The Human Eye

 CORNEA

 transparent bulge over pupil

 focuses light (refracts)

onto retina

 RETINA

 internal membrane

 contain light-receptive cells

(rods & cones)

Structure & Function  converts light to electrical

signal
 IRIS

 coloured part of eye

 controls light entering

 PUPIL

 black hole in iris

 where light enters

Blind Spot

 SCLERA  On retina where optic nerve leads

back into the brain
 whites of the eye
 No rod or cone cells
 supports eyeball
 Other eye compensates for this
 provides attachment for area
muscles
 Try this test to prove you have a
 LENS blind spot…
 converging lens

 allows us to see objects

near and far
OPTIC NERVE

 Transmits electrical impulses from

PRESBYOPIA
retina to the brain
 Form of far-sightedness
 Creates blind spot
 Harder for people to read as they
 Brain takes inverted image and
age
flips it so we can see
 Lens loses elasticity

 Corrected by glasses with

converging lenses

MYOPIA

 Near-sightedness

 Problem seeing objects far away

 Distance between lens and retina

too large

 Light focused in front of retina

 Correct with diverging lenses

Diseases of the Eye

ASTIGMATISM

 Eye cannot focus an object’s image

on a single point on retina
Focusing Problems
 Cornea is oval instead of spherical
HYPEROPIA
 Causes blurred vision
 Far-sightedness
 Some types can be corrected with
 Problem seeing close objects lenses

 Distance between lens and retina GLAUCOMA

too small
 Group of diseases
 Light focused behind retina
 Affects optic nerve - pressure
 Corrected with converging lenses
 Loss of ganglion cells

 Gradual loss of sight and eventual

blindness

 Check eyes regularly

  Can be treated

CATARACTS

 Clouding forms in lens due to

denaturing of lens protein

 Obstructs passage of light

 Caused by age, chronic exposure to

UV, or due to trauma

 Removed by surgery REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Vision Correction

CONTACT LENSES

 Artificial lens placed over cornea

 Same as glasses
 Corrects for both near and far-
sightedness
 Also used for cosmetic purposes
(eye colour, Hollywood)
• Testes – The chief male
reproductive organ which located
inside the sac called scrotum .
• Seminiferous tubules - highly
coiled tubes inside the testis that
the sperm or male gametes are
formed.

• Epididymis- where the sperm are

temporarily stored

• Vas deferens – tubes through

which the sperm pass

3 GLANDS

• Seminal vesicles
LASIK
• Prostate gland
 “Laser Assisted In Situ
Keratomileusis” • Cowper’s gland

 Refractive surgery using laser • Travelling sperm move out of the

body through Urethra
 Corrects near and far-sightedness
and astigmatisms
 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE • Acts as body’s control center,
SYSTEM coordinates body’s activities

– Impulses travel through

the neurons in your body to
reach the brain

• Central Nervous System is yellow

in this diagram.

Folli
cles
–
female sex cells, egg cells or ova develop
from these follicles.

Oviducts (fallopian tubes)- funnel-shaped Peripheral Nervous System

opening and leads to the uterus.
• Made up of all the nerves that
The eggs or ova produced in the carry messages to and from the
ovaries pass through the tube-like central nervous system.
Oviducts on their way to the uterus
– Similar to telephone wires
Central part of uterus is made up of that connect all of our
muscles that contract and expand. houses in the community

• Central Nervous System and

Peripheral Nervous System work
7 ways to take care of your reproductive
together to make rapid changes in
system
your body in response to stimuli.
1. Choose your birth control wisely
• Peripheral Nervous System is
2. Practice safe sex green in this diagram.

3. Track your monthly cycle

4. Drink a lot of water

5. Go to your annual check up, and do

self exams as well

6. Have a better period

7. Stay away from toxins

2 parts
The Nervous System
• Somatic Nervous System
Central Nervous System

• Made up of brain and spinal cord

 – Relay information between
skin, skeletal muscles and
central nervous system
– You consciously control this
pathway by deciding
whether or not to move
muscles (except reflexes)
– Reflexes: Automatic
response to stimulus
• Autonomic Nervous System
– Relay information from
central nervous system to
organs
– Involuntary: You do not
consciously control these
– Sympathetic Nervous
System: controls in times
of stress, such as the flight
or fight response
– Parasympathetic Nervous
System: controls body in
times of rest
Neurons
• The basic unit of structure and
function in the nervous system
• Cells that conduct impulses.
– Made up of dendrites, cell
body and an axon
• Dendrites: branch-like extensions
that receive impulses and carry
them toward cell body.
• Axon: single extension of the
neuron that carries impulses away
from the cell body.
• The axon branches out at ending
to send impulses to many different
neurons. Dendrites receive
impulses from many other axons.
3 types of neurons
• Sensory Neurons: carry impulses
from inside and outside the body
to brain and spinal cord.
• Interneurons: found within brain
and spinal cord, process incoming
impulses and pass them on to
motor neurons.
• Motor Neurons: carry impulses
away from the brain and spinal
cord.
So how do these neurons work if someone
taps you on the shoulder . . .
1. Receptors in the skin sense touch
or other stimuli.
2. Sensory neurons transmit the
touch message.
3. Information is sorted and
interpreted in the brain. A
response in determined by
interneurons.
4. Motor neurons transmit a response
message to the shoulder muscles.
5. The shoulder muscles are
activated, causing the head to
turn.
The Brain
Three main sections (release) Hormones.

• Cerebrum  They are located all over your

body.
– 2 hemispheres

– Controls memory,
intelligence, muscles
Hormones are chemical messengers that
• Cerebellum
are secreted (released) from glands
– Controls balance, posture into the blood and affect cells in
and coordination another part of the body.

• Brainstem

– Controls involuntary External stimuli

activities such as breathing
by way of nerves from the sensory
The Endocrine system and organs in the nervous system

hormones
 The Endocrine System regulates,
coordinates and controls:

 Growth and development.

 Male and female

development. Internal stimuli

 How your body uses energy. by way of nerves and other hormones
from inside the body
 Levels of salts and sugars in
your blood.

 The amount (volume) of

fluid in your body.

 Appetite.

 Many other body functions.

 The Endocrine Glands are the

organs of the Endocrine System.

 They produce and secrete

Stimulus:

 You hear a loud noise

 A large dog runs toward you,

growling and barking
 You eat a large candy bar doping in most sports and is a very
dangerous practice.
 You have not eaten in six hours

 You have strep throat

 Where it comes from: ovary

 Where it acts: breast tissue,

reproductive structures in female

 A chain of events occur that lead  What it does: stimulates

from the stimulus to the response. development of female sexual
characteristics

 Estrogen levels may be related

somehow to migraine headaches in
women.

• Where it comes from: ovary

(where an egg was released)

• Where it acts: uterus

• What it does: controls

menstruation in women and plays a
role in pregnancy.

• One of the components of birth

control pills

 Where it comes from: testicles

 Where it acts: body-hair cells,

muscle, reproductive structures

 What it does: stimulates

development of male sexual
characteristics

 Testosterone is a steroid and has

been administered to athletes in
order to improve performance.
This is considered to be a form of
DNA History, Structure,
and Replication
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

- Responsible for transmission of

hereditary information.

Chromosomes – a part of a cell contains
the gene.
Chromatid- paired and parallel strands of
duplicated chromosome joined by a single
centromere.
Avery
Determines that genes are
composed of DNA
Chargaff’s Base Pairing Rule
Discovers the percentage of
Guanine is about the same as
Cytosine in any DNA sample. The
same with Adenine and Thymine.

As a result, develops base pairing

rule:

Centromere- point or region on a  A with T and C with G

chromosome

DNA History

Important People:

 1928 Frederick Griffith

 1944 Oswald Avery

 1952 Hershey-Chase

 Erwin Chargaff

 Early 1950’s Rosalind

Franklin and Maurice Rosalind Franklin
Wilkins
Takes pictures of chromosomes
 1954 James Watson and using
Francis Crick
x-ray crystallography (assisted by
Griffith Maurice Wilkins)
Discovers that a factor in heat-
killed, disease-causing bacteria can
“transform” harmless bacteria into
ones that can cause disease
 Double Helix

These nucleotides are arranged in

the shape of a double helix (a two-
sided, twisted ladder.)

Sugars and phosphates make up

the sides of the ladder

Strong covalent bonds connect the

sugars and phosphates

The nitrogen bases make the

Watson and Crick
stepsof the ladder.
1st to discover and model the shape
of DNA as a double helix.

1962 Nobel Prize Winners

Unfortunately, Rosalind Franklin died of

breast cancer before the Nobel prize was
awarded. The Nobel prize is not awarded
post-humously.

Structure of a DNA Molecule

DNA is made of small repeating

units (monomers) called
nucleotides.
DNA Replication
Each nucleotide has 3 parts:sugar
Why Does DNA make a copy of
1. Phosphate group itself?
2. Sugar Purpose:
3. Nitrogen base  Before a cell divides, it
There are 4 different nitrogen must make sure that each
bases: new cell receives its own
DNA copy.
Adenine “A” Cytosine “C”
Thymine “T” Guanine “G”  DNA replicates (makes an
exact copy) to make sure
this happens.

Remember Chargaff’s Rule: Where Does Replication Occur?

A pairs with T …in the nucleus

C pairs with G DNA is found in the nucleus; thus, all

DNA activities take place there.
GALAXIES AND THE EXPANDING TYPES OF GALLAXIES
UNIVERSE
1. Spiral - disk shaped with spiral
 Galaxy – is a gravitationally arms of dust and gas (fig 26-15, pg.
bound system of 831)
stars, stellar
remnants, interstellar - dust and gas provide a place for new
gas, dust and dark stars to form
matter
- young stars are
 The fact that galaxies
are receding from each bluish in color 
other at a great speed
gives spiral
indicates that the
universe is definitely galaxies a blue tint
expanding
- looks like a pin wheel
 NEBULA – is an interstellar
cloud of
dust, hydrogen, helium
and other ionized
gases

 Some nebulae are the result of

the violent explosion of massive
stars (“SUPERNOVA”)

After studying and photographing a

great number of galaxies, American
astronomer Edwin Powell Hubble 2. Elliptical (fig. 26-16, pg. 832) 
reported that “when we observe a most common type of galaxy
large volume of space, we observe as
- spherical and egg shaped
many galaxies in one direction as in
any other, and the observations are  NO spiral arms,
the same at all distances”.
little dust and gas

- generally have older

stars (reddish in color)

3. Irregular (fig. 26-17, pg. 832) 
least common type of galaxy
APPLICATION OF
- NO well defined shape or structure ELECTROMAGNETISM

- some have little  What is electric motor?

 What is generator?
dust or gas, some
 What is transformer?
have lots of dust
GAMETOGENESIS OR GAMETE
and gas FORMATION

 Ovarian cycle
 Fertilization
 Gestation or pregnancy

WATER CYCLE

Continuation…..

TRANSFORMER

 What is transformer?
 What are transformer used?
 What is the step-up and
step-down transformers?
 Problem solving using the
equation of transformers

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

 A short history about magnets

 How do magnets behave?
Magnetic fields, properties of
magnets
 What are the types of
magnetic material