Chapter 1

Keys to the Study of Chemistry

1-1
Is the study of matter,
its properties,
the changes that matter undergoes,
and
the energy associated with these changes.

1-2
 Definitions

Matter anything that has mass and volume - the “stuff” of the
universe: books, planets, trees, professors, students

Composition the types and amounts of simpler substances that

make up a sample of matter

Properties the characteristics that give each substance a unique

identity

1-3
 Figure 1.1 The distinction between physical and chemical change.

1-4
 Figure 1.2 The physical states of matter.

1-5
 Sample Problem 1.2 Distinguishing Between Physical and
Chemical Change

PROBLEM: Decide whether each of the following processes is primarily a

physical or a chemical change, and explain briefly:
(a) Frost forms as the temperature drops on a humid winter night.
(b) A cornstalk grows from a seed that is watered and fertilized.
(c) A match ignites to form ash and a mixture of gases.
(d) Perspiration evaporates when you relax after jogging.
(e) A silver fork tarnishes slowly in air.

1-6
 Energy is the ability to do work.

energy due to the position of the object or

Potential Energy energy from a chemical reaction

Kinetic Energy energy due to the motion of the object

1-7
 Figure 1.3A
Energy is the ability to do work.

less stable

change in potential energy

EQUALS
kinetic energy

more stable

A gravitational system. The potential energy gained when a

lifted weight is converted to kinetic energy as the weight falls.
1-8
 Energy is the ability to do work. Figure 1.3B

less stable

change in potential energy

EQUALS
kinetic energy

more stable

A system of two balls attached by a spring. The potential energy

gained by a stretched spring is converted to kinetic energy when the
moving balls are released.

1-9
 Energy is the ability to do work. Figure 1.3C

less stable

change in potential energy

EQUALS
kinetic energy

more stable

A system of oppositely charged particles. The potential energy gained

when the charges are separated is converted to kinetic energy as the
attraction pulls these charges together.

1-10
 Energy is the ability to do work. Figure 1.3D

less stable

change in potential energy

EQUALS
kinetic energy

more stable

A system of fuel and exhaust. A fuel is higher in chemical potential

energy than the exhaust. As the fuel burns, some of its potential energy is
converted to the kinetic energy of the moving car.

1-11
 Scientific Approach: Developing a Model

Observations :

Hypothesis:

Experiment:

Model (Theory):

Further Experiment:

1-12
MEASUREMENTS AND MEASUREMENT UNITS
• Measurements consist of two parts, a number and a unit or
label such as feet, pounds, or gallons.
• Measurements are made using measuring devices (e.g.
rulers, balances, graduated cylinders, etc.).

• Factor-label method or dimensional analysis uses

conversion factors to solve problems.
• If you traveled 150 miles/hour, how many feet/minute did
you travel?

1-13
 A Systematic Approach to Solving Chemistry Problems

•Problem statement

•Plan

•Solution

•Check

•Comment and Follow-up Problem

1-14
 Sample Problem 1.3 Converting Units of Length

PROBLEM: To wire your stereo equipment, you need 325 centimeters (cm) of
speaker wire that sells for $0.15/ft. What is the price of the wire?

1-15
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
• The standard position for the decimal is to the right of the
first nonzero digit in the number M.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE EXPONENT n

• A positive n value indicates the number of places to the
right of the standard position that the original decimal
position is located.
• A negative n value indicates the number of places to the
left of the standard position that the original decimal
position is located.

1-16
 • Basic or defined units [e.g. 1 meter (1 m)] are used to calculate derived
units [e.g. 1 square meter (1 m2)].

• These seven units are known as base units. All other units are known
as derived units and are a combination of these seven base units

1-17
 • The metric system is a decimal system in which larger and smaller
units are related by factors of 10.
1-18
THE METRIC SYSTEM
• The Tera 1012
• Great Giga 109
• Man Mega 106
• Killed Kilo 103
• Hundreds Hecto 102
• Daily Deca 101
• except gram/liter/meter 100
• During Deci 10-1
• Christmas Centi 10-2
• Morning Milli 10-3
• My Micro 10-6
• Nice Nano 10-9
• Puppy Pico 10-12
1-19
1-20
 Converting Units of Volume

PROBLEM: Within a cell, proteins are synthesized on particles called

ribosomes. Assuming ribosomes are generally spherical, what
is the volume (in dm3 and μL) of a ribosome whose average
diameter is 21.4 nm (V of a sphere = 4/3(πr3)?

1-21
MATTER
• Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.

MASS
• Mass is a measurement of the amount of matter in an object.
• Mass is independent of the location of an object.
• An object on the earth has the same mass as the same object on the
moon.

WEIGHT
• Weight is a measurement of the gravitational force acting on an object.
• Weight depends on the location of an object.
• An object weighing 1.0 lb on earth weighs about 0.17 lb on the moon.

1-22
 Sample Problem 1.5 Converting Units of Mass

PROBLEM: International computer communications are often carried by optical

fibers in cables laid along the ocean floor. If one strand of optical
fiber weighs 1.19 x 10-3 lbs/m, what is the total mass (in kg) of a
cable made of six strands of optical fiber, each long enough to link
New York and Paris (8.84 x 103 km)?

1-23
DENSITY
• Density is the ratio of the mass of a sample of matter
divided by the volume of the same sample.

or

•Density units
• SI = kg/m3
• liquids in g/mL
• solids in g/cm3
• gases in g/L

1-24
 Temperature Scales

Temperature (T) – A measure of the relative hotness of an

object.

Heat – Energy that flows from an object at higher temperature to

one at lower temperature.

Kelvin (K) - The “absolute temperature scale” begins at

absolute zero and only has positive values.

Celsius (oC) - The temperature scale used for scientific work,

formally called centigrade, most commonly used scale around the
world; water freezes at 0oC, and boils at 100oC.

Fahrenheit (oF) - Commonly used scale in the U.S. for our

weather reports; water freezes at 32oF and boils at 212oF.

1-25
 Figure 1.6
The freezing and boiling points of water.

1-26
 Temperature Interconversions
5
• Converting Fahrenheit to Celsius. C 9
F 32

• Converting Celsius to Fahrenheit. F 9

5
C 32

• Converting Kelvin to Celsius. C K 273

• Converting Celsius to Kelvin K C 273

• An extensive property depends on the amount of a

substance
• e.g. mass, volume, and energy
• An intensive property is independent on the amount of a
substance
• e.g. density and temperature
1-27
PRACTICE: Convert the following temperatures
a) 441.4 F to C

b) 212.9 C to F

c) 926.3 C to K

d) 254.0 K to C

e) 312.5 F to K
1-28
 Figure 1.9A

The number of significant figures in a measurement depends

upon the measuring device.

1-29
 Rules for Determining Which Digits are Significant

All digits are significant except zeros that are used only to position
the decimal point.

1. Make sure that the measured quantity has a decimal point.

2. Start at the left of the number and move right until you reach the
first nonzero digit.
3. Count that digit and every digit to its right as significant.

1-30
 Sample Problem 1.8 Determining the Number of Significant Figures

PROBLEM: For each of the following quantities, underline the zeros that are
significant figures (sf), and determine the number of significant
figures in each quantity. For (d) to (f), express each in
exponential notation first.

(a) 0.0030 L (b) 0.1044 g (c) 53,069 mL

(d) 0.00004715 m (e) 57,600. s (f) 0.0000007160 cm3

1-31
 Rules for Significant Figures in Answers

1. For addition and subtraction. The answer has the

same number of decimal places as there are in the
measurement with the fewest decimal places.

1-32
 Rules for Significant Figures in Answers

2. For multiplication and division. The number with the

least certainty limits the certainty of the result.
Therefore, the answer contains the same number of
significant figures as there are in the measurement
with the fewest significant figures.

1-33
 Rules for Rounding Off Numbers
1. If the digit removed is more than 5, the preceding number
increases by 1.

2. If the digit removed is less than 5, the preceding number is

unchanged.

3. If the digit removed is 5, the preceding number increases

by 1 if it is odd and remains unchanged if it is even.

If the 5 is followed only by zeros, rule 3 is followed; if the 5 is

followed by nonzeros, rule 1 is followed:

4. Be sure to carry two or more additional significant figures

through a multistep calculation and round off only the final
answer.
1-34
 Issues Concerning Significant Figures

Electronic Calculators

be sure to correlate with the problem

Choice of Measuring Device

graduated cylinder < buret ≤ pipet

Exact Numbers

numbers with no uncertainty

1-35
 Sample Problem 1.9 Significant Figures and Rounding

PROBLEM: Perform the following calculations and round the answer to the
correct number of significant figures:
1g
16.3521 cm2 - 1.448 cm2 4.80 x104 mg x 1000 mg
(a) (b)
7.085 cm 11.55 cm3

1-36
 Precision and Accuracy
Errors in Scientific Measurements

Precision -
Refers to reproducibility or how close the measurements are to one
another.
Accuracy -
Refers to how close a measurement is to the actual value.

Systematic Error -
Values that are either all higher or all lower than the actual value.

Random Error –
In the absence of systematic error, produces values that are higher
and lower than the actual value.

1-37
 Figure 1.8 Precision and accuracy in the laboratory.

Four students recorded the weight of 25 mL of water.

1-38