 flame in the high temperature region above 2400K. The luminosity and volume fraction of
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31 the temperature region above 2400K showed the same trends. Correlation results between
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33 experiment and simulation shows that swirl flow affects to the propagation process. The
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36 flame region was generated in the center of the combustion chamber due to swirl flow
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38 based on visualization and analysis results. That is, swirl flow caused separation of the
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41 flame by breaking the continuity of the spray.
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Keywords: Diesel optical engine, KIVA-3V code, swirl ratio, Injection timing, EGR rate
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1 Graphical Abstract
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6 6 200
7 Baseline case
8 R2 = middle blue circle
9 150

(b)
10 4 (a)
11 (c)
100
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14 50
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0
17 0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
18 (b) Crank angle = 16.76 ATDC degree
Crank angle (aTDC deg.)
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29 (a) Crank angle = 9.76 ATDC degree (c) Crank angle = 20.76 ATDC degree
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1 Nomenclature
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4 CO carbon oxide
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7 DI direct injection
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10 DPF diesel particulate filter
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13 EGR exhaust gas recirculation
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16 EVO exhaust valve opening
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HCCI homogenous charge compression ignition
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23 HC hydrocarbon
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26 IVC intake valve closure
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29 NOx nitrogen oxide
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32 PCCI premixed charge compression ignition
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35 PM particulate matter
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38 RCCI reactivity controlled compression ignition
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41 SCR selective catalytic reduction
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SOI start of injection
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LTC low temperature combustion
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MK modulated kinetics
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1 1. Introduction
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4 The diesel compression ignition (CI) engine has been widely used in various field for its high thermal
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6 efficiency compared to the spark ignition (SI) engine. Compared to SI engines, CI engines have the problems
7
8 related to the environment and human health. The diesel CI engines emit the NOx and PM, which have a trade-
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10 off relationship. To reduce these emissions while maintaining fuel efficiency is difficult. Methods for reducing
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12 exhaust emissions are divided into two parts; introducing after-treatment systems such as 3-way catalyst [1],
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14 diesel particulate filter (DPF) [2] and selective catalytic reduction (SCR) [3] and improving combustion
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16 techniques such as the homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI), and the gasoline direct-injection
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18 compression ignition(GDICI) engine [4, 5]. To reduce the NOX, SCR or lean NOX traps (LNT) are used [2, 3].
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20 In addition, DPF is also used to reduce PM. Reduction of emissions can be efficiently achieved with after-
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22 treatment systems. However, there are some disadvantages like additional usage of fuel and increased cost.
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24 Another method is advanced combustion techniques. HCCI engine reduced NOx and PM simultaneously by
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26 advancing the injection timing and improving air-fuel mixing homogeneously. In spite of the advantages of
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28 simultaneous reduction of NOX and PM, it increases carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbon (HC), and it has a
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30 difficulty in an ignition control [5]. RCCI engine is the similar concept with the PCCI engine, it uses the two
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32 fuels that have the different reactivity [6]. Thus, it decreases the NOX and PM simultaneously while suppressing
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34 the CO and HC emissions and it supplements the problem of ignition control in HCCI engine [7]. However, it
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36 has to equip the two different injection system and it has the challenges for the after-treatment system for the
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38 low exhaust temperature [8]. MK combustion is the similar concept with the conventional diesel CI engine
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40 except the injection timing, EGR rate, and swirl ratio. It prolongs the ignition delay and causes the premixed
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42 combustion by retarding injection timing, increasing EGR rate and swirl ratio. Thus, it decreases the NO X and
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PM simultaneously using low-temperature combustion and premixed combustion [9]. However, it has also a
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difficulty of ignition instability because of retarded injection timing.
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49 Above the advanced combustion techniques are the innovative method to reducing the emissions and
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51 improving the fuel efficiency, however, each combustion strategies has the shortcomings. Thus, it is an effective
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method to optimizing the conventional diesel CI engine operating conditions in order to increase the fuel
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efficiency and decrease the emissions. To improve engine performance, it is necessary to know the combustion
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characteristics by investigating operating parameters. Specifically, operating parameters such as the EGR rate,
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injection strategies (e.g. injection timing, injection quantity) and swirl ratio are important. Kook and Base
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1 investigated correlations between EGR and injection timing [10]. A high EGR rate indicates a higher carbon-
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3 dioxide concentration and a lower oxygen concentration. Higher carbon-dioxide content increases the heat
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5 capacity of the cylinder charge, leading to a reduction in NOx by lowering the combustion temperature.
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7 Increasing the EGR rate also dilutes the air charge, and it extends the ignition delay, which enhances air-fuel
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9 mixing [11, 12], and it also decreases soot emission. However, an excessive EGR rate will bring some negative
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11 effects including misfires and excessive soot [13]. Nevertheless, an appropriate EGR rate leads to a
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13 simultaneous reduction in NOx and soot, even though a high EGR rate causes an increase in HC, CO and BSFC.
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15 And injection strategies are also important parameters on combustion and emissions performance, there are also
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17 many previous studies about injection strategies. The optimization of injection strategies has been studied for
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19 pre-blended dual-fuel engine [14], RCCI engine [15] and stoichiometric diesel engine type [16] and for various
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21 engine condition to improve combustion efficiency and reduce emissions. Pilot injection is demonstrated that it
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23 reduces NOx emissions by decreasing the premixed combustion and reducing combustion temperature [17]. Park
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25 et al [18] studied the effect of various split injection strategies and reported that retarded injection timing can
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27 decrease the NOX, CO, and HC emissions while soot was increased. And swirl flow is also an important
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29 parameter for enhancing air-fuel mixing and combustion efficiency. Also, it affects the wall heat transfer and
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31 emissions. Unlike in-cylinder air flow of gasoline engines, diesel engines inject the fuel near the TDC where
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most of the tumble flow disappears and only swirl flow exists. The high intensity swirl flow improves the
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mixing process of air and fuel by high turbulent kinetic energy, and it enhances the combustion efficiency;
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however, it can increase NOx emissions [19, 20].
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40 There are some optical experimental methods to visualize in-cylinder combustion phenomena. The
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endoscopic method and the bottom-view camera method are fundamental experimental methods used for optical
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engines. The endoscope system can visualize the in-cylinder state in a conventional engine system; thus, it does
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not require any major engine modifications that would change the in-cylinder flow [21, 22]. However, the
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endoscope system is limited in that the visualized image region is restricted by the camera position and angle.
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51 Thus, it shows only a small part of the in-cylinder region [23]. In contrast, the bottom view method can capture
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53 a larger region depending on quartz piston bore size. The bottom-view method shows the in-cylinder flow more
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55 clearly and can also show combustion phenomena [24, 25]. Moreover, the spray behavior in the piston region is
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57 observed from the start of injection to the end of combustion. The flow and combustion characteristics are
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59 demonstrated more clearly with the bottom-view method.
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1 In spite of the above studies on EGR rate, injection strategies and swirl ratio in diesel engines, there are lack
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3 of understanding on the correlations between in-cylinder flow including fuel-air mixture formation and flame
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5 propagation process for various engine operating conditions. Considering that it is difficult to obtain reliable in-
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7 cylinder flow results from experiments, numerical approach using a 3-dimensional CFD (Computational Fluid
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9 Dynamics) code is mandatory. Thus, we investigated the effects of the injection timing, EGR rate and swirl ratio
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11 on the combustion characteristics and combustion flame characteristics in a single cylinder optical engine with
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13 an experimental and numerical approach at operating conditions, The visualization experiments were conducted
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15 using the bottom-view method with a high-speed camera, and a numerical approach was conducted using the
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17 KIVA-3V code coupled with CHEMKIN chemistry solver to analyze each combustion phenomenon and wall
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19 heat transfer loss when the variables are changed. The in-cylinder flow and combustion characteristics were
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21 investigated using visualization images, HRR and in-cylinder pressure measured results. In addition, the distinct
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23 combustion phenomena were captured in visualized images and were analyzed using numerical methods
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25 according to the swirl ratio.
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1 2. Experimental apparatus and procedure
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4 Simulated EGR Pump
5 Cart
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8 Intake Exhaust
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11 High Speed Camera
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18 AC Dynamometer
Air Air
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20 500cc Single Cylinder Engine
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23 Fig. 1. Experimental apparatus of optical single cylinder engine.
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Fig. 1 shows the experimental equipment used in the present experiment. A 500cc single cylinder engine on a
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55kW AC dynamometer and a common-rail injector with 9 holes was used. Detailed specifications of the test
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engine are listed in Table 1. The metal piston was replaced with an extension piston with optically accessible
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quartz for bottom view for the visualization test, and a visualization kit was installed between the cylinder block
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36 and the head to conduct visualization experiments. In this experiment, we focused on the flame images from the
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38 bottom view to analyze effects of swirl. Because the piston must use quartz, the piston geometries are different
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40 from the actual engine, as shown in Fig. 2. Engine with the visualization piston has the same compression ratio
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42 as the actual (metal) engine. Since the actual engine and piston lip positions are different, the fuel distribution
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44 may differ from the actual engine.
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1
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Metal piston
3 8.5 mm
4 Optical piston
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7 30 mm
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13 Quartz
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17 Fig. 2 Comparison of bowl geometry between metal and quartz piston.
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22 The flame images were taken with a high-speed CMOS camera (mini AX-100, PHOTRON). The camera was
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24 synchronized based on the starting point of the first injection. A total of 100 images were taken and the images
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26 were taken at 1degree intervals. An ECU system was built using the NI-Compact Rio system for engine control.
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28 In a conventional engine, the engine is used to pressurize the fuel. In contrast, a separate motor was used in this
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study to pressurize the fuel to isolate the influence of the power used for fuel pressurization and the engine was
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controlled using NI Compact Rio. The combustion characteristics were measured using a Kistler pressure sensor
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installed in the glow plug position. All data was saved using the NI DAQ board. And Fig. 3 shows the simple
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diagram of the modeling procedure from the external EGR to the simulated EGR. A simulated EGR was used to
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39 input the actual intake air composition in the numerical analysis because the composition of the intake air
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41 entering the engine was not accurately known when the actual EGR was used. The intake air composition was
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43 calculated using the convergence value of the exhaust circulation loop and by calculating the amounts of oxygen,
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45 carbon dioxide, and H2O consumed when the same fuel was injected. The calculated intake air composition was
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47 implemented using air, N2, and CO2 gas, and flows were controlled using a flow meter or flow controller
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49 installed for each gas. To set the actual EGR gas temperature, a heater was installed in the intake pipe to control
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51 the intake air temperature. The engine test was carried out at 1,500 rpm. Experiments were carried out under a
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53 low load condition of IMEP 6, and the fuel was injected with a double pilot injection and main injection
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1 B : EGR air [g]
2 x : EGR rate [%]
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5 A : Fresh air [g] A+B : Fresh C : Total air
air + EGR air
6 C : Total air [g]
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F : Fuel
9 Z : In-cylinder O2, quantity [g] F : Fuel
10 CO2 and H2O
quantity [g]
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12 [ Model the external EGR]
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14 (a) e xternal EGR (b ) s imulated EGR
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17 Fig. 3 Diagram of modeling procedure from the external EGR (actual EGR) to the simulated EGR.
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24 Table 1. Specifications of the optical single cylinder engine and injector.
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27 Description Specification
28 Single cylinder
29 Type
optical engine
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31 Bore × Stroke (mm) 84 × 90
32 Engine Displacement volume (cc) 498.75
33 Compression ratio 16
o
34 Intake valve closing ATDC -152
35 o
36 Exhaust valve opening ATDC 126
37 Number of injector holes 9
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Direct injection (DI)
39 Common-rail
40 system
41 Injector Nozzle hole diameter
0.11
42 (mm)
43 Hydraulic flow rate
350
44 (cc at 100bar, 30s)
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3 Table 2. Engine test conditions.
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Description Specification
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7 Engine speed [rpm] 1,500
8 IMEP [bar] 6
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10 Injection pressure [MPa] 72.5
11 Air flow [kg/h] 52.2
12 Simulated EGR rate [%] 33.8
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14 Swirl ratio[-] 2.4
15 Fuel quantity [mg] 1.2/1.4/10.9
16 (2 pilot & 1 main)
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18 -22.24/-13.51/-2.3
SOE [° ATDC]
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24 In this study, the injection timing and EGR rate were swept to analyze the effects of injection timing and EGR
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26 rate. Table 3 shows the injection timing and EGR rate used in the experiment. The injection timing was swept to
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28 ± 4 degrees at 2 degree intervals from the reference value. The injection timing was maintained at the interval of
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30 each injection point and was moved simultaneously. The EGR rates were 23.8%, 28.8%, 33.8% and 38.8%. The
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32 composition of the intake air corresponding to each EGR rate was calculated using the equations above.
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37 Table 3. Case No. of SOI sweep and EGR rate sweep
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Main injection timing Case No.
40 Case No. (SOI) EGR rate (%)
41 (ATDC deg.) (EGR)
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43 Baseline case -2.3 Baseline case 33.8
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45 Case 1 -6.3 (4° Adv.) Case a 23.8 (-10%)
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47 Case 2 -4.3 (2° Adv.) Case b 28.8 (-5%)
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49 Case 3 -0.3 (2° Retard.) Case c 38.8 (+5%)
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51 Case 4 1.7 (4° Retard.)
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1 3. Numerical approach
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4 Along with the experiments, numerical simulations based on the 3-dimensional CFD (Computational Fluid
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6 Dynamics) (i.e., KIVA-3V release 2 code coupled with a CHEMKIN chemistry solver [26]) were conducted to
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8 understand effects in-cylinder flow and fuel-air mixture on flame propagation processes. The KIVA code
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10 consists of various models that could predict in-cylinder flow phenomena such as turbulent flow, spray
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12 characteristics, tumble and swirl. The CHEMKIN chemistry solver predicts the ignition timing, and thermal
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14 characteristics by solving the chemical reactions and variation of the species mole fractions in each
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16 computational cell [27]. Thus, coupled models are able to predict the internal combustion phenomena with high
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18 accuracy. The chemical reaction mechanism is applied to predict the combustion characteristics. Patel et al. [28]
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20 developed the reduced chemical reactions of normal heptane from an existing n-heptane mechanism (40 species
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22 and 165 reactions). The reduced mechanism consists of 29 species and 52 reactions. It shows reliable accuracy
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24 of prediction and better computational efficiency compared with the detailed mechanism. The reduced
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26 mechanism was used as the combustion model. In the present work, we slightly changed the reaction constants
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28 to validate the experimental results. The sector computational mesh was applied as shown in Fig. 4 (a) to
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30 increase the calculation efficiency. The calculation proceeded from the intake valve closing (IVC) timing to the
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32 exhaust valve opening (EVO) timing. As shown in Fig. 4 (b), the full mesh, including port, swirl valve, intake
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34 and exhaust valve, was used for predicting the swirl ratio as a function of swirl control valve angle [20]. Swirl
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36 ratio calculated by full mesh was used as the initial input value of the sector mesh calculation.
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39 Han and Reitz heat transfer model was used to calculate the wall heat transfer by convection, and the law of
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41 the wall model was also used for more accurate calculations near the wall region [29]. Flow near the wall is
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43 divided into the sub-viscosity layer and turbulent layer. Han and Reitz heat transfer model employs a different
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45 equation in the sub-viscosity layer and turbulent layer.
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20 (a) Sector computational mesh at TDC (b) Computational 360° full mesh including
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24 Fig. 4. Computational mesh.
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Head wall heat
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transfer
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37 Cylinder wall
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44 Fig. 5. Schematic of the wall heat transfer of piston.
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1 4. Results and discussion
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4 4.1. Model validation
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7 6 200
Case 1 (4º Adv.) Solid line : Exp.
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Case 2 (2º Adv.) Dashed line : Sim.
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Baseline
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150

11 Case 4 (4º Retard.)
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27 (a) The pressure and HRR of difference injection timing
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30 6 200
31 Case a (-10%, 23.8%) Solid line : Exp.
32 Case b (-5%, 28.8%) Dashed line : Sim.
33 Baseline (33.8%)
34 Case c (+5%, 38.8%) 150

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53 Fig. 6. Comparisons of the in-cylinder pressure histories and heat release rates between experimental
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results and simulations based on (a) SOI sweep (top) and (b) EGR rate sweep (bottom).
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57 The present work compares visualization experimental results with simulation results. Prior to the present
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59 study, the validation of numerical models such as grid dependency, spray, combustion, and emissions was
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1 conducted in the metal engine experiments [20]. In-cylinder pressure and heat release rate history validations
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3 were only conducted because the visualization experiments could not measure emissions. The emissions
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5 measurement could not be conducted because of skip firing and the limitation of operating time, thus the
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7 emission characteristics were analyzed with simulation predicted results. After validating the numerical models
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9 with experimental results, the numerical analysis was conducted.
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12 Fig. 6 shows comparisons of the in-cylinder pressure histories and heat release rates from experiment results
13
14 and simulations according to the injection timing and EGR rate. Fig. 6 (a) shows the results of the injection
15
16 timing sweep in multiple injection systems with 2 pilot injections and 1 main injection. As the injection timing
17
18 was retarded, the maximum heat release rate decreased, and the simulation results agree well with these
19
20 experiments results. When the injection timing was advanced to Case 1 (4° advanced), the ignition timing was
21
22 reversed compared with Case 2 (2° advanced), and this trend was found in both the experiments and simulation
23
24 results. It is believed that the trend was caused by the low temperature of the piston wall due to the quartz piston.
25
26 The visualization engine requires a quartz piston instead of a metal piston because of the transparency of the
27
28 quartz piston. The quartz piston has a higher specific heat than the metal piston; thus, the quartz piston engine
29
30 has a lower piston wall temperature. The lower wall temperature meant that the advanced pilot injected fuel was
31
32 mostly adsorbed without evaporation after collision with the wall surface. Thus, most of the pilot injected fuel
33
34 was adsorbed onto the piston surface in Case 1, and it was not ignited, but only the main injected fuel ignited
35
36 and combusted. Thus, the heat release rate of Case 1 was similar to the premixed combustion that increased
37
38 rapidly. On the other hand, the other cases showed the conventional multiple injection combustion. The pilot
39
40 injected fuel combusted, and it increased the in-cylinder temperature. Consequently, the main injected fuel had a
41
42
short ignition delay.
43
44
45 Fig. 6 (b) shows the in-cylinder pressure history and heat release rate of the experimental and simulation
46
47 results according to the EGR rate. Although the accuracy of the simulation is relatively lower than that of the
48
49 injection timing change, we concluded that the agreement with the experimental results is reasonable when the
50
51
heat release rate and ignition timing are compared. As the EGR rate increased, the ignition timing of the pilot
52
53
injected fuel was retarded, and the heat release rate also drastically decreased. The ignition timing was retarded
54
55
when the EGR rate was close to 40% as compared with other cases. Furthermore, the main combustion occurred
56
57
without ignition of the pilot fuel similar with premixed combustion, and the combustion phase was significantly
58
59
60 different even though the injection timing was the same. As the EGR rate increased, the concentration of
61
62
63 15
64
65
1 internal oxygen decreased, and the concentration of CO 2 increased. It causes highly diluted conditions inside of
2
3 the cylinder. Thus it prolonged the ignition delay [30].
4
5
6 Fig. 7 shows the ignition delay, combustion duration and IMEP of each case. Fig. 7 (a) shows the results of the
7
8 injection timing sweep. As mentioned above, the ignition delay of Case 1 is longer than Case 2 because of the
9
10 quartz piston and advanced injection timing. The ignition delay increased when injection timing was retarded. In
11
12 contrast, combustion duration decreased. Theses operating conditions are similar to MK combustion, which
13
14 requires a retarded injection timing, high EGR rate and high swirl ratio [11]. Thus, even when the injection
15
16 timing is retarded, the combustion duration decreased and pilot injected fuel combusts at the same time as the
17
18 main fuel combustion timing (as with premixed combustion) due to the high swirl ratio and IMEP is also
19
20 increased. Fig. 7 (b) indicates the results of the EGR rate sweep. When the EGR rate increased, the ignition
21
22 delay also increased because the reduction of oxygen, increase in carbon-dioxide and diluted air led to a
23
24 decrease in the combustion reactivity. Prolonged ignition delay improved air-fuel mixing and could lower the
25
26 soot emissions. Contrary to the above results, Case a (EGR rate is 23.8%) shows a lower IMEP than other
27
28 cases. The pilot injected fuel was about 20% of the total fuel, and it combusted before TDC and deteriorated the
29
30 IMEP.
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63 16
64
65
1
2
3
4 5.0
5 Ignition delay
34
Ignition delay & combustion duration (CAD)

6 Combustion duration
IMEPnet
7
32
8
9 4.5
30
10
IMEPnet (bar)
11
28
12
13 4.0
14
15 10
16
17 8 3.5
18
19
20 6
-4 -2 Ref. +2 +4
21
22 SOI_main (deg.)
23
24
25 (a) Injection timing sweep
26
27
5.0
28 34 Ignition delay
29
Combustion duration
30 32 IMEPnet
31 30
32
33 28 4.5
IMEPnet (bar)
34
26
35
36
37 12
38 4.0
9
39
40 6
41
3
42
43 0 3.5
44 23.8(-10%) 28.8 (-5%) 33.8 (Ref.) 38.8 (+5%)
45 EGR rate (%)
46
47
48 (b) EGR rate sweep
49
50 Fig. 7. The ignition delay, combustion duration and IMEP of (a) injection timing sweep and (b) EGR rate
51
52 sweep.
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63 17
64
65
1 4.2 Effects of injection timing and EGR on flame propagation processes
2
3
4 CAD
-1.24 2.76 6.76 10.76 14.76 18.76 24.76 29.76 34.76 39.76
5 (aTDC deg.)
6
Case 1
7 (4° Adv.)
8
9
10 Case 2
11 (2° Adv.)
12
13
14 Baseline
15
16
Case 3
17
(2° Retard.)
18
19
20 Case 4
21 (4° Retard.)
22
23
25
26
27 CAD
-1.24 2.76 6.76 10.76 14.76 18.76 24.76 29.76 34.76 39.76
28 (aTDC deg.)
29
30 Case a
(-10%, 23.8%)
31
32
33 Case b
34 (-5%, 28.8%)
35
36 Baseline
37 (33.8%)
38
39
40 Case c
(5%, 38.8%)
41
42
43
45
46 Fig. 8. Comparison of ignition and flame propagation on visualization results of optical cylinder engines for
47
48 various operating condition variables: (a) injection timing sweep, (b) EGR rate sweep.
49
50
51
52
53 Fig. 8 shows the bottom-view photographs of a single-cylinder with various injection timings and EGR rates,
54
55 respectively. Fig. 8 (a) shows photographs based on the injection timing sweep. Images from the injection
56
57 timing sweep show that the time of combustion was significantly retarded as injection timing was retarded.
58
59 Moreover, the luminosity of the photographs decreased when injection timing was retarded. In order to analyze
60
61
62
63 18
64
65
1 the luminosity during flame propagation, the average luminosity change of each photograph as a function of the
2
3 crank angle was estimated for the variable injection timing and EGR rate, as shown in Fig. 8. This luminosity of
4
5 photographs was calculated based on the RGB information of each pixel in the picture. First, the RGB
6
7 information of each pixel in the image was extracted. This RGB information was converted into a picture of
8
9 gray tone, and then the brightness intensity of all pixels were derived and averaged. As mentioned above, the
10
11 increasing timing of luminosity was retarded, and the peak average luminosity also decreased as injection timing
12
13 was retarded. Compared to the Fig. 6 (a), the ignition timing reversal phenomenon between Case 1 and Case 2
14
15 is not clearly observed in Fig. 9 (a). This is because the combustion intensity of the pilot injected fuel was too
16
17 low to increase the brightness of the photograph. Rather, it just increased the in-cylinder temperature and
18
19 pressure slightly to shorten the ignition delay of the main injected fuel. Thus, as shown in Fig. 9 (a), the
20
21 brightness of each case was determined by the heat release rate after the start of ignition and combustion of the
22
23 main injected fuel. Therefore, it also had a similar timing and magnitude with heat release rate. However, the
24
25 magnitude of the luminosity of Case 2 was higher than Case 1 even though injection timing was retarded. This
26
27 is a result of the adsorption of the pilot injected fuel on the wall, and this fuel could not evaporate thoroughly
28
29 and released the heat in Case 1.
30
31
32 Fig. 8 (b) illustrates the visualization results of the EGR rate sweep. Since the injection timing is the same, the
33
34 ignition timing of the main injected fuel is nearly the same as the baseline, Case a (base-10%) and Case b (base-
35
36 5%). The overall brightness decreased at an EGR rate of about 40% (Case c) where the EGR is increased by 5%
37
38 compared with the baseline, and the combustion photographs were not clearly visible. As the EGR rate
39
40 increased, the inside air became diluted, and the brightness decreased as the diffusion combustion became less
41
42
active. Instead, premixed combustion increased in a manner similar to MK combustion. Fig. 9 (b) shows the
43
44
luminous intensity of the visualized image according to the crank angle for various EGR rates. As the EGR
45
46
increases, the average brightness of the photograph decreases. When the EGR rate reached about 40%, a very
47
48
low luminous intensity was observed, as shown in Fig. 8 (b) and Fig. 9 (b), and a lower luminous intensity than
49
50
51 Case 4 was observed. Even though the injection timing and the ignition timing were more advanced than Case 4,
52
53 the brightness of the combustion photograph decreased as the combustion occurred in a state where the inside of
54
55 the cylinder becomes turbid and the oxygen concentration decreased.
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63 19
64
65
250 250
1

Average luminosity (-) Experimental results Case 1 (4º Adv.) Case a (23.8%)
2 200 Case 2 (2º Adv.) 200 Case b (28.8%)
3 150 Case 3 (2º Retard.)
150
Case c (38.8%)
4 100 100
5 50 50
6 0 0
7 -10
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 -10
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
8 Simulation results
Volume fraction (%)

Volume fraction (%)
8 8
9
6 6
10
4 4
11
12 2 2
13 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
14 Crank angle (ATDC deg.) Crank angle (ATDC deg.)
15 (a) Injection timing sweep (b) EGR rate sweep
16
17
18 Fig. 9. Average luminosity of the visualization results (Top) and the volume fraction of in-cylinder
19
temperature over 2400K at different (bottom) at (a) injection timing and (b) EGR rates.
20
21
22
23
24
25 In bottom of Fig. 9, the volume fraction of the temperature over 2400K as a function of crank angle in
26
27 computational cell is shown at different injection timings (left) and EGR rate (right). When the injection timing
28
29 advanced to Case 1, the volume fraction increased to about 7.5%. On the other hand, when the injection timing
30
31 was retarded to Case 4, the peak volume fraction was reduced by up to 2%. The trends for the brightness and
32
33 volume fraction of temperature region over 2400K were similar based on a comparison of the graphs of the
34
35 image luminosity shown in top of Fig. 9 and the temperature distribution shown in bottom of Fig. 9. Thus, it can
36
37 be seen that the factor determining the overall brightness was the high temperature flame over 2400K. This
38
39 means that the high temperature diffusion flame occupied the majority of the bright region. As shown in bottom
40
41
of Fig. 9 (b), the volume fraction rapidly decreased as EGR rate increased. As the EGR rate increased, the
42
43
combustion efficiency decreased as the oxygen concentration in the cylinder decreased and the carbon dioxide
44
45
concentration increased. As the diluted air increased, the ignition timing was retarded, and the combustion
46
47
48 process deteriorated leading to a reduction in the high temperature region. Also, when the EGR rate increased,
49
50 the specific heat increased. Thus, the temperature increase rate of the in-cylinder air decreased even if the same
51
52 amount of heat was supplied. This phenomenon led to the differences in temperature.
53
54
Fig. 10 shows the comparisons of maximum average luminosity and soot concentration by simulation results
55
56
57 for various injection timings and EGR rates. The maximum soot and average luminosity trend is similar. The
58
59 flame luminosity is related with flame temperature and soot concentration. Thus the maximum soot
60
61
62
63 20
64
65
1 concentration follows the luminosity trend.
2
3
4 1.1
5 1.0
6
0.9
7
8 Normalized value (-) 0.8
9 0.7
10
0.6
11
12 0.5
13 0.4
14 0.3
15 Maximum luminosity
0.2 Maximum soot
16
17 0.1
18 0.0
19 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2
20 Injection timing (ATDC deg.)

21
22
24
25
26
1.0
27
28
29 0.8
Normalized value (-)
30
31 0.6
32
33
0.4
34
35
36 0.2 Maximum luminosity
37 Maximum soot
38 0.0
39
40 20 25 30 35 40
41 EGR rate (%)
42
43
45
46
Fig. 10. Effect on maximum average luminosity and soot concentration (simulation results) for various (a)
47
48 injection timings and (b) EGR rates.
49
50
51
52
53 Fig. 11 shows comparisons of predicted NOx and soot emissions results for the injection timing sweep and
54
55 EGR rate sweep conducted by simulation. As mentioned above, emissions measurements were not conducted
56
57 because of skip firing and a lack of adequate warming process and operating time. Thus, emissions were only
58
59 predicted using the simulation results. Fig. 11 (a) shows the emission prediction for various injection timing
60
61
62
63 21
64
65
1 sweeps. When injection timing was retarded, both NO x and soot emission decreased simultaneously. The NOx
2
3 usually decreased when injection timing was retarded because the in-cylinder temperature also decreased at the
4
5 expansion stroke. In contrast, the soot usually increased because incomplete combustion increased. Nevertheless,
6
7 the soot can be reduced even though the injection timing was retarded because the high EGR rate prolongs the
8
9 ignition delay and the high swirl ratio improved the mixing of air and fuel. Fig. 11 (b) indicates the NOx and
10
11 soot emission results of the EGR rate sweep. When the EGR rate increased, the NO x concentration decreased
12
13 due to the low combustion temperature. Usually, the soot level increased with higher EGR. In contrast, the soot
14
15 level decreased in Case c, though the EGR rate increased (EGR rate is about 40%). Case c shows a lower level
16
17 of NOx and soot than baseline. It seems that the high EGR rate and late injection rate can reduce the NO x and
18
19 soot simultaneously while maintaining the combustion efficiency.
20
21
22 5.0
23 4.5
NOx
Soot
24
4.0
25
Emissions (g/kg-fuel)
26 3.5
27 3.0
28
2.5
29
30 2.0
31 1.5
32
1.0
33 -4 -2 Ref. +2 +4
34 SOI_main (deg.)
35
36
38
39
40 6 NOx
41 Soot
42 5
43
4
44
45 3
46
47 2
48
1
49
50 0
51 23.8(-10%) 28.8 (-5%) 33.8 (Ref.) 38.8 (+5%)
EGR rate (%)
52
53
54
56
57 Fig. 11. The trend of NOx and soot emission results as a function of (a) injection timing sweep and
58
59 (b) EGR rate sweep (simulation results).
60
61
62
63 22
64
65
1
2
3
650
4 Total heat release Piston bowl
5 600
Cylinder head
6 550
7 60

8 500
Heat (J)
9 40
26.02
10 140 24.84
11 23.73
20
22.6
12 120 21.77
13 0 Dashed line : Case 1(4º Adv.)
14 100
15 -4 -2 Ref. +2 +4 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
17 650
Wall Heat loss 80
19 600 Cylinder liner
Cylinder head
20 550
60
21
500
22
Heat (J)
23 40
24 140 24.7
23.81 23.73
25 23.41 20
26 120
27 0 Dashed line : Case a (-10 %, 28.8%)
28 Dashed dot line : Case c (+5 %, 38.8%)
100
23.8(-10%) 28.8 (-5%) 33.8 (Ref.) 38.8 (+5%) -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
29
30
(b) EGR rate sweep
31
32
33 Fig. 12. Comparisons between the accumulated heat release of chemical reactions and wall heat transfer and
34
35 the difference in wall heat transfer for each location for (a) various injection timings and (b) EGR rates
36 (simulation results)..
37
38
39
40
41 Fig. 12 shows a comparison between the accumulated heat release calculated by simulations and the
42
43 accumulated heat release from the wall and the difference in wall heat transfer for each location for various
44
45 injection timings (top) and EGR rates (bottom). The black bar indicates the accumulated heat release calculated
46
47 by simulation, and the red bar indicates the accumulated heat release from the wall. The wall heat transfer model
48
49 was proposed by Han and Reitz [29]. In present study, the temperature of computational cells near the wall were
50
51 derived by calculating the wall temperature function from model. Using these temperatures, the wall heat
52
53 transfer was predicted in the cylinder bowl, head and liner. The red bar is the sum of the wall heat transfer in the
54
55 cylinder bowl, head and liner. Since the heat transfer between the optical engines and the real engines is
56
57 different, the absolute value of the above analysis result would be different from that of the optical engine, but
58
59 the qualitative trend is assumed to be the same. The left of Fig. 12 (a) shows comparisons of accumulated heat
60
61
62
63 23
64
65
1 release generated and transferred for various injection timings. As shown in Fig. 12 (a), the wall heat transfer
2
3 rate decreased from 26% to about 22% when the injection timing was retarded even though the total generated
4
5 heat release was almost the same and injection timings were different. The reduction in wall heat transfer is
6
7 observed in the right of Fig. 12 (a), which shows the difference in wall heat transfer for each location from the
8
9 simulation results. Before the start of combustion, the wall heat transfers were nearly the same for various
10
11 injection timings. And then, when injection and combustion started, the wall heat transfer sharply increased,
12
13 especially in the piston bowl. The wall heat transfers of the cylinder bowl showed a higher value and larger
14
15 difference than other locations because the injected fuel was aimed at the piston bowl and impinged on the
16
17 piston bowl. Thus, the flame of the high temperature impinged on the piston bowl, and the wall near the piston
18
19 bowl showed a higher temperature than other locations, resulting in high wall heat transfer. When the injection
20
21 timing was advanced, more injected fuel was captured in the piston bowl, leading to a high in-cylinder
22
23 temperature. On the other hand, the retarded injection timing changed the fuel injection target, and less fuel was
24
25 captured in the piston bowl and a higher quantity of fuel was in the squish region. In this case, the second
26
27 highest wall heat transfer location was the cylinder head. The injected fuel was divided into two parts, the piston
28
29 bowl and cylinder head. Therefore, the divided fuel slid to the cylinder head and increased the temperature near
30
31 the cylinder head. The difference decreased compared with the piston head. Wall heat transfer from the cylinder
32
33
wall showed the lowest difference. Fig. 12 (b) shows information against the EGR rate sweep, and the results
34
35
are a little different with Fig. 12 (a) First of all, the accumulated heat release based on a calculation of the
36
37
chemical reaction was different. Compared with injection timing sweep cases, there are little different that when
38
39
EGR rate increased, the total heat release decreased. As mentioned above, the ignition duration increased, and
40
41
42 the combustion timing was retarded over the TDC due to the fact that the higher EGR rate means a lower
43
44 oxygen concentration, a higher concentration of carbon dioxide and more diluted air (even though the injection
45
46 timing was the same), leading to a lower combustion efficiency than a lower EGR rate. Moreover, the wall heat
47
48 transfer also slightly decreased. As with the right of Fig. 12 results, the wall heat transfer from the cylinder wall
49
50 showed lowest difference, indicating that the temperature near the cylinder wall was almost the same even
51
52 though the EGR rate changed as shown in the right of Fig. 12 (b). The piston bowl also showed the highest
53
54 value and difference for various EGR rates as well as injection timing sweeps. However, the difference was
55
56 reduced compared with the injection timing. The in-cylinder temperature decreased and wall heat transfer
57
58 decreased because the increase in carbon dioxide caused a reduction in combustion activity.
59
60
61
62
63 24
64
65
1
2
3
4 4.3 Effects of swirl on flame propagation processes
5
6
7 6 200
8 SOI=Base R1 = outer(biggest) blue circle
9

150 R3 = inner (smallest) blue circle
10 (b)
4
11 (a)
(c)
12 100
13
14 2
50
15
16
17 0
0
18 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Crank angle (ATDC deg.)
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
30
31
32
33 Fig. 13. Comparison of the visualization results for experiments and simulations based on the crank angle.
34
35 Fig. 13 shows a comparison of the visualization results for experiments and simulations according to the
36
37 crank angle in the baseline. Fig. 13 includes the in-cylinder pressure history, heat release rate and visualization
38
39 results at about 10, 17, 21 crank angle degrees. As mentioned above, the simulation results of in-cylinder
40
41 pressure, heat release rate and 3-D visualization images agree well with the experimental results. Conventional
42
43 diesel diffusion combustion was found in the experimentally visualized image at a 10 crank angle degree, and
44
45 the simulation results also agreed well with the image. The combustion flame was slightly rotating in a
46
47 counterclockwise direction due to swirl flow. Fig. 13 (b) shows a comparison of visualized images at a crank
48
49 angle of 17 degrees. At this time, most of the fuel was already injected, and most of the flames were present
50
51 between R1 (outer blue circle in Fig. 13 (b)) and R2 (middle blue circle), which is near the piston bowl wall.
52
53 This is because the injected fuel was already distributed the near the wall of the piston bowl. However, the
54
55 combustion flame was not observed between R2 and R3, and the small region where the flame was found in R3
56
57 (inner blue circle) is shown. This small region was found even at a 25 degree crank angle. This can be observed
58
59 in both the visualization results and simulation. The reasons for the absence of flame between R2 and R3 and
60
61
62
63 25
64
65
1 the presence of flame in R3 are explained in the discussion of Fig. 14.
2
3
4
5
6
7 5 ATDC deg. 6 ATDC deg.
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36 Fig. 14. Comparisons of the in-cylinder temperature and flow velocity of z-plain cross section depending
37
38 on the crank angle in the base case.
39
40
41
42
Fig. 14 shows a comparison of the in-cylinder temperature and flow velocity of a z-plain cross section
43
44
depending on the crank angle in the base case. Fig. 14 provides detailed reasons for the flame separation
45
46
phenomenon seen in Fig. 13. As shown in Fig. 14 at 5 and 6 degree crank angles, the injected fuel had a high
47
48
49 injection speed due to a high injection pressure, and it penetrated the high density ambient gas in the cylinder.
50
51 Thus, the ambient air around the spray was entrained and filled the air inside the spray core. This air-
52
53 entrainment is the one of the reasons for the spray separation phenomenon. The flow toward the center disturbs
54
55 the axial direction spray flow, and it affects the spray separation. The middle of the fuel spray plume broke.
56
57 Thus, the fuel spray divided into two parts, i.e., near the piston wall and near the injector nozzle. This division
58
59 was caused by swirl flow, and it leads to the two observed combustion regions mentioned above.
60
61
62
63 26
64
65
1 Swirl flow, which flows counterclockwise, provides radial momentum to the injected fuel spray and reduces
2
3 the momentum in the axial direction of the spray. The spray had high momentum in the early and mid-stage
4
5 strongly penetrated the high density ambient air and swirl flow inside the cylinder, and reached the piston bowl.
6
7 However, the weakened spray injected in the late period of injection was blocked by the swirling flow in the
8
9 radial direction. Therefore, the fuel injected in the latter period cannot reach the wall of the piston bowl, thus, it
10
11 is present in the center of the cylinder. This fuel combusts in the latter stage of the injection and generates a
12
13 flame, as shown in Fig. 13 (b), (c) and 16.
14
15
16
17
18
19 6 200
20 Swirl ratio : 0.0
21 Baseline (Swirl ratio : 2.4)
22
Swirl ratio : 5.0
23

24 150
25
26 4
27
28
100
29
30
31
32 2
33 50
34
35
36
37
38 0
39 0
40 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
41 Crank angle (ATDC deg.)
42
43
44
Fig. 15. The difference of the in-cylinder pressure and heat release rate for various initial swirl ratios
45
46 (simulation results).
47
48
49
50
51 Fig. 15 shows the in-cylinder pressure and heat release rate for various initial swirl ratios to illustrate the
52
53 differences in the combustion characteristics of swirl flow intensity. First of all, the ignition phenomenon of the
54
55 pilot injected fuel deteriorated as the intensity of the swirl ratio increased. In the case where the initial swirl ratio
56
57 was increased to 5, the pilot injected fuel did not combust, and it ignited when the main fuel injection began. On
58
59 the contrary, when the initial swirl flow approached zero (i.e., no radial flow in the cylinder) the pilot injected
60
61
62
63 27
64
65
1 fuel ignited quickly and caused active combustion compared with a high swirl ratio.
2
3
4 When the swirl flow intensity increased, the radial direction flow strengthened, which affected the spray
5
6 behavior. Due to increased swirl flow, the axial direction momentum of the spray was reduced, and the radial
7
8 momentum increased. Thus, the spray penetration became shorter, and the break-up and atomization of the fuel
9
10 spray improved. This led to a reduction in the probability of ignition because of the low equivalence ratio
11
12 provided by a more homogeneous distribution of the pilot injected fuel in the cylinder. As mentioned above, the
13
14 rapid combustion of the pilot fuel and main injected fuel at a high swirl ratio can cause a rapid heat release rate
15
16 and increase in the pressure rise rate leading to drawbacks that include vibration and noise.
17
18
19
20
21
22 10 aTDC deg. 20 aTDC deg. 25 aTDC deg.
23
24
25
26 Initial
27 swirl ratio
28
29
=0.0
30
31
32
33
34
35 Initial
36
swirl ratio
37
38 =2.4 (base)
39
40
41
42
43
44 Initial
45
46 swirl ratio
47 =5.0
48
49
50
51
52
53
54 Fig. 16. The temperature distribution and velocity field in the cylinder for various swirl ratios and various
55 crank angles.
56
57
58
59
60 Fig. 16 shows the temperature distribution and velocity field in the cylinder for various swirl ratios according
61
62
63 28
64
65
1 to the crank angle. When the initial swirl ratio is zero, the fuel spray penetrated exactly in the axial direction
2
3 without any interference, collided with the cylinder bowl wall and was divided into two directions. However,
4
5 when swirl flow was present, the spray was interrupted by the radial flow and was bent. The spray tip
6
7 penetration became shorter as the swirl intensity became stronger. This can be seen in the temperature
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9 distribution of the x-plane cross section in the base case with an initial swirl ratio of 5.0. The temperature within
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11 the cylinder was significantly different from each swirl ratio case for a crank angle 20, which is the end of main
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13 combustion. When there was no swirl flow, the low-temperature region was widely distributed at the center of
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15 the cylinder. In contrast, when the swirl was present, the high-temperature region was widely distributed in the
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17 central portion as shown in the x-plane cross section. When the swirl intensity was 2.4 (base case), the high-
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19 temperature region was observed at the center of the cylinder. When the swirl intensity increased to 5, the high-
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21 temperature region increased, and the boundary of the temperature became unclear. This phenomenon occurred
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23 because swirl flow promoted the atomization of the spray and increased the equivalence ratio near the center of
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25 the cylinder. A higher equivalence ratio near the center caused combustion, resulting in an increase in the overall
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27 high temperature region. As mentioned above, the higher temperature region of the cylinder center became
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29 wider as the swirl flow intensity became stronger. These results show that the combustion characteristics can be
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31 changed by the swirl. As the swirl intensity increased, although the ignitability of the injected fuel decreased, it
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induced active mixing of fuel-air and an increase in the efficient usage of oxygen in the cylinder. However, if the
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swirl intensity increased excessively, the pilot injected fuel would not burn, and it ignited and burned at the
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same time as the main injection, leading to a high temperature due to a rapid pressure rise and rapid heat release
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rate. This is a disadvantage of high swirl ratio in the combustion characteristic as it leads to an increase in
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42 nitrogen oxides and an increase in wall heat transfer.
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1 5. Conclusions
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4 In the present study, effects of injection timing, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) rate, and swirl ratio on flame
5
6 propagation processes were analyzed based on the flame images from a single cylinder optical engine. In
7
8 addition, numerical study was conducted in order to correlate fuel-air mixture formation, in-cylinder flow and
9
10 flame propagation process. The following conclusions were drawn from the present study.
11
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13 1. The average luminosity of the visualized image had a similar tendency with the volume fraction of the
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15 high temperature flame over 2400K. This result was the same for both the injection timing and the EGR
16
17 rate, confirming that the high temperature diffusion flame had a temperature above 2400 K, which affected
18
19 the luminosity of the visualized image.
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22 2. A high EGR rate, retarded injection timing and high swirl ratio were the main variables of modulated
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24 kinetics (MK) combustion. Even in optical engine, a simultaneous reduction of NOx and soot occurred
25
26 even if the EGR rate increased and injection timing was retarded.
27
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29 3. The brightness of the flame is determined by soot incandescence, which depends on both flame
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31 temperature and soot concentration. The brighter flame implies the increase of soot formation, however, it
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33 does not result in the higher emitted soot concentration.
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36 4. The difference in wall heat transfer for each location and operating condition was found based on the
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38 simulation results. As the EGR rate increased, the amount of heat transfer to the wall decreased, and most
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40 of the wall heat transfer was due to the high temperature flame colliding with the piston bowl. The piston
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42 head, the cylinder wall, and the cylinder liner have no significant correlation with this parameter. The
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44 piston bowl, cylinder head and cylinder liner showed higher wall heat transfer in sequence. However, the
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46 wall heat transfer by the cylinder liner had no significant correlation with the operating parameters of
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48 injection timing and EGR rate.
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51 5. Though swirl flow is a significant parameter affecting the combustion characteristics and emissions in
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53 small diesel engine, an excessively high swirl ratio or a very low swirl ratio can negatively affect the
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55 combustion characteristics by changing the characteristics of spray behavior. Moreover, the flame remains
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57 at the center of the cylinder due to swirl flow. Swirl flow breaks up the spray into two parts. The broken
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59 fuel spray remains in the center of the cylinder, and it combusts and increases the usage of the oxygen in
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1 the center of the cylinder.
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13 Acknowledgments
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16 This research was supported by Hyundai Motors Company and “Human Resources Program in Energy
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18 Technology” of the Korea Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation and Planning (KETEP), granted financial
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20 resource from the Ministry of Trade, Industry & Energy, Republic of Korea. (No. 20184010201710)
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9 and emissions characteristics in a single-cylinder diesel engine. Applied Thermal Engineering.
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17 [20] Yoon S, Lee S, Kwon H, Lee J, Park S. Effects of the swirl ratio and injector hole number on
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20 Engineering. 2018;142:68-78.
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23 combustion performance in DI diesel engines. Energy Conversion and Management.
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Los Alamos, NM, Report No LA-UR-99-915. 1999.
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46 Analysis of Gas-Phase Chemical Kinetics. Albequerque, NM: Sandia National Laboratories; 1989.
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55 [30] Arcoumanis C, Bae C, Nagwaney A, Whitelaw JH. Effect of EGR on Combustion Development
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*Revised Manuscript with NoSungwook
Changes Park, Ph.D.
Marked
Click here to download Revised Manuscript with Engineering,
Prof., School of Mechanical Hanyang
No Changes University
Marked: Manumscript_Applied_Energy(Clean_version).docx
222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-du, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
Tel : +82-2-2220-0430, Fax : +82-2-2220-4588, Email: parks@hanyang.ac.kr
1
2 Effects of engine operating conditions on flame
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propagation processes in a compression ignition
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optical engine
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15 Seungpil Lee1, Sungjun Yoon1, Hyuckmo Kwon2, Joonkyu Lee2, Sungwook
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17 Park3, *
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22 Graduate School of Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu,
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23 Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea

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26 Powertrain Thermo-Fluid CAE Team, Hyundai Motor Company, 150 Hyundai
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27 yeonguso-ro, Hwaseong-si, Gyeonggi 44-706, Republic of Korea

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30 School of Mechanical Engineering, Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-ro,
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Seongdong-gu, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
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41 Corresponding Author:
*
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43
Sungwook Park, Ph.D
44 Professor
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46 School of Mechanical Engineering
47 Hanyang University
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49 222, Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
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51 Tel: +82-2-2220-0430
52 Fax: +82-2-2220-4588
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54 Email: parks@hanyang.ac.kr
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1 Abstract
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4 This paper describes the effects of swirl flow in the diesel optical single cylinder engine
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6 with experimental results and simulation results using KIVA code. Experiments were
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9 conducted with an optical single cylinder engine for various operating conditions such as
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11 injection timing, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and swirl ratio, and a numerical study was
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14 also conducted to analyze the effects of swirl flow and combustion characteristics in detail.
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16 The correlation in-cylinder flow from numerical simulation and flame propagation process
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19 from experiment was conducted. The optical experimental and simulation results
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21 demonstrated that retarded injection timing and high EGR rate reduced the luminosity of
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flame and the wall heat transfer. However, a high EGR rate simultaneously reduced the
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26 combustion efficiency. The average luminosity of optical image was determined by the
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28 flame in the high temperature region above 2400K. The luminosity and volume fraction of
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31 the temperature region above 2400K showed the same trends. Correlation results between
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33 experiment and simulation shows that swirl flow affects to the propagation process. The
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36 flame region was generated in the center of the combustion chamber due to swirl flow based
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38 on visualization and analysis results. That is, swirl flow caused separation of the flame by
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breaking the continuity of the spray.
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Keywords: Diesel optical engine, KIVA-3V code, swirl ratio, Injection timing, EGR rate
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1 Graphical Abstract
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6 6 200
7 Baseline case
8 R2 = middle blue circle
9 150

(b)
10 4 (a)
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100
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-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
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1 Nomenclature
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4 CO carbon oxide
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7 DI direct injection
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10 DPF diesel particulate filter
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13 EGR exhaust gas recirculation
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16 EVO exhaust valve opening
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HCCI homogenous charge compression ignition
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23 HC hydrocarbon
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26 IVC intake valve closure
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29 NOx nitrogen oxide
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32 PCCI premixed charge compression ignition
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35 PM particulate matter
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38 RCCI reactivity controlled compression ignition
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41 SCR selective catalytic reduction
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SOI start of injection
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LTC low temperature combustion
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MK modulated kinetics
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1 1. Introduction
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4 The diesel compression ignition (CI) engine has been widely used in various field for its high thermal
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6 efficiency compared to the spark ignition (SI) engine. Compared to SI engines, CI engines have the problems
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8 related to the environment and human health. The diesel CI engines emit the NO x and PM, which have a trade-
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10 off relationship. To reduce these emissions while maintaining fuel efficiency is difficult. Methods for reducing
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12 exhaust emissions are divided into two parts; introducing after-treatment systems such as 3-way catalyst [1],
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14 diesel particulate filter (DPF) [2] and selective catalytic reduction (SCR) [3] and improving combustion
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16 techniques such as the homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI), and the gasoline direct-injection
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18 compression ignition(GDICI) engine [4, 5]. To reduce the NOX, SCR or lean NOX traps (LNT) are used [2, 3].
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20 In addition, DPF is also used to reduce PM. Reduction of emissions can be efficiently achieved with after-
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22 treatment systems. However, there are some disadvantages like additional usage of fuel and increased cost.
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24 Another method is advanced combustion techniques. HCCI engine reduced NOx and PM simultaneously by
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26 advancing the injection timing and improving air-fuel mixing homogeneously. In spite of the advantages of
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28 simultaneous reduction of NOX and PM, it increases carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbon (HC), and it has a
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30 difficulty in an ignition control [5]. RCCI engine is the similar concept with the PCCI engine, it uses the two
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32 fuels that have the different reactivity [6]. Thus, it decreases the NOX and PM simultaneously while suppressing
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34 the CO and HC emissions and it supplements the problem of ignition control in HCCI engine [7]. However, it
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36 has to equip the two different injection system and it has the challenges for the after-treatment system for the
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38 low exhaust temperature [8]. MK combustion is the similar concept with the conventional diesel CI engine
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40 except the injection timing, EGR rate, and swirl ratio. It prolongs the ignition delay and causes the premixed
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42 combustion by retarding injection timing, increasing EGR rate and swirl ratio. Thus, it decreases the NOX and
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PM simultaneously using low-temperature combustion and premixed combustion [9]. However, it has also a
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difficulty of ignition instability because of retarded injection timing.
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49 Above the advanced combustion techniques are the innovative method to reducing the emissions and
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51 improving the fuel efficiency, however, each combustion strategies has the shortcomings. Thus, it is an effective
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method to optimizing the conventional diesel CI engine operating conditions in order to increase the fuel
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efficiency and decrease the emissions. To improve engine performance, it is necessary to know the combustion
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characteristics by investigating operating parameters. Specifically, operating parameters such as the EGR rate,
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injection strategies (e.g. injection timing, injection quantity) and swirl ratio are important. Kook and Base
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1 investigated correlations between EGR and injection timing [10]. A high EGR rate indicates a higher carbon-
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3 dioxide concentration and a lower oxygen concentration. Higher carbon-dioxide content increases the heat
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5 capacity of the cylinder charge, leading to a reduction in NO x by lowering the combustion temperature.
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7 Increasing the EGR rate also dilutes the air charge, and it extends the ignition delay, which enhances air-fuel
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9 mixing [11, 12], and it also decreases soot emission. However, an excessive EGR rate will bring some negative
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11 effects including misfires and excessive soot [13]. Nevertheless, an appropriate EGR rate leads to a
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13 simultaneous reduction in NOx and soot, even though a high EGR rate causes an increase in HC, CO and BSFC.
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15 And injection strategies are also important parameters on combustion and emissions performance, there are also
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17 many previous studies about injection strategies. The optimization of injection strategies has been studied for
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19 pre-blended dual-fuel engine [14], RCCI engine [15] and stoichiometric diesel engine type [16] and for various
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21 engine condition to improve combustion efficiency and reduce emissions. Pilot injection is demonstrated that it
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23 reduces NOx emissions by decreasing the premixed combustion and reducing combustion temperature [17]. Park
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25 et al [18] studied the effect of various split injection strategies and reported that retarded injection timing can
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27 decrease the NOX, CO, and HC emissions while soot was increased. And swirl flow is also an important
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29 parameter for enhancing air-fuel mixing and combustion efficiency. Also, it affects the wall heat transfer and
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31 emissions. Unlike in-cylinder air flow of gasoline engines, diesel engines inject the fuel near the TDC where
32
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most of the tumble flow disappears and only swirl flow exists. The high intensity swirl flow improves the
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mixing process of air and fuel by high turbulent kinetic energy, and it enhances the combustion efficiency;
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however, it can increase NOx emissions [19, 20].
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40 There are some optical experimental methods to visualize in-cylinder combustion phenomena. The
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endoscopic method and the bottom-view camera method are fundamental experimental methods used for optical
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engines. The endoscope system can visualize the in-cylinder state in a conventional engine system; thus, it does
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not require any major engine modifications that would change the in-cylinder flow [21, 22]. However, the
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endoscope system is limited in that the visualized image region is restricted by the camera position and angle.
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51 Thus, it shows only a small part of the in-cylinder region [23]. In contrast, the bottom view method can capture
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53 a larger region depending on quartz piston bore size. The bottom-view method shows the in-cylinder flow more
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55 clearly and can also show combustion phenomena [24, 25]. Moreover, the spray behavior in the piston region is
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57 observed from the start of injection to the end of combustion. The flow and combustion characteristics are
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59 demonstrated more clearly with the bottom-view method.
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1 In spite of the above studies on EGR rate, injection strategies and swirl ratio in diesel engines, there are lack
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3 of understanding on the correlations between in-cylinder flow including fuel-air mixture formation and flame
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5 propagation process for various engine operating conditions. Considering that it is difficult to obtain reliable in-
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7 cylinder flow results from experiments, numerical approach using a 3-dimensional CFD (Computational Fluid
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9 Dynamics) code is mandatory. Thus, we investigated the effects of the injection timing, EGR rate and swirl ratio
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11 on the combustion characteristics and combustion flame characteristics in a single cylinder optical engine with
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13 an experimental and numerical approach at operating conditions, The visualization experiments were conducted
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15 using the bottom-view method with a high-speed camera, and a numerical approach was conducted using the
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17 KIVA-3V code coupled with CHEMKIN chemistry solver to analyze each combustion phenomenon and wall
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19 heat transfer loss when the variables are changed. The in-cylinder flow and combustion characteristics were
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21 investigated using visualization images, HRR and in-cylinder pressure measured results. In addition, the distinct
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23 combustion phenomena were captured in visualized images and were analyzed using numerical methods
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25 according to the swirl ratio.
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1 2. Experimental apparatus and procedure
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4 Simulated EGR Pump
5 Cart
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8 Intake Exhaust
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11 High Speed Camera
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18 AC Dynamometer
Air Air
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20 500cc Single Cylinder Engine
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23 Fig. 1. Experimental apparatus of optical single cylinder engine.
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Fig. 1 shows the experimental equipment used in the present experiment. A 500cc single cylinder engine on a
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55kW AC dynamometer and a common-rail injector with 9 holes was used. Detailed specifications of the test
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engine are listed in Table 1. The metal piston was replaced with an extension piston with optically accessible
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quartz for bottom view for the visualization test, and a visualization kit was installed between the cylinder block
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36 and the head to conduct visualization experiments. In this experiment, we focused on the flame images from the
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38 bottom view to analyze effects of swirl. Because the piston must use quartz, the piston geometries are different
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40 from the actual engine, as shown in Fig. 2. Engine with the visualization piston has the same compression ratio
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42 as the actual (metal) engine. Since the actual engine and piston lip positions are different, the fuel distribution
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44 may differ from the actual engine.
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Metal piston
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7 30 mm
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13 Quartz
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17 Fig. 2 Comparison of bowl geometry between metal and quartz piston.
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22 The flame images were taken with a high-speed CMOS camera (mini AX-100, PHOTRON). The camera was
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24 synchronized based on the starting point of the first injection. A total of 100 images were taken and the images
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26 were taken at 1degree intervals. An ECU system was built using the NI-Compact Rio system for engine control.
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28 In a conventional engine, the engine is used to pressurize the fuel. In contrast, a separate motor was used in this
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study to pressurize the fuel to isolate the influence of the power used for fuel pressurization and the engine was
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controlled using NI Compact Rio. The combustion characteristics were measured using a Kistler pressure sensor
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installed in the glow plug position. All data was saved using the NI DAQ board. And Fig. 3 shows the simple
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diagram of the modeling procedure from the external EGR to the simulated EGR. A simulated EGR was used to
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39 input the actual intake air composition in the numerical analysis because the composition of the intake air
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41 entering the engine was not accurately known when the actual EGR was used. The intake air composition was
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43 calculated using the convergence value of the exhaust circulation loop and by calculating the amounts of oxygen,
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45 carbon dioxide, and H2O consumed when the same fuel was injected. The calculated intake air composition was
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47 implemented using air, N2, and CO2 gas, and flows were controlled using a flow meter or flow controller
48
49 installed for each gas. To set the actual EGR gas temperature, a heater was installed in the intake pipe to control
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51 the intake air temperature. The engine test was carried out at 1,500 rpm. Experiments were carried out under a
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53 low load condition of IMEP 6, and the fuel was injected with a double pilot injection and main injection
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1 B : EGR air [g]
2 x : EGR rate [%]
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4
5 A : Fresh air [g] A+B : Fresh C : Total air
air + EGR air
6 C : Total air [g]
7
8
F : Fuel
9 Z : In-cylinder O2, quantity [g] F : Fuel
10 CO2 and H2O
quantity [g]
11
12 [ Model the external EGR]
13
14 (a) e xternal EGR (b ) s imulated EGR
15
16
17 Fig. 3 Diagram of modeling procedure from the external EGR (actual EGR) to the simulated EGR.
18
19
20
21
22
23
24 Table 1. Specifications of the optical single cylinder engine and injector.
25
26
27 Description Specification
28 Single cylinder
29 Type
optical engine
30
31 Bore × Stroke (mm) 84 × 90
32 Engine Displacement volume (cc) 498.75
33 Compression ratio 16
o
34 Intake valve closing ATDC -152
35 o
36 Exhaust valve opening ATDC 126
37 Number of injector holes 9
38
Direct injection (DI)
39 Common-rail
40 system
41 Injector Nozzle hole diameter
0.11
42 (mm)
43 Hydraulic flow rate
350
44 (cc at 100bar, 30s)
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63 10
64
65
1
2
3 Table 2. Engine test conditions.
4
5
Description Specification
6
7 Engine speed [rpm] 1,500
8 IMEP [bar] 6
9
10 Injection pressure [MPa] 72.5
11 Air flow [kg/h] 52.2
12 Simulated EGR rate [%] 33.8
13
14 Swirl ratio[-] 2.4
15 Fuel quantity [mg] 1.2/1.4/10.9
17
18 -22.24/-13.51/-2.3
SOE [° ATDC]
20
21
22
23
24 In this study, the injection timing and EGR rate were swept to analyze the effects of injection timing and EGR
25
26 rate. Table 3 shows the injection timing and EGR rate used in the experiment. The injection timing was swept to
27
28 ± 4 degrees at 2 degree intervals from the reference value. The injection timing was maintained at the interval of
29
30 each injection point and was moved simultaneously. The EGR rates were 23.8%, 28.8%, 33.8% and 38.8%. The
31
32 composition of the intake air corresponding to each EGR rate was calculated using the equations above.
33
34
35
36
37 Table 3. Case No. of SOI sweep and EGR rate sweep
38
39
Main injection timing Case No.
40 Case No. (SOI) EGR rate (%)
41 (ATDC deg.) (EGR)
42
43 Baseline case -2.3 Baseline case 33.8
44
45 Case 1 -6.3 (4° Adv.) Case a 23.8 (-10%)
46
47 Case 2 -4.3 (2° Adv.) Case b 28.8 (-5%)
48
49 Case 3 -0.3 (2° Retard.) Case c 38.8 (+5%)
50
51 Case 4 1.7 (4° Retard.)
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63 11
64
65
1 3. Numerical approach
2
3
4 Along with the experiments, numerical simulations based on the 3-dimensional CFD (Computational Fluid
5
6 Dynamics) (i.e., KIVA-3V release 2 code coupled with a CHEMKIN chemistry solver [26]) were conducted to
7
8 understand effects in-cylinder flow and fuel-air mixture on flame propagation processes. The KIVA code
9
10 consists of various models that could predict in-cylinder flow phenomena such as turbulent flow, spray
11
12 characteristics, tumble and swirl. The CHEMKIN chemistry solver predicts the ignition timing, and thermal
13
14 characteristics by solving the chemical reactions and variation of the species mole fractions in each
15
16 computational cell [27]. Thus, coupled models are able to predict the internal combustion phenomena with high
17
18 accuracy. The chemical reaction mechanism is applied to predict the combustion characteristics. Patel et al. [28]
19
20 developed the reduced chemical reactions of normal heptane from an existing n-heptane mechanism (40 species
21
22 and 165 reactions). The reduced mechanism consists of 29 species and 52 reactions. It shows reliable accuracy
23
24 of prediction and better computational efficiency compared with the detailed mechanism. The reduced
25
26 mechanism was used as the combustion model. In the present work, we slightly changed the reaction constants
27
28 to validate the experimental results. The sector computational mesh was applied as shown in Fig. 4 (a) to
29
30 increase the calculation efficiency. The calculation proceeded from the intake valve closing (IVC) timing to the
31
32 exhaust valve opening (EVO) timing. As shown in Fig. 4 (b), the full mesh, including port, swirl valve, intake
33
34 and exhaust valve, was used for predicting the swirl ratio as a function of swirl control valve angle [20]. Swirl
35
36 ratio calculated by full mesh was used as the initial input value of the sector mesh calculation.
37
38
39 Han and Reitz heat transfer model was used to calculate the wall heat transfer by convection, and the law of
40
41 the wall model was also used for more accurate calculations near the wall region [29]. Flow near the wall is
42
43 divided into the sub-viscosity layer and turbulent layer. Han and Reitz heat transfer model employs a different
44
45 equation in the sub-viscosity layer and turbulent layer.
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63 12
64
65
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20 (a) Sector computational mesh at TDC (b) Computational 360° full mesh including
21 intake port and swirl control valve (0deg., 90deg.)
22
23
24 Fig. 4. Computational mesh.
25
26
27
28
29
Head wall heat
30
transfer
31
32
33
34
35
36
37 Cylinder wall
38 heat transfer
39
40 Piston bowl surface wall
41 heat transfer
42
43
44 Fig. 5. Schematic of the wall heat transfer of piston.
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63 13
64
65
1 4. Results and discussion
2
3
4 4.1. Model validation
5
6
7 6 200
Case 1 (4º Adv.) Solid line : Exp.
8
Case 2 (2º Adv.) Dashed line : Sim.
9
Baseline
10
150

11 Case 4 (4º Retard.)
12 4
13
14 100
15
16
17 2
18 50
19
20
21
0
22 0
23 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
24 Crank angle (aTDC deg.)
25
26
27 (a) The pressure and HRR of difference injection timing
28
29
30 6 200
31 Case a (-10%, 23.8%) Solid line : Exp.
32 Case b (-5%, 28.8%) Dashed line : Sim.
33 Baseline (33.8%)
34 Case c (+5%, 38.8%) 150

35 4
36
37
100
38
39
40
2
41 50
42
43
44
45 0
46 0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
47
48
49
50
51 (b) The pressure and HRR of difference EGR rate
52
53 Fig. 6. Comparisons of the in-cylinder pressure histories and heat release rates between experimental
54
results and simulations based on (a) SOI sweep (top) and (b) EGR rate sweep (bottom).
55
56
57 The present work compares visualization experimental results with simulation results. Prior to the present
58
59 study, the validation of numerical models such as grid dependency, spray, combustion, and emissions was
60
61
62
63 14
64
65
1 conducted in the metal engine experiments [20]. In-cylinder pressure and heat release rate history validations
2
3 were only conducted because the visualization experiments could not measure emissions. The emissions
4
5 measurement could not be conducted because of skip firing and the limitation of operating time, thus the
6
7 emission characteristics were analyzed with simulation predicted results. After validating the numerical models
8
9 with experimental results, the numerical analysis was conducted.
10
11
12 Fig. 6 shows comparisons of the in-cylinder pressure histories and heat release rates from experiment results
13
14 and simulations according to the injection timing and EGR rate. Fig. 6 (a) shows the results of the injection
15
16 timing sweep in multiple injection systems with 2 pilot injections and 1 main injection. As the injection timing
17
18 was retarded, the maximum heat release rate decreased, and the simulation results agree well with these
19
20 experiments results. When the injection timing was advanced to Case 1 (4° advanced), the ignition timing was
21
22 reversed compared with Case 2 (2° advanced), and this trend was found in both the experiments and simulation
23
24 results. It is believed that the trend was caused by the low temperature of the piston wall due to the quartz piston.
25
26 The visualization engine requires a quartz piston instead of a metal piston because of the transparency of the
27
28 quartz piston. The quartz piston has a higher specific heat than the metal piston; thus, the quartz piston engine
29
30 has a lower piston wall temperature. The lower wall temperature meant that the advanced pilot injected fuel was
31
32 mostly adsorbed without evaporation after collision with the wall surface. Thus, most of the pilot injected fuel
33
34 was adsorbed onto the piston surface in Case 1, and it was not ignited, but only the main injected fuel ignited
35
36 and combusted. Thus, the heat release rate of Case 1 was similar to the premixed combustion that increased
37
38 rapidly. On the other hand, the other cases showed the conventional multiple injection combustion. The pilot
39
40 injected fuel combusted, and it increased the in-cylinder temperature. Consequently, the main injected fuel had a
41
42
short ignition delay.
43
44
45 Fig. 6 (b) shows the in-cylinder pressure history and heat release rate of the experimental and simulation
46
47 results according to the EGR rate. Although the accuracy of the simulation is relatively lower than that of the
48
49 injection timing change, we concluded that the agreement with the experimental results is reasonable when the
50
51
heat release rate and ignition timing are compared. As the EGR rate increased, the ignition timing of the pilot
52
53
injected fuel was retarded, and the heat release rate also drastically decreased. The ignition timing was retarded
54
55
when the EGR rate was close to 40% as compared with other cases. Furthermore, the main combustion occurred
56
57
without ignition of the pilot fuel similar with premixed combustion, and the combustion phase was significantly
58
59
60 different even though the injection timing was the same. As the EGR rate increased, the concentration of internal
61
62
63 15
64
65
1 oxygen decreased, and the concentration of CO2 increased. It causes highly diluted conditions inside of the
2
3 cylinder. Thus it prolonged the ignition delay [30].
4
5
6 Fig. 7 shows the ignition delay, combustion duration and IMEP of each case. Fig. 7 (a) shows the results of the
7
8 injection timing sweep. As mentioned above, the ignition delay of Case 1 is longer than Case 2 because of the
9
10 quartz piston and advanced injection timing. The ignition delay increased when injection timing was retarded. In
11
12 contrast, combustion duration decreased. Theses operating conditions are similar to MK combustion, which
13
14 requires a retarded injection timing, high EGR rate and high swirl ratio [11]. Thus, even when the injection
15
16 timing is retarded, the combustion duration decreased and pilot injected fuel combusts at the same time as the
17
18 main fuel combustion timing (as with premixed combustion) due to the high swirl ratio and IMEP is also
19
20 increased. Fig. 7 (b) indicates the results of the EGR rate sweep. When the EGR rate increased, the ignition
21
22 delay also increased because the reduction of oxygen, increase in carbon-dioxide and diluted air led to a
23
24 decrease in the combustion reactivity. Prolonged ignition delay improved air-fuel mixing and could lower the
25
26 soot emissions. Contrary to the above results, Case a (EGR rate is 23.8%) shows a lower IMEP than other cases.
27
28 The pilot injected fuel was about 20% of the total fuel, and it combusted before TDC and deteriorated the IMEP.
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63 16
64
65
1
2
3
4 5.0
5 Ignition delay
34

6 Combustion duration
IMEPnet
7
32
8
9 4.5
30
10
IMEPnet (bar)
11
28
12
13 4.0
14
15 10
16
17 8 3.5
18
19
20 6
-4 -2 Ref. +2 +4
21
22 SOI_main (deg.)
23
24
26
27
5.0
28 34 Ignition delay
29
Combustion duration
30 32 IMEPnet
31 30
32
33 28 4.5
IMEPnet (bar)
34
26
35
36
37 12
38 4.0
9
39
40 6
41
3
42
43 0 3.5
44 23.8(-10%) 28.8 (-5%) 33.8 (Ref.) 38.8 (+5%)
45 EGR rate (%)
46
47
49
50 Fig. 7. The ignition delay, combustion duration and IMEP of (a) injection timing sweep and (b) EGR rate
51
52 sweep.
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63 17
64
65
1 4.2 Effects of injection timing and EGR on flame propagation processes
2
3
4 CAD
-1.24 2.76 6.76 10.76 14.76 18.76 24.76 29.76 34.76 39.76
5 (aTDC deg.)
6
Case 1
7 (4° Adv.)
8
9
10 Case 2
11 (2° Adv.)
12
13
14 Baseline
15
16
Case 3
17
(2° Retard.)
18
19
20 Case 4
21 (4° Retard.)
22
23
25
26
27 CAD
-1.24 2.76 6.76 10.76 14.76 18.76 24.76 29.76 34.76 39.76
28 (aTDC deg.)
29
30 Case a
(-10%, 23.8%)
31
32
33 Case b
34 (-5%, 28.8%)
35
36 Baseline
37 (33.8%)
38
39
40 Case c
(5%, 38.8%)
41
42
43
45
46 Fig. 8. Comparison of ignition and flame propagation on visualization results of optical cylinder engines
47
48 for various operating condition variables: (a) injection timing sweep, (b) EGR rate sweep.
49
50
51
52
53 Fig. 8 shows the bottom-view photographs of a single-cylinder with various injection timings and EGR rates,
54
55 respectively. Fig. 8 (a) shows photographs based on the injection timing sweep. Images from the injection
56
57 timing sweep show that the time of combustion was significantly retarded as injection timing was retarded.
58
59 Moreover, the luminosity of the photographs decreased when injection timing was retarded. In order to analyze
60
61
62
63 18
64
65
1 the luminosity during flame propagation, the average luminosity change of each photograph as a function of the
2
3 crank angle was estimated for the variable injection timing and EGR rate, as shown in Fig. 8. This luminosity of
4
5 photographs was calculated based on the RGB information of each pixel in the picture. First, the RGB
6
7 information of each pixel in the image was extracted. This RGB information was converted into a picture of
8
9 gray tone, and then the brightness intensity of all pixels were derived and averaged. As mentioned above, the
10
11 increasing timing of luminosity was retarded, and the peak average luminosity also decreased as injection timing
12
13 was retarded. Compared to the Fig. 6 (a), the ignition timing reversal phenomenon between Case 1 and Case 2 is
14
15 not clearly observed in Fig. 9 (a). This is because the combustion intensity of the pilot injected fuel was too low
16
17 to increase the brightness of the photograph. Rather, it just increased the in-cylinder temperature and pressure
18
19 slightly to shorten the ignition delay of the main injected fuel. Thus, as shown in Fig. 9 (a), the brightness of
20
21 each case was determined by the heat release rate after the start of ignition and combustion of the main injected
22
23 fuel. Therefore, it also had a similar timing and magnitude with heat release rate. However, the magnitude of the
24
25 luminosity of Case 2 was higher than Case 1 even though injection timing was retarded. This is a result of the
26
27 adsorption of the pilot injected fuel on the wall, and this fuel could not evaporate thoroughly and released the
28
29 heat in Case 1.
30
31
32 Fig. 8 (b) illustrates the visualization results of the EGR rate sweep. Since the injection timing is the same, the
33
34 ignition timing of the main injected fuel is nearly the same as the baseline, Case a (base-10%) and Case b (base-
35
36 5%). The overall brightness decreased at an EGR rate of about 40% (Case c) where the EGR is increased by 5%
37
38 compared with the baseline, and the combustion photographs were not clearly visible. As the EGR rate
39
40 increased, the inside air became diluted, and the brightness decreased as the diffusion combustion became less
41
42
active. Instead, premixed combustion increased in a manner similar to MK combustion. Fig. 9 (b) shows the
43
44
luminous intensity of the visualized image according to the crank angle for various EGR rates. As the EGR
45
46
increases, the average brightness of the photograph decreases. When the EGR rate reached about 40%, a very
47
48
low luminous intensity was observed, as shown in Fig. 8 (b) and Fig. 9 (b), and a lower luminous intensity than
49
50
51 Case 4 was observed. Even though the injection timing and the ignition timing were more advanced than Case 4,
52
53 the brightness of the combustion photograph decreased as the combustion occurred in a state where the inside of
54
55 the cylinder becomes turbid and the oxygen concentration decreased.
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63 19
64
65
250 250
1

Average luminosity (-) Experimental results Case 1 (4º Adv.) Case a (23.8%)
2 200 Case 2 (2º Adv.) 200 Case b (28.8%)
3 150 Case 3 (2º Retard.)
150
Case c (38.8%)
4 100 100
5 50 50
6 0 0
7 -10
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 -10
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
8 Simulation results
Volume fraction (%)

Volume fraction (%)
8 8
9
6 6
10
4 4
11
12 2 2
13 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
14 Crank angle (ATDC deg.) Crank angle (ATDC deg.)
15 (a) Injection timing sweep (b) EGR rate sweep
16
17
18 Fig. 9. Average luminosity of the visualization results (Top) and the volume fraction of in-cylinder
19
temperature over 2400K at different (bottom) at (a) injection timing and (b) EGR rates.
20
21
22
23
24
25 In bottom of Fig. 9, the volume fraction of the temperature over 2400K as a function of crank angle in
26
27 computational cell is shown at different injection timings (left) and EGR rate (right). When the injection timing
28
29 advanced to Case 1, the volume fraction increased to about 7.5%. On the other hand, when the injection timing
30
31 was retarded to Case 4, the peak volume fraction was reduced by up to 2%. The trends for the brightness and
32
33 volume fraction of temperature region over 2400K were similar based on a comparison of the graphs of the
34
35 image luminosity shown in top of Fig. 9 and the temperature distribution shown in bottom of Fig. 9. Thus, it can
36
37 be seen that the factor determining the overall brightness was the high temperature flame over 2400K. This
38
39 means that the high temperature diffusion flame occupied the majority of the bright region. As shown in bottom
40
41
of Fig. 9 (b), the volume fraction rapidly decreased as EGR rate increased. As the EGR rate increased, the
42
43
combustion efficiency decreased as the oxygen concentration in the cylinder decreased and the carbon dioxide
44
45
concentration increased. As the diluted air increased, the ignition timing was retarded, and the combustion
46
47
48 process deteriorated leading to a reduction in the high temperature region. Also, when the EGR rate increased,
49
50 the specific heat increased. Thus, the temperature increase rate of the in-cylinder air decreased even if the same
51
52 amount of heat was supplied. This phenomenon led to the differences in temperature.
53
54
Fig. 10 shows the comparisons of maximum average luminosity and soot concentration by simulation results
55
56
57 for various injection timings and EGR rates. The maximum soot and average luminosity trend is similar. The
58
59 flame luminosity is related with flame temperature and soot concentration. Thus the maximum soot
60
61
62
63 20
64
65
1 concentration follows the luminosity trend.
2
3
4 1.1
5 1.0
6
0.9
7
8 Normalized value (-) 0.8
9 0.7
10
0.6
11
12 0.5
13 0.4
14 0.3
15 Maximum luminosity
0.2 Maximum soot
16
17 0.1
18 0.0
19 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2
20 Injection timing (ATDC deg.)

21
22
24
25
26
1.0
27
28
29 0.8
Normalized value (-)
30
31 0.6
32
33
0.4
34
35
36 0.2 Maximum luminosity
37 Maximum soot
38 0.0
39
40 20 25 30 35 40
41 EGR rate (%)
42
43
45
46
Fig. 10. Effect on maximum average luminosity and soot concentration (simulation results) for various (a)
47
48 injection timings and (b) EGR rates.
49
50
51
52
53 Fig. 11 shows comparisons of predicted NOx and soot emissions results for the injection timing sweep and
54
55 EGR rate sweep conducted by simulation. As mentioned above, emissions measurements were not conducted
56
57 because of skip firing and a lack of adequate warming process and operating time. Thus, emissions were only
58
59 predicted using the simulation results. Fig. 11 (a) shows the emission prediction for various injection timing
60
61
62
63 21
64
65
1 sweeps. When injection timing was retarded, both NO x and soot emission decreased simultaneously. The NOx
2
3 usually decreased when injection timing was retarded because the in-cylinder temperature also decreased at the
4
5 expansion stroke. In contrast, the soot usually increased because incomplete combustion increased. Nevertheless,
6
7 the soot can be reduced even though the injection timing was retarded because the high EGR rate prolongs the
8
9 ignition delay and the high swirl ratio improved the mixing of air and fuel. Fig. 11 (b) indicates the NOx and
10
11 soot emission results of the EGR rate sweep. When the EGR rate increased, the NO x concentration decreased
12
13 due to the low combustion temperature. Usually, the soot level increased with higher EGR. In contrast, the soot
14
15 level decreased in Case c, though the EGR rate increased (EGR rate is about 40%). Case c shows a lower level
16
17 of NOx and soot than baseline. It seems that the high EGR rate and late injection rate can reduce the NO x and
18
19 soot simultaneously while maintaining the combustion efficiency.
20
21
22 5.0
23 4.5
NOx
Soot
24
4.0
25
26 3.5
27 3.0
28
2.5
29
30 2.0
31 1.5
32
1.0
33 -4 -2 Ref. +2 +4
34 SOI_main (deg.)
35
36
38
39
40 6 NOx
41 Soot
42 5
43
4
44
45 3
46
47 2
48
1
49
50 0
51 23.8(-10%) 28.8 (-5%) 33.8 (Ref.) 38.8 (+5%)
EGR rate (%)
52
53
54
56
57 Fig. 11. The trend of NOx and soot emission results as a function of (a) injection timing sweep
58
59 and (b) EGR rate sweep (simulation results).
60
61
62
63 22
64
65
1
2
3
650
5 600
Cylinder head
6 550
7 60

8 500
Heat (J)
9 40
26.02
10 140 24.84
11 23.73
20
22.6
12 120 21.77
13 0 Dashed line : Case 1(4º Adv.)
14 100
15 -4 -2 Ref. +2 +4 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
17 650
Wall Heat loss 80
19 600 Cylinder liner
Cylinder head
20 550
60
21
500
22
Heat (J)
23 40
24 140 24.7
23.81 23.73
25 23.41 20
26 120
27 0 Dashed line : Case a (-10 %, 28.8%)
28 Dashed dot line : Case c (+5 %, 38.8%)
100
23.8(-10%) 28.8 (-5%) 33.8 (Ref.) 38.8 (+5%) -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
29
30
(b) EGR rate sweep
31
32
33 Fig. 12. Comparisons between the accumulated heat release of chemical reactions and wall heat transfer
34
35 and the difference in wall heat transfer for each location for (a) various injection timings and (b) EGR
36 rates (simulation results)..
37
38
39
40
41 Fig. 12 shows a comparison between the accumulated heat release calculated by simulations and the
42
43 accumulated heat release from the wall and the difference in wall heat transfer for each location for various
44
45 injection timings (top) and EGR rates (bottom). The black bar indicates the accumulated heat release calculated
46
47 by simulation, and the red bar indicates the accumulated heat release from the wall. The wall heat transfer model
48
49 was proposed by Han and Reitz [29]. In present study, the temperature of computational cells near the wall were
50
51 derived by calculating the wall temperature function from model. Using these temperatures, the wall heat
52
53 transfer was predicted in the cylinder bowl, head and liner. The red bar is the sum of the wall heat transfer in the
54
55 cylinder bowl, head and liner. Since the heat transfer between the optical engines and the real engines is
56
57 different, the absolute value of the above analysis result would be different from that of the optical engine, but
58
59 the qualitative trend is assumed to be the same. The left of Fig. 12 (a) shows comparisons of accumulated heat
60
61
62
63 23
64
65
1 release generated and transferred for various injection timings. As shown in Fig. 12 (a), the wall heat transfer
2
3 rate decreased from 26% to about 22% when the injection timing was retarded even though the total generated
4
5 heat release was almost the same and injection timings were different. The reduction in wall heat transfer is
6
7 observed in the right of Fig. 12 (a), which shows the difference in wall heat transfer for each location from the
8
9 simulation results. Before the start of combustion, the wall heat transfers were nearly the same for various
10
11 injection timings. And then, when injection and combustion started, the wall heat transfer sharply increased,
12
13 especially in the piston bowl. The wall heat transfers of the cylinder bowl showed a higher value and larger
14
15 difference than other locations because the injected fuel was aimed at the piston bowl and impinged on the
16
17 piston bowl. Thus, the flame of the high temperature impinged on the piston bowl, and the wall near the piston
18
19 bowl showed a higher temperature than other locations, resulting in high wall heat transfer. When the injection
20
21 timing was advanced, more injected fuel was captured in the piston bowl, leading to a high in-cylinder
22
23 temperature. On the other hand, the retarded injection timing changed the fuel injection target, and less fuel was
24
25 captured in the piston bowl and a higher quantity of fuel was in the squish region. In this case, the second
26
27 highest wall heat transfer location was the cylinder head. The injected fuel was divided into two parts, the piston
28
29 bowl and cylinder head. Therefore, the divided fuel slid to the cylinder head and increased the temperature near
30
31 the cylinder head. The difference decreased compared with the piston head. Wall heat transfer from the cylinder
32
33
wall showed the lowest difference. Fig. 12 (b) shows information against the EGR rate sweep, and the results
34
35
are a little different with Fig. 12 (a) First of all, the accumulated heat release based on a calculation of the
36
37
chemical reaction was different. Compared with injection timing sweep cases, there are little different that when
38
39
EGR rate increased, the total heat release decreased. As mentioned above, the ignition duration increased, and
40
41
42 the combustion timing was retarded over the TDC due to the fact that the higher EGR rate means a lower
43
44 oxygen concentration, a higher concentration of carbon dioxide and more diluted air (even though the injection
45
46 timing was the same), leading to a lower combustion efficiency than a lower EGR rate. Moreover, the wall heat
47
48 transfer also slightly decreased. As with the right of Fig. 12 results, the wall heat transfer from the cylinder wall
49
50 showed lowest difference, indicating that the temperature near the cylinder wall was almost the same even
51
52 though the EGR rate changed as shown in the right of Fig. 12 (b). The piston bowl also showed the highest
53
54 value and difference for various EGR rates as well as injection timing sweeps. However, the difference was
55
56 reduced compared with the injection timing. The in-cylinder temperature decreased and wall heat transfer
57
58 decreased because the increase in carbon dioxide caused a reduction in combustion activity.
59
60
61
62
63 24
64
65
1
2
3
4 4.3 Effects of swirl on flame propagation processes
5
6
7 6 200
8 SOI=Base R1 = outer(biggest) blue circle
9

150 R3 = inner (smallest) blue circle
10 (b)
4
11 (a)
(c)
12 100
13
14 2
50
15
16
17 0
0
18 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Crank angle (ATDC deg.)
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
30
31
32
33 Fig. 13. Comparison of the visualization results for experiments and simulations based on the crank angle.
34
35 Fig. 13 shows a comparison of the visualization results for experiments and simulations according to the
36
37 crank angle in the baseline. Fig. 13 includes the in-cylinder pressure history, heat release rate and visualization
38
39 results at about 10, 17, 21 crank angle degrees. As mentioned above, the simulation results of in-cylinder
40
41 pressure, heat release rate and 3-D visualization images agree well with the experimental results. Conventional
42
43 diesel diffusion combustion was found in the experimentally visualized image at a 10 crank angle degree, and
44
45 the simulation results also agreed well with the image. The combustion flame was slightly rotating in a
46
47 counterclockwise direction due to swirl flow. Fig. 13 (b) shows a comparison of visualized images at a crank
48
49 angle of 17 degrees. At this time, most of the fuel was already injected, and most of the flames were present
50
51 between R1 (outer blue circle in Fig. 13 (b)) and R2 (middle blue circle), which is near the piston bowl wall.
52
53 This is because the injected fuel was already distributed the near the wall of the piston bowl. However, the
54
55 combustion flame was not observed between R2 and R3, and the small region where the flame was found in R3
56
57 (inner blue circle) is shown. This small region was found even at a 25 degree crank angle. This can be observed
58
59 in both the visualization results and simulation. The reasons for the absence of flame between R2 and R3 and
60
61
62
63 25
64
65
1 the presence of flame in R3 are explained in the discussion of Fig. 14.
2
3
4
5
6
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36 Fig. 14. Comparisons of the in-cylinder temperature and flow velocity of z-plain cross section depending
37
38 on the crank angle in the base case.
39
40
41
42
Fig. 14 shows a comparison of the in-cylinder temperature and flow velocity of a z-plain cross section
43
44
depending on the crank angle in the base case. Fig. 14 provides detailed reasons for the flame separation
45
46
phenomenon seen in Fig. 13. As shown in Fig. 14 at 5 and 6 degree crank angles, the injected fuel had a high
47
48
49 injection speed due to a high injection pressure, and it penetrated the high density ambient gas in the cylinder.
50
51 Thus, the ambient air around the spray was entrained and filled the air inside the spray core. This air-
52
53 entrainment is the one of the reasons for the spray separation phenomenon. The flow toward the center disturbs
54
55 the axial direction spray flow, and it affects the spray separation. The middle of the fuel spray plume broke.
56
57 Thus, the fuel spray divided into two parts, i.e., near the piston wall and near the injector nozzle. This division
58
59 was caused by swirl flow, and it leads to the two observed combustion regions mentioned above.
60
61
62
63 26
64
65
1 Swirl flow, which flows counterclockwise, provides radial momentum to the injected fuel spray and reduces
2
3 the momentum in the axial direction of the spray. The spray had high momentum in the early and mid-stage
4
5 strongly penetrated the high density ambient air and swirl flow inside the cylinder, and reached the piston bowl.
6
7 However, the weakened spray injected in the late period of injection was blocked by the swirling flow in the
8
9 radial direction. Therefore, the fuel injected in the latter period cannot reach the wall of the piston bowl, thus, it
10
11 is present in the center of the cylinder. This fuel combusts in the latter stage of the injection and generates a
12
13 flame, as shown in Fig. 13 (b), (c) and 16.
14
15
16
17
18
19 6 200
20 Swirl ratio : 0.0
21 Baseline (Swirl ratio : 2.4)
22
Swirl ratio : 5.0
23

24 150
25
26 4
27
28
100
29
30
31
32 2
33 50
34
35
36
37
38 0
39 0
40 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
41 Crank angle (ATDC deg.)
42
43
44
Fig. 15. The difference of the in-cylinder pressure and heat release rate for various initial swirl ratios
45
46 (simulation results).
47
48
49
50
51 Fig. 15 shows the in-cylinder pressure and heat release rate for various initial swirl ratios to illustrate the
52
53 differences in the combustion characteristics of swirl flow intensity. First of all, the ignition phenomenon of the
54
55 pilot injected fuel deteriorated as the intensity of the swirl ratio increased. In the case where the initial swirl ratio
56
57 was increased to 5, the pilot injected fuel did not combust, and it ignited when the main fuel injection began. On
58
59 the contrary, when the initial swirl flow approached zero (i.e., no radial flow in the cylinder) the pilot injected
60
61
62
63 27
64
65
1 fuel ignited quickly and caused active combustion compared with a high swirl ratio.
2
3
4 When the swirl flow intensity increased, the radial direction flow strengthened, which affected the spray
5
6 behavior. Due to increased swirl flow, the axial direction momentum of the spray was reduced, and the radial
7
8 momentum increased. Thus, the spray penetration became shorter, and the break-up and atomization of the fuel
9
10 spray improved. This led to a reduction in the probability of ignition because of the low equivalence ratio
11
12 provided by a more homogeneous distribution of the pilot injected fuel in the cylinder. As mentioned above, the
13
14 rapid combustion of the pilot fuel and main injected fuel at a high swirl ratio can cause a rapid heat release rate
15
16 and increase in the pressure rise rate leading to drawbacks that include vibration and noise.
17
18
19
20
21
22 10 aTDC deg. 20 aTDC deg. 25 aTDC deg.
23
24
25
26 Initial
27 swirl ratio
28
29
=0.0
30
31
32
33
34
35 Initial
36
swirl ratio
37
38 =2.4 (base)
39
40
41
42
43
44 Initial
45
46 swirl ratio
47 =5.0
48
49
50
51
52
53
54 Fig. 16. The temperature distribution and velocity field in the cylinder for various swirl ratios and various
55 crank angles.
56
57
58
59
60 Fig. 16 shows the temperature distribution and velocity field in the cylinder for various swirl ratios according
61
62
63 28
64
65
1 to the crank angle. When the initial swirl ratio is zero, the fuel spray penetrated exactly in the axial direction
2
3 without any interference, collided with the cylinder bowl wall and was divided into two directions. However,
4
5 when swirl flow was present, the spray was interrupted by the radial flow and was bent. The spray tip
6
7 penetration became shorter as the swirl intensity became stronger. This can be seen in the temperature
8
9 distribution of the x-plane cross section in the base case with an initial swirl ratio of 5.0. The temperature within
10
11 the cylinder was significantly different from each swirl ratio case for a crank angle 20, which is the end of main
12
13 combustion. When there was no swirl flow, the low-temperature region was widely distributed at the center of
14
15 the cylinder. In contrast, when the swirl was present, the high-temperature region was widely distributed in the
16
17 central portion as shown in the x-plane cross section. When the swirl intensity was 2.4 (base case), the high-
18
19 temperature region was observed at the center of the cylinder. When the swirl intensity increased to 5, the high-
20
21 temperature region increased, and the boundary of the temperature became unclear. This phenomenon occurred
22
23 because swirl flow promoted the atomization of the spray and increased the equivalence ratio near the center of
24
25 the cylinder. A higher equivalence ratio near the center caused combustion, resulting in an increase in the overall
26
27 high temperature region. As mentioned above, the higher temperature region of the cylinder center became
28
29 wider as the swirl flow intensity became stronger. These results show that the combustion characteristics can be
30
31 changed by the swirl. As the swirl intensity increased, although the ignitability of the injected fuel decreased, it
32
33
induced active mixing of fuel-air and an increase in the efficient usage of oxygen in the cylinder. However, if the
34
35
swirl intensity increased excessively, the pilot injected fuel would not burn, and it ignited and burned at the
36
37
same time as the main injection, leading to a high temperature due to a rapid pressure rise and rapid heat release
38
39
rate. This is a disadvantage of high swirl ratio in the combustion characteristic as it leads to an increase in
40
41
42 nitrogen oxides and an increase in wall heat transfer.
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
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59
60
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1 5. Conclusions
2
3
4 In the present study, effects of injection timing, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) rate, and swirl ratio on flame
5
6 propagation processes were analyzed based on the flame images from a single cylinder optical engine. In
7
8 addition, numerical study was conducted in order to correlate fuel-air mixture formation, in-cylinder flow and
9
10 flame propagation process. The following conclusions were drawn from the present study.
11
12
13 1. The average luminosity of the visualized image had a similar tendency with the volume fraction of the
14
15 high temperature flame over 2400K. This result was the same for both the injection timing and the EGR
16
17 rate, confirming that the high temperature diffusion flame had a temperature above 2400 K, which affected
18
19 the luminosity of the visualized image.
20
21
22 2. A high EGR rate, retarded injection timing and high swirl ratio were the main variables of modulated
23
24 kinetics (MK) combustion. Even in optical engine, a simultaneous reduction of NOx and soot occurred
25
26 even if the EGR rate increased and injection timing was retarded.
27
28
29 3. The brightness of the flame is determined by soot incandescence, which depends on both flame
30
31 temperature and soot concentration. The brighter flame implies the increase of soot formation, however, it
32
33 does not result in the higher emitted soot concentration.
34
35
36 4. The difference in wall heat transfer for each location and operating condition was found based on the
37
38 simulation results. As the EGR rate increased, the amount of heat transfer to the wall decreased, and most
39
40 of the wall heat transfer was due to the high temperature flame colliding with the piston bowl. The piston
41
42 head, the cylinder wall, and the cylinder liner have no significant correlation with this parameter. The
43
44 piston bowl, cylinder head and cylinder liner showed higher wall heat transfer in sequence. However, the
45
46 wall heat transfer by the cylinder liner had no significant correlation with the operating parameters of
47
48 injection timing and EGR rate.
49
50
51 5. Though swirl flow is a significant parameter affecting the combustion characteristics and emissions in
52
53 small diesel engine, an excessively high swirl ratio or a very low swirl ratio can negatively affect the
54
55 combustion characteristics by changing the characteristics of spray behavior. Moreover, the flame remains
56
57 at the center of the cylinder due to swirl flow. Swirl flow breaks up the spray into two parts. The broken
58
59 fuel spray remains in the center of the cylinder, and it combusts and increases the usage of the oxygen in
60
61
62
63 30
64
65
1 the center of the cylinder.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13 Acknowledgments
14
15
16 This research was supported by Hyundai Motors Company and “Human Resources Program in Energy
17
18 Technology” of the Korea Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation and Planning (KETEP), granted financial
19
20 resource from the Ministry of Trade, Industry & Energy, Republic of Korea. (No. 20184010201710)
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Applied Energy

Manuscript Number: APEN-D-19-02693R1

Title: Effects of engine operating conditions on flame propagation

Article Type: Research Paper

Keywords: Diesel optical engine, KIVA-3V code, swirl ratio, Injection

School of Mechanical Engineering

Prof. J. Yan, PhD

Ms. Ref. No.: APEN-D-19-02693

Title: Effects of engine operating conditions on flame propagation processes in a compression

Dear Prof. J. Yan:

Comment 2: A proof reading by a native English speaker should be conducted to improve

Comment 3: Please avoid using abbreviations in the TITLE, HIGHLIGHTS, ABSTRACT

Highlights: There are no abbreviation in highlights

Original reference Revised reference

Original reference Revised reference

Original reference Revised reference

Original reference Revised reference

Original highlights Revised highlights

Original title Revised title

 What problem did you study and why is it important?

 What were your main results?

 And what conclusions can you draw from your results?

The visualization image (combustion characteristics) of MK combustion was acquired and it

According to your comment, we have revised the title as follows,

Original abstract Revised abstract

Our response: According to your comment, we revise the captions

Original caption Revised caption

Original caption Revised caption

Original caption Revised caption

Original caption Revised caption

Original caption Revised caption

Comment 8: The originality of the paper needs to be further clarified. It is of importance to

Experimental results Case 1 (4º Adv.) Case a (23.8%)

200 Case 2 (2º Adv.) 200 Case b (28.8%)

(a) Injection timing sweep (b) EGR rate sweep

Wall heat transfer (J)

Wall heat transfer (J)

EGR rate (%) Crank angle (aTDC deg.)

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