12 Answers to end-of-chapter questions

1 B [1]
2 A [1]
3 C [1]
4 B [1]
5 B [1]
6 A [1]
7 A [1]
8 B [1]
9 A [1]
10 C [1]
11 A [1]
Structured questions

12 a i • Characterised by a large, fluid-filled antrum

• Secondary oocyte pushed to one side
• Thin layer of theca cells / granulosa cells on the periphery 3–4 points [2]
• The corona radiata surrounds the oocyte 1–2 points [1]

ii I – corona radiata / granulosa cells [1]

II – theca [1]
III – antrum [1]
IV – secondary oocyte [1]

iii Magnification = size of scale bar / actual size

= 20 000/50 Complete calculation [2]
= ×400 Partial [1]

b
corona radiata

zona pellucida

lipid droplets

haploid nucleus

nucleolus

cortical granules /
lysosomes

mitochondrion

cytoplasm Good drawing [1]

first polar body
5–6 labels [3]
3–4 labels [2]
1–2 labels [1]

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 Drawing showing the detailed structure of a secondary oocyte

c • Only meiosis I has been completed with the production of 1st polar body
• Meiosis II is not completed / arrested in metaphase II
• It is only completed when the sperm enters the oocyte 3–4 points [2]
• Completion of meiosis II produces 2nd polar body and ovum 1–2 points [1]

d I – oestrogen
II – progesterone
III – LH 3–4 correct [2]
IV – FSH 1–2 correct [1]

13 a I – chorion
II – amnion
III – cavity of uterus
IV – umbilical cord
V – allantois 8–9 correct [5]
VI – yolk sac 6–7 correct [4]
VII – placenta / chorionic villi 4–5 correct [3]
VIII – amniotic fluid 2–3 correct [2]
IX – foetus 1 correct [1]

b • amnion
• chorion
• yolk sac 3–4 correct [2]
• allantois 1–2 correct [1]

c • To protect the foetus or embryo from physical shock and

mechanical damage; it acts as shock absorber
• The foetus can move freely / allows development of the skeleton
and muscles and lung development
• Provides a sterile environment hence prevents infection
• Supports the foetus so it floats
• Maintains a constant temperature in the foetus
• Acts as a receptacle for waste e.g. exfoliations, secretions, urine
from foetus
• The foetus swallows the amniotic fluid and therefore develops Any 1 point [1]
swallowing reflex [max 3]

d Smoking
• IGUR / slow / stunted growth / underweight baby
• Carbon monoxide binds irreversibly to form a stable compound with
haemoglobin in red blood cells of foetus
• Carbon monoxide has a higher affinity for haemoglobin than oxygen
• Reduces oxygen transport
• Nicotine constricts / narrows / reduces blood flow in arteries
• Reduces transport of nutrients
• Increases foetal heart rate
• Small placenta
• Both carbon monoxide and nicotine reduce the foetus’s growth in uterus
• Increased risk of miscarriage / prenatal mortality / stillbirth
• Baby might be premature / have respiratory illness Any 1 point [1]
• immature lungs / size of lungs reduced by 30% [max 5]

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 Alcohol
• Foetal alcohol syndrome
• Slows nervous system and brain development
• Heart defects
• Cleft palate
• Poor muscle tone Any 1 point [1]
• Abnormal limb development [max 2]

14 a i I – acrosome
II – nucleus
III – mitochondrion 3–4 correct [2]
IV – axial filament 1–2 correct [1]

ii I – contains hydrolytic enzymes which are released during fertilisation

and are used to digest a path into the female gamete [1]
• II – contains the haploid number of chromosomes and carries the
male genetic material; fuses with female gamete to keep the
chromosome number constant [1]

iii • III produce large amounts of ATP in aerobic respiration [1]

• ATP required by the microtubules of IV to move relative to each
other in order to bring about the wavelike movements of the tail,
producing the swimming movements used to take the spermatozoan
to the female gamete [1]

plasma membrane

mitochondrion

9 + 2 microtubules

3 labels [2]
2 labels [1]
Drawing showing a section through middle Correct drawing [2]
piece of the human sperm Partial [1]
[max 4]

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c i

90
80

normal morphology
70

% viable sperm or
60 % viable
50 sperm
40 % normal
30 morphology
20
10
0
10–19 23–43 51–70
Age range/years
Axes labelled correctly [2]
Bars drawn accurately [2]

ii • Percentage of sperm with normal morphology was highest at

age 23 to 43 years
• Percentage of sperm with normal morphology was lowest at
age 51 to 70 years
• Percentage of viable sperm was lowest at age 51 to 70 years
• Percentage of viable sperm was highest at age 10 to 19 years
• As age increases, % of viable sperm decreases Any point [1]

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Essay questions

15 a i FSH
LH
Oestrogen 3–4 points [2]
Progesterone 1–2 points [1]

ii

Hormone Main Effect of hormone

site of ovary endometrium
secretion
FSH anterior • stimulates no effect
lobe of growth of the
pituitary follicle in the
gland ovary
• stimulates the
secretion of
oestrogen by
theca cells
LH anterior • acts on ovaries no effect
lobe of to stimulate
pituitary growth of
gland follicles
• promotes
ovulation
• promotes
development of
corpus luteum
Oestrogen theca no effect promotes repair and
cells of growth of uterine lining
follicle / lining to proliferate
and develop blood
vessels / become
vascularised
Progesterone corpus no effect uterine lining becomes Every 3 points
luteum more vascular to make correct [1]
it ready to receive the [max 4]
embryo if fertilisation Excludes first
occurs column

b • Cells of Leydig stimulated by LH / ICSH

• Produces testosterone
• Passes into the seminiferous tubules where it binds to Sertoli cells
• Which stimulates / controls spermatogenesis in seminiferous
tubules
• Promotes cell division / growth of spermatogonia Any point [1]
• Inhibits GnRH and LH [max 3]

c i • Based on the 28-day menstrual cycle

• Monitor cycle to determine safe period / ovulation days
• Women ovulate 14 days before menstruation begins, give or take
two days

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 • Sperm can survive inside a woman for 3 days
• Egg is viable for 3 days 4–6 points [2]
• Therefore, unsafe days 11–17 2–3 points [1]
Question changed from Rhythm method to IUD, answer needs to be changed
ii • Contains progesterone and oestrogen
• Inhibits FSH
• Development of follicle is arrested
• No ovulation
• Thickens the mucus in the cervix, making it difficult for sperm to
reach an egg
• Makes the lining of the womb thinner so it is less likely to accept a 4–6 points [2]
fertilised egg 2–3 points [1]

iii • Vasa differentia leading to both testes are cut and tied [1]
• So preventing sperm from entering the urethra [1]

16 a i • Exchange of respiratory gases (carbon dioxide, oxygen)

• Exchange of nutrients (glucose, amino acids, etc.)
• Exchange of antibodies
• Exchange of nitrogenous waste
• Production of hormones e.g. progesterone, oestrogen
• Acts a physical barrier by preventing direct foetal / maternal blood
exchange and as blood pressure reducer
• a chemical barrier by controlling transplacental transport e.g. by
restriction of large protein molecules, hormones and harmful Any point [1]
pathogens (HIV – about 15–50% of time; rubella, herpes simplex) [max 3]

ii

large surface area of villus, which foetal blood separated from

is part of the foetus, through maternal blood – maintains its
which foetal blood flows – own blood pressure/isolated
increases exchange of from pressure changes
substances

diffusion gradient
maintained by
circulation /
countercurrent
short diffusion
distance from sinus
to foetal blood /
efficient diffusion

foetal blood has a

higher affinity for O2
than maternal blood
Drawing neat and clear [1]
Any 3 annotations or more [3]
2–3 annotations [2]
1 annotation [1]
many fine blood
Drawing with no annotations but 3
capillaries to increase
transport labels [1]
[max 4]

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 b i Diffusion e.g. respiratory gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) and
nitrogenous waste (urea)
Facilitated diffusion e.g. glucose
Osmosis e.g. water Well described
Pinocytosis e.g. antibodies process with example [1]
Active transport of amino acids, ions [max 2]

ii • Smaller, only substances with a certain molecular mass can pass

• Must be soluble
• There must be a diffusion gradient for substance (from mother’s blood
to foetus)
• Or a specific active transport carrier mechanism present (e.g. Na+ ions
via carrier proteins) Any 1 point [1]

c [answer missing – question is ‘Discuss the possible effects of maternal

behaviour on foetal development. (make reference to cigarette smoking,
alcohol abuse, role of nutrition)]

17 a i • Exchange of respiratory gases, carbon dioxide, oxygen

• Sperms become capacitated / capacitation
• Enabling them to swim more strongly and rapidly
• A layer of glycoprotein around the sperm is hydrolysed by enzymes
in the uterus
• Plasma proteins in the seminal fluid are also hydrolysed by enzymes
in the uterus Any 3 points [3]
• Changes happen in the membrane around the acrosome so that it can 2 points [2]
release its enzymes quickly once the oocyte is reached 1 point [1]

ii • Acrosome reaction
• Enzymes in acrosome digest path through corona radiata
• Receptors in sperm’s cell surface membrane bond to receptors
in the zona pellucida
• Another acrosome enzyme digests path through zona
pellucida
• Sperm head membrane binds with membrane of oocyte
• Oocyte releases enzymes from lysosomes / cortical
granules
• Passes into zona pellucid For fertilisation (not bold)
• Zona pellucida thickens and becomes an 6–8 points [4]
impenetrable barrier / fertilisation membrane 5 points [3]
• This barrier prevents penetration by more than one sperm 4 points [3]
• Contact by sperm with oocyte causes meiosis II to be 2–3 points [1]
completed For prevention (in bold)
• Nucleus of sperm enters ovum 3–4 points [2]
• Fuses with nucleus of ovum / fertilisation 1–2 points [1]
[max 6]

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 b

Spermatogenesis Oogenesis
takes place in the testis takes place in the ovary
involves mitosis in involves mitosis in multiplication phase
multiplication phase
continuous production of fixed number of primary oocytes from birth which
primary spermatocytes develop into ova from menarche / beginning of
from puberty to old age menstruation to menopause
involves meiosis involves meiosis
meiosis completed in meiosis arrested in prophase I in foetal stage and
days continues at puberty, completed with entry of sperm
into oocyte
maturation of sperm can take as long as 48–50 years / up to menopause
takes about 70 days
does not begin in foetal all primary oocytes produced from birth
stage
four functioning, small one large, immotile oocyte and 2 degenerated polar
motile spermatozoa at the bodies are left at the end of the meiosis
end of the meiosis
gametes are haploid gametes are haploid [5]

[markscheme needed for 17b]

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