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Most fatalities, severe and slight injuries to pedestrians and cyclists occur in urban areas.
However, in rural areas, the percentage of fatalities is larger than the percentage of slight
injuries [34]. This means that crash severity is higher in rural areas. One explanation might
be the higher vehicle speeds in such areas, but other concomitant factors must not be
forgotten: the absence of infrastructures reserved for pedestrians, a more acute visibility
problem, the increased negative effects of drink driving, et cetera [16]. Although this general
tendency is observed (i.e., most casualties occurring in urban areas), in France and Spain
there are more fatalities of cyclists in rural areas than in urban areas. In addition, in Spain
more pedestrian fatalities occur in rural areas than in urban areas [34].
Crashes involving pedestrians and cyclists occur frequently at facilities designed for
pedestrians and cyclists such as pedestrian crossings, cycle tracks, and cycle lanes. This
means that these facilities are not necessarily good enough to prevent crashes [34].
However, pedestrian crossings might also be the location at which roads are most often
crossed.
In the United Kingdom, over 20% of crashes happen at a place where people should be safe,
such as on the pavement or at a pedestrian crossing. In Denmark, half of the crashes with
cyclists occur at facilities for cyclists such as cycle tracks or cycle lanes [34].
Pedestrian crashes occur most often whilst crossing the roadway, especially for older
pedestrians. In the Netherlands, 25% of the pedestrian fatalities that died as a result of a crash
while crossing the road, were crossing at a zebra or another kind of pedestrian
crossing. Of the elderly, 75% of pedestrian fatalities died as a result of a crash whilst
crossing the road. Of these, 38% were crossing the road at a pedestrian crossing (probably
they are also more inclined to cross the road at a pedestrian crossing).
Pedestrian crashes often occur when people are trying to cross the street on links outside
pedestrian crossings or where no pedestrian crossings exist. One of the causes is the
driver’s difficulty in perceiving pedestrians because of darkness and/or parked cars. In the
United Kingdom, nearly 90% of the injuries to older pedestrians which are caused by motor
vehicles happen under such conditions. In over 10% of cases, the driver cannot see
pedestrians because of parked cars. 67% of pedestrians in the United Kingdom were killed
or injured whilst crossing the road more than 50 metres away from a pedestrian crossing
Long-term planning is needed to create the fundamental changes that will improve the safety
and mobility of vulnerable road users. Measures require a framework that takes the various
needs of vulnerable road users into account. Concepts like Sustainably Safe Traffic and Zero
Vision provide the framework that long-term planning requires. These concepts stop defining
road fatalities as a negative but largely accepted side-effect of the road transport system.
Rather, road fatalities can and should be avoided, and the probability of crashes can be
reduced drastically by means of the infrastructure design. Where crashes still do occur, the
process which determines the severity of these crashes should be influenced in such a
• A structure that is adapted to the limitations of human capacity through proper design,
and in which streets and roads have a neatly appointed function, as a result of which
• Vehicles which are fitted with facilities to simplify the driver’s tasks and which are
• Road users, who are adequately educated, informed and, where necessary, guided and
restricted.
A road safety system based on this framework can be combined with transport policies that
consider walking and cycling as a mode of transport, such as the one written down in UK’s
White Paper on A new Deal for transport: better for everyone [60].
The main consequences of the necessary framework and new concepts for road planning
• Motorised traffic with a flow or distribution function must be segregated from nonmotorised
transport.
• A network of main traffic routes must be created for pedestrians and cyclists.
• A fair balance between motorised and non motorised traffic for priority facilities at
• The maximum speed of motorised traffic should be limited on roads where it mixes with
Specific measures that are needed to realize the above mentioned traffic system, relate to
road and traffic planning, and road design. In addition, there are other measures that could
Pedestrian safety measures that are the most comprehensive and most closely associated
These are two complementary measures, which can be implemented together without
conflicting. Not only do they apply to different parts of the urban fabric, but they also address
different objectives. Area-wide schemes (the most widespread of which is the 30 km/h zone)
are aimed at reducing vehicle speeds and thus at allowing for a safer mingling of pedestrians
with motor traffic. Integrated walking networks (usually centred around a downtown
pedestrian zone) serve to remove and/or reduce conflicts between pedestrians and vehicles
Road design
relate to:
• Cycling networks
• Crossing facilities
rossing facilities
Introducing crossing facilities does not necessarily reduce pedestrian and cyclist casualties.
They need to be carefully designed and appropriately sited if they are to improve safety.
Crossings at inappropriate sites can lead to confusion and unsafe behaviour by both
measures and improved visibility. Examples of speed reduction measures at cyclist crossings
are raised cycle crossings, humps, refuges in crossings, and mini roundabouts. Important
features for improvement of visibility are: truncated cycle tracks, advanced stop lines at
Features of safer pedestrian crossings, in particular to allow for the specific limitations of the
extensions;
• Allowing for the slower walking speed of the elderly when setting the traffic lights cycle;
• Reducing the speed of other traffic or banishing motorised vehicles completely in areas
Cycling does not impose the same external costs on society as car driving does. The major
§ Air pollution
§ Traffic noise
§ Injury crashes.
The major external costs of cycling are the costs of injuries. However, contrary to car driving,
cycling may also generate benefits for society. These may include, for example, savings in
In the PROMISING project [40], a cost-benefit analysis was carried out of switching from
driving a private car to cycling. External costs that were included in the calculation were air
pollution, traffic noise, 40% of the costs of crashes, and savings from reduced absence from
work. The researchers concluded that despite the fact that crash costs of cycling are higher
than those of car driving, the total social costs of cycling are lower than those of driving a car.
CALCULATIONS (IMPORTANT)-
uncontrolled crossing.
Equestrians' Facilities
5.8 Where it is expected that there will be regular the volumes and movements expected of both
use of the junction approaches by ridden horses, of the pedestrians and traffic, and shall be
designed in
standard.
the extension of the grass verge at the crossing point to high, consideration should be given to a
single lane
provide a "holding area" for the horses. dualling junction, even in circumstances where the
5.10 Displaced routes at major/minor priority to enable pedestrians to make the crossing
manoeuvre
junctions are to be preferred, although the use of grass in two stages, and have a safe central
waiting area.
Pedestrians' Facilities
considered:-
refuge.
d. Subway or footbridge.
standard.
the extension of the grass verge at the crossing point to high, consideration should be given to a
single lane
provide a "holding area" for the horses. dualling junction, even in circumstances where the
5.10 Displaced routes at major/minor priority to enable pedestrians to make the crossing
manoeuvre
junctions are to be preferred, although the use of grass in two stages, and have a safe central
waiting area.
Pedestrians' Facilities