Overview of Human Anatomy and Physiology

What Is Anatomy and Physiology?

Anatomy is the study of the structure and relationship between body parts.

Physiology is the study of the function of body parts and the body as a

whole. Physiological systems of the body

The main systems of the human body are:

1. Circulatory system:
1. Circulates blood around the body via the heart, arteries and veins, delivering
oxygen and nutrients to organs and cells and carrying their waste products away.
2. Equalizes temperature in the body.
2. Digestive system:
1. Mechanical and chemical processes that provide nutrients via the mouth,
esophagus, stomach and intestines.
2. Eliminates waste from the body.
3. Endocrine system:
1. Provides chemical communications within the body using hormones.
4. Integumentary system/ Exocrine system:
1. Skin, hair, nails, sweat and other exocrine glands
5. Lymphatic system / Immune system:
1. The system comprising a network of lymphatic vessels that carry a clear fluid
called lymph.
2. Defends the body against pathogens that may endanger the body.
6. Muscular system:
1. Enables the body to move using muscles.
7. Nervous system:
1. Collects and processes information from the senses via nerves and the brain and
tells the muscles to contract to cause physical actions.
8. Renal system / Urinary system/ Excretory system:
1. The system where the kidneys filter blood.
9. Reproductive system:
1. The sex organs required for the production of offspring.
10. Respiratory system:
1. The lungs and the trachea that bring air into and out of the body.
11. Skeletal system:
1. Bones supporting the body and its organs.

What is biomedical engineering? Write down its function.

Definition
:
Biomedical engineering, or bioengineering, is the application of engineering principles to the fields
of biology and health care. Bioengineers work with doctors, therapists and researchers to
develop systems, equipment and devices in order to solve clinical problems.

1 | Mir Sh afiul Is lam , I n s t r u c t o r ( T e c h ) , D e p t . o f E l e c t r o n i c s

Functions:

Regulation of medical devices, Types of standard, Regulatory requirements,

Standard related agencies, Regulatory bodies.

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International Medical Device Standards

The term medical device covers a vast range of equipment, from simple tongue depressors
to haemodialysis machines. Like medicines and other health technologies, they are essential for
patient care – at the bedside, at the rural health clinic or at the large, specialized hospital. The
International Medical Device Standard is something that is used for the mapping of technical
issues and concerns, with regard to regulatory aspects of standards developed by some major
international standardization committees.

There are two associations that normally issue global models: the International Organization
for
Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC).

Anatomy of capillary bed with figure

Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in the body, connecting the smallest arteries to the smallest
veins. These vessels are often referred to as the "microcirculation." Only two layers of cells thick,
the purpose of capillaries is to play the central role in the circulation, delivering oxygen in the blood
to the tissues, and picking up carbon dioxide to be eliminated.

3 | Mir Sh afiul Is lam , I n s t r u c t o r ( T e c h ) , D e p t . o f E l e c t r o n i c s

 Fig-005: Anatomy of a capillary bed

4 | Mir Sh afiul Is lam , I n s t r u c t o r ( T e c h ) , D e p t . o f E l e c t r o n i c s

 What is cardiovascular system? Describe it.

Functions of the cardiovascular system

Blood circulates through a network of vessels throughout the body to provide individual cells
with oxygen and nutrients and helps dispose of metabolic wastes. The heart pumps the blood
around the blood vessels.

Functions of blood and

circulation:

Circulates OXYGEN and removes Carbon Dioxide.

Provides cells with NUTRIENTS.
Removes the waste products of metabolism to the excretory organs for disposal.
Protects the body against disease and infection.
Clotting stops bleeding after injury.
Transports HORMONES to target cells and organs.
Helps regulate body temperature.

The heart

The heart is a hollow muscular organ which beats over 100,000 times a day to pump blood around
the body's 60,000 miles of blood vessels. The right side of the heart receives blood and sends it to
the lungs to be oxygenated, while the left side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and sends
it out to the tissues of the body. The Heart has three layers; the ENDOCARDIUM (inner
layer), the EPICARDIUM (middle layer), and MYOCARDIUM (outer layer). The heart is
protected by the PERICARDIUM which is the protective membrane surrounding it.

The heart has FOUR CHAMBERS, in the lower heart the right and left Ventricles, and in the upper
heart the right and left Atria. In a normal heart beat the atria contract while the ventricles relax, then
the ventricles contract while the atria relax. There are VALVES through which blood passes between
ventricle and atrium, these close in such a way that blood does not backwash during the
pauses between ventricular contractions. The right and left ventricles are divided by a thick
wall (the VENTRICULAR SEPTUM), babies born with "hole in the heart" have a small gap here,
which is a problem since oxygenated and deoxygenated can blood mix. The walls of the left ventricle
are thicker as it has to pump blood to all the tissues, compared to the right ventricle which only pumps
blood as far as the lungs.

5 | Mir Sh afiul Is lam , I n s t r u c t o r ( T e c h ) , D e p t . o f E l e c t r o n i c s

 How many valves of heart? Describe all of them with figure.
The heart has four chambers, two atria (upper chambers) and two ventricles (lower chambers), and
four heart valves. Heart valves are paper-thin flaps, called leaflets, that act as one-way inlets for
blood coming into ventricles, and one-way outlets for blood leaving ventricles.

The Tricuspid Heart Valve

The tricuspid valve is the first valve that blood flows through in the heart. It is one of two
atrioventricular valves, meaning that it is located between the atrium and the ventricle, in this case,
on the right side of the heart. It is made of three flaps, or leaflets, that work together to stop and start
the flow of blood.

The Pulmonic Heart Valve

The pulmonic valve is the second valve of the heart. Like the aortic valve, it is also referred to as a
semilunar valve, because of its shape. It lies between the right ventricle and the pulmonary
artery, which takes blood to the lungs. When the right ventricle contracts, the tricuspid valve opens,
allowing blood to flow to the lungs.
6 | Mir Sh afiul Is lam , I n s t r u c t o r ( T e c h ) , D e p t . o f E l e c t r o n i c s
The Mitral Heart Valve

The mitral valve, or bicuspid valve, is the third valve of the heart. Like the tricuspid valve, it is an
atrioventricular valve, meaning it rests between the left atrium and the left ventricle.
Oxygenated blood passes through the mitral valve when the atrium contracts, allowing blood
to flow from the upper chamber into the lower ventricle.

The mitral valve is composed of two leaflets, or flaps, that prevent blood from flowing into
the ventricle too soon. When the atrium contracts, the mitral valve opens, allowing blood to move
into the ventricle.

The mitral valve, like the tricuspid valve, is a common site of valve prolapse and regurgitation,
conditions that may require medical intervention.

The Aortic Heart Valve

The aortic valve is the fourth and final heart valve, lying between the left ventricle and the aorta. The
valve is composed of three leaflets, working together to stop blood from entering the aorta
prematurely. The aortic valve opens when the ventricle contracts, allowing blood to move from the
heart and start the journey to the rest of the body.

What is respiratory system

The respiratory system consists of all the organs involved in breathing. These include the
nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs. The respiratory system does two very important
things: it brings oxygen into our bodies, which we need for our cells to live and function properly;
and it helps us get rid of carbon dioxide, which is a waste product of cellular function. The nose,
pharynx, larynx, trachea and bronchi all work like a system of pipes through which the air is funnelled
down into our lungs. There, in very small air sacs called alveoli, oxygen is brought into the
bloodstream and carbon dioxide is pushed from the blood out into the air.

7 | Mir Sh afiul Is lam , I n s t r u c t o r ( T e c h ) , D e p t . o f E l e c t r o n i c s

 What is N
Nervous System
y
The nervous system is a complex network of nerves and cells that carry messages to and from
the brain and spinal cord to various parts of the body.

The nervous system includes both the Central nervous system and Peripheral nervous system.
The Central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord and The Peripheral nervous
system is made up of the Somatic and the Autonomic nervous systems.

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 Fig-005: Components of the Nervous System

Human Body

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 Source of Biomedical Signals

Electrical biosignals, or bioelectrical time signals, usually refers to the change in electric
current produced by the sum of an electrical potential difference across a specialized tissue,
organ or cell system like the nervous system. Thus, among the best-known bioelectrical signals are:

Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
Electromyogram (EMG)
Mechanomyogram (MMG)
Electrooculography (EOG)
Galvanic skin response (GSR)
Magnetoencephalogram (MEG)

Basic medical instruments system &

General constraints in design of medical instrumentation system.

What is Biomedical
Instrumentation?

We use the term “bio” to denote something related to life. When basics of physics and chemistry get
applied to the living things, and we name them as Biophysics and Biochemistry. So when
the discipline of engineering and medicine interacts, it is called Biomedical Engineering.
Biomedical engineering is the application of knowledge and technologies to solve the problem
of the living system. It involves diagnosis, treatment and prevention of disease in human. As the
medical field is emerging, the area of Biomedical Engineering is expanding.

Biomedical
Instrumentation

It involves measurement of biological signals like ECG, EMG, or any electrical signals generated in
the human body. Biomedical Instrumentation helps physicians to diagnose the problem and provide
10 | Mir Sh afiul Is lam , I n s t r u c t o r ( T e c h ) , D e p t . o f E l e c t r o n i c s
treatment. To measure biological signals and to design a medical instrument, concepts of electronics
and measurement techniques are needed.

11 | Mir Sh afiul Is lam , I n s t r u c t o r ( T e c h ) , D e p t . o f E l e c t r o n i c s

Components of Biomedical Instrumentation
System

Any medical instrument consists of the following functional basic

part.

1. Measurand: The measurand is the physical quantity, and the instrumentation systems measure it.
Human body acts as the source for measurand, and it generates bio-signals. Example: body surface
or blood pressure in the heart

2. Sensor / Transducer: The transducer converts one form of energy to another form usually electrical
energy. For example, the piezoelectric signal which converts mechanical vibrations into the electrical
signal.
The transducer produces a usable output depending on the measurand. The sensor is used to sense
the
signal from the source. It is used to interface the signal with the
human.

3. Signal Conditioner: Signal conditioning circuits are used to convert the output from the transducer
into an electrical value. The instrument system sends this quantity to the display or recording system.
Generally, signal conditioning process includes amplification, filtering, analogue to digital and
Digital to analogue conversions. Signal conditioning improves the sensitivity of
instruments.

4. Display: It is used to provide a visual representation of the measured parameter or quantity.

Example: Chart recorder, Cathode Ray oscilloscope (CRO). Sometimes alarms are used to hear the
audio signals. Example: Signals generated in Doppler Ultrasound Scanner used for Fetal Monitoring.

5. Data Storage and Data Transmission: Data storage is used to store the data and can be used for
future reference. Recent days Electronic Health records are utilized in hospitals. Data transmission
is used in Telemetric systems, where data can be transmitted from one location to another remotely.

12 | Mir Sh afiul Is lam , I n s t r u c t o r ( T e c h ) , D e p t . o f E l e c t r o n i c s

 Classification of Transducer

The transducer changes the physical quantity into an electrical signal. It is an electronic device which
has two main functions, i.e., sensing and transduction. It senses the physical quantity and
then converts it into mechanical works or electrical signals.

The transducer is of many types, and they can be classified by the following
criteria.

1. by transduction used.
2. as a primary and secondary transducer
3. as a passive and active transducer
4. as analogue and digital transducer
5. as the transducer and inverse transducer

The transducer receives the measurand and gives a proportional amount of output signal. The
output signal is sent to the conditioning device where the signal is attenuated, filtered, and
modulated.

Selection factor and characteristics of transducer

The following factors are to be considered while selecting a transducer for further applications:

Operating Principle : The transducers are selected on the basis of operating principle it
may be resistive, inductive, capacitive, optical etc.
Operating range : The range of transducer should be appropriate for measurement to get a
good resolution.
Accuracy : The accuracy should be as high as possible or as per the measurement.
13 | Mir Sh afiul Is lam , I n s t r u c t o r ( T e c h ) , D e p t . o f E l e c t r o n i c s
 Range : The transducer can give good result within its specified range, so select transducer
as per the operating range.

14 | Mir Sh afiul Is lam , I n s t r u c t o r ( T e c h ) , D e p t . o f E l e c t r o n i c s

 Sensitivity : The transducer should be more sensitive to produce the output or
sensitivity should be as per requirement.
Loading effect : The transducer’s input impedance should be high and output
impedance
should be low to avoid loading effect.
Errors : The error produced by the transducer should be low as possible.
Environmental compatibility : The transducer should maintain input and
output characteristic for the selected environmental condition.

How does a silicon diode act as a sensor?

These sensors are made up by using regular PN junction diodes. These are the most inexpensive type
of temperature sensors which are competent enough to provide very adequate results if constant and
steady excitation current is supplied to them. Also, they need a two point calibration for satisfactory
operation. An ordinary semiconductor diode provides a sensibly linear forward biased voltage whose
temperature coefficient is around 2.3mV/°C. A typical diode temperature sensor is shown in the
figure below.

Selection
Criteria

While selecting a semiconductor temperature sensor for a particular application, one must
keep in mind following key points:

1. Select the level of accuracy needed

2. Choose the desired range of temperature
3. Consider the costing requirements
4. Identify the input capabilities of the measuring devices

15 | Mir Sh afiul Is lam , I n s t r u c t o r ( T e c h ) , D e p t . o f E l e c t r o n i c s

 Advantages of optical fiber sensor

Definition: The method of sensing light rays is known as optical sensing. The sensor type used
for optical sensing is known as optical sensor.

Optical Sensor converts light rays into electrical signal. This is similar to the function
performed by photoresistor.

Fig-007: Optical sensing

Following are the advantages of Optical Sensor:

➨ High sensitivity
➨ Chemically inert
➨ Small and lightweight
➨ Suitable for remote sensing
➨ Immunity to electromagnetic interference
➨ Wide dynamic range
➨ Capable of monitoring a wide range of chemical and physical parameters
➨ Reliable operation

Electrode and tissue interface

Question is not clear to

me!!!

16 | Mir Sh afiul Is lam , I n s t r u c t o r ( T e c h ) , D e p t . o f E l e c t r o n i c s

 What is Limb electrode? In which surgery it is used?

Limb leads are made up of 4 leads placed on the extremities: left and right wrist; left and right

ankle. The lead connected to the right ankle is a neutral lead, like you would find in an electric

plug. It is
there to complete an electrical circuit and plays no role in the ECG itself.

Fig-0010: Electrode position of the limb leads or commonly termed as single lead recording.

17 | Mir Sh afiul Is lam , I n s t r u c t o r ( T e c h ) , D e p t . o f E l e c t r o n i c s