1. what are the 3 steps involved in PCB manufacturing?

• Padding
• Routing
• viasing

2. Routing of components should not be done at 90 degrees. why?

PCB boards are generally used to work with low power signals. If routing is to be done
at 90 degrees it would cause copper loss which results in the loss of signal when it is routed from
one component to another.

3. what is viasing?Write about different types of viasing?

vias are means to interconnect different layers on and within the multilayered PCBs.

Plated Holes (Thru-hole Vias or Full Stack Vias)

When an interconnect must be made from a component that is located on the top layer of the
printed circuit board with another that is located at the bottom layer, a via (Vertical Interconnect
Access) is used. A via is a plated hole that allows the current to pass through the board. Figure 6
depicts 2 tracks that begin at the pads of a component on the top layer and end at the pads of
another component at the bottom layer. For conducting the current from the top layer to the
bottom layer, a via is used for each track. The tracks and pads that belong to the bottom layer are
visually dimmed, so you can differentiate them from the ones that are on the top layer.
 Fig 6. Two integrated circuits located on opposite sides of the PCB are connected using
thru-hole vias

Figure 7 depicts a more detailed view of a transversal section of a 4 layer printed circuit board or
4 layer PCB. The colors that appear in the Figure are explained in the following table:

Color Legend for Figure 7

green Top and bottom soldermasks

red Top layer ( conductive )

violet Second layer. In this case this layer is used as a power plane ( i.e. Vcc or Gnd )

yellow Third layer. In this case this layer is used as a power plane ( i.e. Vcc or Gnd )

blue Bottom Layer ( conductive )

The PCB depicted in figure 7 shows a track that belongs to the top layer that goes through the
board using a thru-hole via, and then continues as a track that belongs to the bottom layer.

Fig 7. Track from the top layer going through the PCB and ending on the bottom layer
Blind vias

In high density complex designs is necessary to use more than 2 layer as we have shown in
figure 7. Generally in multilayer system designs where there are many integrated circuits, power
planes ( Vcc or gnd) are used to avoid excessive routing for power rails. In other words, it is lot
easier and more secure to directly connect to the power planes that are beneath the chips instead
of routing long tracks for the PDS ( Power Delivery System ) ( this can also be achieved with
thru-hole vias ). Also there are times that a signal track must be routed from an external layer (
top or bottom ) to an internal layer with minimum via height because it can act as a stub and
maybe produce an impedance mismatch. This can cause reflections and produce signal integrity
issues ( more on this in a future article ). For these kinds of interconnects blind vias are used,
which allows a connection to be made from an external layer to an internal layer with minimum
via height. A blind via starts on an external layer and ends on an internal layer, that's why it has
the prefix "blind".

To know if a certain via is blind, you can put the PCB against a source of light and see if you can
see the light coming from the source through the via. If you can see the light, then the via is thru-
hole, otherwise the via is blind.

It is very useful to use these kinds of vias in printed circuit board design when you don't have too
much space for placing components and routing. You can put components on both sides and
maximize the space. If the vias were thru-hole instead of blind, there would be some extra space
used by the vias on both sides.

Figure 8 depicts 3 vias that are part of 4 layer printed circuit board. If we see the picture from left
to right, the first via that we will see is thru-hole via or fullstack via. The second via begins at the
top layer and ends at the second layer ( inner ), so we say that this is a 1-2 blind via. At last, the
third via begins at the bottom layer and ends at the third layer, so we say that this is a 3-4 blind
via.

It is important to have in mind that blind vias are often manufactured in consecutive layers, in
other words between L1 L2, L3 L4, Ln-1 Ln.
 Fig 8. Comparison between a Thru-hole and a Blind via

The disadvantage of this type of via is its high price when compared to the thru-hole alternative.

Buried Vias

These vias are similar to the blind ones, with the difference that they begin and end on an inner
layer. If we look at the image depicted in figure 9 from left to right, we see that the first one is a
thru-hole or full stack via. The second one is a 1-2 blind via, and the last one is a 2-3 buried via
that begins on the second layer and ends on the third layer.
 Fig 9. Comparison between Thru-hole vias, Blind vias and Buried vias

It is important to have in mind that blind vias are often manufactured in consecutive layers (i.e.
L1 L2)

As the case of blind vias, the main disadvantage of this type of via is its high price when
compared to the thru-hole alternative. Using b/bb vias may impact the cost of the boards in an
important way, so you decide if it's better to use these kinds of vias or use bigger boards with
thru-hole type vias.

4. How is grounding done in PCB boards?

Grounding in PCB boards are generally done using ground plane. A ground plane is a
conductive layer which carries the DC and AC return path for current.It is generally connected to
0 volts, ground, or the negative terminal.
It covers all places on the board that do not contain a component or a trace with the
ground plane.Generally the ground plane is made on both sides of the board, but the component
side plane is sometimes kept at the supply voltage while the plane on the other side is grounded.
The ground plane should be connected to all the ground pins of components and connectors. This
helps keep the ground voltage at the same level throughout the board.

5. write about single layered and multilayered PCBs?

Single layer or single sided PCBs

These PCBs simply have components on one side of the board and the conductor pattern on the
other side. This reason is why it’s known as a single sided or single layer PCB. Often, these are
used for simpler devices as no wires can cross if the circuit is to function correctly. These are
usually slightly cheaper to manufacture than multi layer PCBs.

Multi layer PCBs

Multilayer PCBs have one or multiple conductor patterns inside the board, this increases the area
available for wiring. By laminating or gluing several double-sided circuit boards together with
insulating layers in between. Frequently between 4 and 8 layer PCBs are used as these offer the
right amount of complexity for most purposes. There is the capacity for more layers however
depending on device. These are likely to be different depending on the various device. Some
smart phones for example are said to use 12 layers due to the various demands of the circuit.
Often they have an even number of layers as odd layers can lead to issues with the circuit board.
This includes problems like warping and twisting after soldering, and no cost savings as they’re
not the standard to produce.
5.what is padding?what are the different types of padding? Write about the features of
different types of padding

Placing the electronic components on the surface of PCB board is called padding. Padding
of electronic components can be done in 2 methods

• through hole padding

• surface mounting

Through-Hole Mounting (THM):

Through-hole mounting is the process by which component leads are placed into drilled holes on
a bare PCB. The process was standard practice until the rise of surface mount technology (SMT)
in the 1980s, at which time it was expected to completely phase out through-hole. Yet, despite a
severe drop in popularity over the years, through-hole technology has proven resilient in the age
of SMT, offering a number of advantages and niche applications: namely, reliability.

Through-hole components are best used for high-reliability products that require stronger
connections between layers. Whereas SMT components are secured only by solder on the surface
of the board, through-hole component leads run through the board, allowing the components to
withstand more environmental stress. This is why through-hole technology is commonly used in
military and aerospace products that may experience extreme accelerations, collisions, or high
temperatures. Through-hole technology is also useful in test and prototyping applications that
sometimes require manual adjustments and replacements.

Overall, through-hole’s complete disappearance from PCB assembly is a wide misconception.

Barring the above uses for through-hole technology, one should always keep in mind the factors
of availability and cost. Not all components are available as SMD packages, and some through-
hole components are less expensive.

However, that doesn’t negate that fact that, in a modern assembly facility, through-hole is
considered a secondary operation.

Axial vs. Radial Lead Components

There are two types of through-hole components: axial and radial lead components. Axial leads
run through a component in a straight line ("axially"), with each end of the lead wire exiting the
component on either end. Both ends are then placed through two separate holes in the board,
allowing the component to fit closer, flatter fit. Radial lead components, on the other hand,
protrude from the board, as its leads are located on one side of the component.

Both through-hole component types are "twin" lead components, and both have their distinct
advantages. While axial lead components are used for their snugness to the board, radial leads
occupy less surface area, making them better for high density boards. Generally, axial lead
configuration may come in the form of carbon resistors, electrolytic capacitors, fuses, and light-
emitting diodes (LEDs). Radial lead components are available as ceramic disk capacitors.

Advantages: THM provides stronger mechanical bonds than SMT, making through-hole ideal
for components that might undergo mechanical stress, such as connectors or transformers. Good
for test and prototyping.

Disadvantages: On the bare PCB side, THM requires the drilling holes, which is expensive and
time consuming. THM also limits the available routing area on any multilayer boards, because
the drilled holes must pass through all the PCB’s layers. On the assembly side, component
placement rates for THM are a fraction of surface mount placement rates, making THM
prohibitively expensive. Further, THM requires the use of wave, selective, or hand-soldering
techniques, which are much less reliable and repeatable than reflow ovens used for surface
mount. Most of all, through-hole technology requires soldering on both sides of the board, as
opposed to surface-mounts, which only -- for the most part -- require attention to one side of the
board.

Surface Mount Technology (SMT):

SMT the process by which components are mounted directly onto the surface of the PCB.
Known originally as “planar mounting,” the method was developed in the 1960s and has grown
increasingly popular since the 1980s. Nowadays, virtually all electronic hardware is
manufactured using SMT. It has become essential to PCB design and manufacturing, having
improved the quality and performance of PCBs overall, and has reduced the costs of processing
and handling greatly.

The key differences between SMT and through-hole mounting are (a) SMT does not require
holes to be drilled through a PCB, (b) SMT components are much smaller, and (c) SMT
components can be mounted on both side of the board. The ability to fit a high number of small
components on a PCB has allowed for much denser, higher performing, and smaller PCBs.

Through-hole component leads, which run through the board and connect a board’s layers, have
been replaced by "vias" -- small components which allow a conductive connection between the
different layers of a PCB, and which essentially act as through-hole leads. Some surface mount
components like BGAs are higher performing components with shorter leads and more
interconnection pins that allow for higher speeds.

Nomenclature

There are perhaps too many terms that describe different aspects of surface mount technology.
Here’s what they mean:

SMA (surface-mount assembly) – a build or module assembled using SMT.

SMC (surface-mount components) – components for SMT.

SMD (surface-mount devices) – active, passive, and electromechanical components.

SME (surface-mount equipment) – machines used for SMT.

SMP (surface mount packages) – SMD case forms.

SMT (surface-technology) – the act and method of assembling and mounting electronic
technology.

Common of Surface Mount Devices (SMDs)

The taxonomy of surface mount devices (SMDs) is so expansive and ever-changing that
covering it in full would be impossible. But here are several types that are very common and
very important to know.

MELF (Metal Electrode Face Bonded): Consisting of two terminals bonded to a cylindrical
body, these SMD components are less expensive than flat chips but require special handing
during assembly. Furthermore, one of their biggest disadvantages is their tendency to roll off
solder pads during assembly. Generally speaking, they come in the form of diodes, resistors, and
capacitors.

SOT Transistors and Diodes: These are usually rectangular and easy to place, though they're a bit
outdated. The most common SOTs are SOT 23, SOT 89, SOT 143, and SOT 223. Its most
common packaging is tape & reel.

Integrated Circuits (ICs):

Small outline Integrated Circuit (SOIC) – These are good SMT alternatives to the duel in-line
package (DIP), due to their dramatically reduced size. In general, they take up 30 – 50% less
space and 70% less thickness than an average DIP.

Thin Small Outline Package (TSOP) – TSOPs are low profile packages with fine-pitch leads.
TSOPs are typically meant to accommodate large silicon chips in high density packages (RAM
or flash memory ICs), largely because of their low volume/high pin count.

Quad Flat Pack (QFN) – QFNs are high lead count packages (44 – 304). Its leads are typically
gull wing. There are many kinds of QFNs, and they are one of the most common surface-mount
ICs.

Plastic Leaded Chip Carrier (PLCC) - Connections are made on all four edges of a square
package with a relatively high pin count. PLCCs can have roughly 18 – 100 leads (usually J-
leads). Many of them can fit into IC sockets and can be easily replaced in the field. PLCCs have
long been a popular option.

Lead-less Chip Carrier (LCC) – Not to be confused with PLCC, LCCs have no leads. Rather,
LCCs are soldered directly onto PCBs by their (castellation) solder pads. These are usually
designed for Mil Spec because, with no leads to damage, they're quite "rugged." LCCs are great
for high temperature and aerospace applications.

Pin Grid Array (PGA) – PGAs are typically square or rectangular, with pins arranged underneath
the package. They're design was highly influential on the now ubiquitous BGA.

Flip Chip – Flip chips are bare die packages, with small bottom-side solder bumps that act as
leads. They are soldered directly onto the PCB.

Ball Grid Array (BGA) – BGAs are perhaps one of the best performing SMT packages in use
today, due to their high densities. The BGA is a descendent of the PGA, yet instead of pins, it
has solder balls that can be placed directly onto the PCB. Because of their high density, BGAs
are typically used to house microprocessors.

Advantages: SMT allows for smaller PCB size, higher component density, and more real estate
to work with. Because fewer drilling holes are required, SMT allows for lower cost and faster
production time. During assembly, SMT components can be placed at rates of thousands—even
tens of thousands—of placements per hour, versus less than a thousand for THM. Solder joint
formation is much more reliable and repeatable using programmed reflow ovens versus through
techniques. SMT has proven to be more stable and better performing in shake and vibration
conditions.

Disadvantages: SMT can be unreliable when used as the sole attachment method for
components subject to mechanical stress (i.e. external devices that are frequently attached or
detached).

Overall, surface mounting will almost always prove more efficient and cost-effective than
through-hole mounting. It is used in more than 90 percent of PCBAs today. However, special
mechanical, electrical, and thermal considerations will continue to require THM, keeping it
relevant well into the future.

REFERENCE: https://blog.optimumdesign.com/through-hole-vs-surface-mount

Example
Package Description
Image
Are all those components that have pins intended to be
mounted through a plated hole in the PCB. This kind of
Thru-Hole component is soldered to the opposite side of the board
from which the component was inserted. Generally these
components are mounted on one surface of the board only.
 Are all those components that are soldered in the same
side of the board from which the component was placed.
The advantage of this type of package is that it can be
SMD/SMT (surface
mounted on both sides of the PCB. Also, these
mount
components are smaller than the thru-hole type, which
device/surface
allows the design of smaller and denser printed circuit
mount technology)
boards. These types of components are useful for
frequencies up to 200 [MHz] (fundamental clock
frequency).
These types of components are frequently used for high
density pin integrated circuits. For soldering them to the
printed circuit boards it is required to have specialized
machinery due that the pins are made of solder balls that
have to be melted for making the electrical contact with
BGA (Ball grid the pads.
array)
BGA components are ideal for high frequency integrated
circuits due to the very small parasitic inductances present
in the joint between the pad and the balls. These type of
components are very common in computer hardware like
motherboards and video accelerator cards.

REFERENCE: http://www.pcb.electrosoft-engineering.com/04-articles-custom-system-design-
and-pcb/01-printed-circuit-board-concepts/printed-circuit-board-pcb-concepts.html

6. write about conventional ways of PCB manufacturing?

CHEMICAL METHOD:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q6iu8Fe8UOY

USING PHOTO RESIST:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2hQfGtSFe_

7. Disadvantages of conventional methods of PCB manufacturing?

 • Manufacturing of multilayered PCBs becomes very tedious process
• requires skilled labourers at every stage of manufacture
• It is very difficult to match the dimensions of various electronic components

8. write about anyone one of PCB printers.

DRAGONFLY 2020:

An Israel-based provider of 3D printing technologies and nano-inks is now shipping a desktop

machine to beta customers that can produce multi-layer circuit boards.

Nano Dimension's Dragonfly 2020 is a desktop 3D printer that can produce circuit board
prototypes and small production runs, potentially reducing development time from weeks to
hours

The Dragonfly 2020 uses an inkjet-like material deposition method followed by a heat-based
curing system to create the printed circuit boards (PCBs), and it has no limit to the number of
layers beyond the mechanical height of the printer's z axis.

The printer works by first depositing a dielectric insulating material and a silver-based nano-ink
for circuitry on top of it.

None of the nano-inks extruded by the 3D printer start at room temperature; before they are
desposited on the print platform, they go through process called curing and sintering, which
bakes the materials to get rid of solvents, then they are melted further before being extruded,