M.

Borgas
S. Rosenzweig

D. Moyle
P. Allen
G. Millar
T. Molde

Linear Motion
 An editable, free textbook for all.

Phantastic Physics
Thanks Downloading
Adaption by Michael Borgas, with special thanks to the
You can download all the books in this series by
authors of ‘Senior Physics’ Moyle, Allan, Millar and
clicking on one of the following links:
Molde, who having given their permission for the
Phantastic Physics (Google Drive)
copyright free use of their materials as the basis for this
Phantastic Physics (Dropbox)
new Physics textbook.

National Curriculum for Physics

Phantastic Physics Series This book is based on the Australian National
This book is part of the Phantastic Physics series which
Curriculum for Physics (South Australian version)
includes:
for Year 11s. A curriculum statement can be found
• Linear Motion and Forces
at the end of this book.
• Electric Circuits
• Heat
• Energy and Momentum Contributors
• Waves This is a crowd-sourced project. We would like to
• Nuclear Models and Radioactivity thank the following author-editors for their
contributions: Celina Bolding, Michael Borgas,
Dylan Milton, Ben Moore, Zahra Pirvali, Dimitra
Creative Commons Licence Thomas.
This is distributed under a Creative Commons Licence
For further information please contact:
which allows others to freely use and adapt, provided
Michael Borgas mborgas@gmail.com or
they use the material for non-commercial purposes, give
Celina Bolding celina.bolding@unisa.edu.au
appropriate credit, and share alike, allowing others to
build upon these materials.
Click here for licence details

2
The 4F Method Kahoot Quizzes

This book has many worked examples. Each There are also classes Kahoot quizzes.
example uses a problem solving strategy for Teachers click on the teacher link to create a
numerical problems, game PIN.
the 4F Method: Students click on the student link and then add
Facts list the information provided in the game PIN, and later their name.
the question The top 5 students will be on a leader board.
Formula select the appropriate formula
Find it substitute the facts into the
formula and work through it to an
answer
Fix it add units or direction, round off or do
whatever is necessary for a final
answer

3
Christopher Parypa / Shutterstock.com

Chapter 1

Velocity
 Section 1

Introduction to Motion

Describing motion
Moving objects can be described as slow or fast,
accelerating or slowing down. The photograph
shows the motion of a fist during a karate punch.
The displacement of the fist, its velocity and
acceleration can all be calculated from the
photograph. Since the flashing light, which
created each image, has a uniform flash rate, the
distance between images is an indication of fist
A karate punch. This is a multiple image
velocity. Here, the fist is moving at 14 ms-1 (51
photograph, taken in a dark room by a camera
kmhr-1) just before hitting its target.
whose shutter remains open during the motion.
The Bugatti Veyron and the EuroFighter travel a
A flashing light operates, and each image is
little faster!
the result of a flash of light. The light flashes at
a uniform rate.

5
Section 1

Introduction
Bugatti Veyron vs EuroFighter Race

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7NZ9X9A2efA
8:41 Bugatti Veyron vs. EuroFighter Typhoon Race (Can skip first 1:20)

6
 Section 2

Average Velocity

Finding Average Velocity

Two simple measurements are required for the calculation
of an average velocity: the displacement, s, of the object,
and the time taken, t, for this displacement to occur.

• Displacement, s, is the straight-line distance from a

In everyday situations, (e.g. in a car) the units for
reference position.
velocity are kilometres per hour. In Physics the
standard to S.I. units for velocity are metres per
The average velocity is given the symbol vav.
second (ms-1), as displacement is measured in
metres (m) and time taken in seconds (s).
s
Often, the formula v av = is required in a different
form. t

s
Rearrangement gives: s = tv av and t =
v av
Andrey Tarantin / Shutterstock.com

7
 Table of Average Velocities
Movement in ms-1 in kmhr-1
Snail 0.003 0.01
Walking 2.2 8
Running 10 36
Bicycling 14 50
Speed limit (city) 17 60
Speed Limit (open road) 31 110
Skiing (average pace) 28 100
Skiing (fastest) 56 200
Sailfish (fastest fish) 17 60
Antelope 17 60
Cheetah
28 100
(fastest land animal)

Mark Beckwith / Shutterstock.com

Eagle 28 100
Swift
47 170
(fastest bird)
Jet plane
235 850
(747)
Concorde 600 2160
Lockheed SR-71 Young female cheetah sprinting.
3530 12700
Blackbird
Sound in air (0°C) 331 1200 Click here to view a video about the
Light in Vacuum 3x108 1.08 x109 fastest things in the world.

8
 Cheetahs on the Edge

Young female cheetah sprinting.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=THA_5cqAfCQ 7:07 Slow Motion video of Cheetah running (from 5:43 background of how the video was filmed)

9
Section 3

Changing Between kmhr-1 and ms-1

Understanding how to change between

kmhr-1 and ms-1
In many situations, solving a problem requires changing the Since 1 hour = 3,600s
units of a given quantity. The following conversions are 20,000m
commonly required: 20,000mhr -1 = = 5.55ms -1
3,600s
1 kilometre = 1,000 metres or
1,000
20kmhr -1 = 20 ´
1 minute = 60 seconds 3,600
1
1 hour = 60 minutes 20kmhr -1 = 20 ´
3.6
= 60 x 60 = 3,600 seconds.
-1
20kmhr = 20 ¸ 3.6 = 5.55ms -1

Imagine that a velocity of 20kmhr-1 is to be converted to

ms-1. Here, one unit should be converted at a time.
Instead a conversion factor of 3.6 can be used
20kmhr -1 = 20 ´1,000mhr -1 = 20,000mhr -1
kmhr -1 ¸ 3.6 = ms -1
as 1km=1,000m
or
ms -1 ´ 3.6 = kmhr -1

10
?
A quiz on units, changing units, and terms in
linear motion.

Kahoot teachers link:

https://play.kahoot.it/#/k/0c3d7b16-adaf-410f-
9d95-df0ab78bd1c2

Kahoot! student link: www.kahoot.it

11
 Section 4

Examples
Worked Example B
Worked Example A The Concorde flew at an average velocity of 1,440kmhr-1.
Judy is a very fast runner. She can complete 100m in How far would the Concorde fly in 1 minute?
10s. Calculate her average velocity.

12
 Section 5

Questions

1) In 1938, the British set a world record for the fastest 3) Mars is 80 million km from the Earth at its closest point. If
steam locomotive ever. The Mallard set a record of light travels at 3x108ms-1, how much time will elapse before
200kmhr-1 which still stands. a space scientist knows that a command has been received
by a spacecraft on the surface of Mars?
To solve parts (a) and (b) leave time in hours and displacement in
kilometres.
4) Perform the following conversions:
(a) 1km to m (g) 5millisecond to s
(a) How long would it take the Mallard to travel
a distance of 400km? (b) 5200m to km (h) 10ms-1 to mhr-1
(b) How far would the Mallard travel in 1 minute (c) 530cm to m (i) 10ms-1 to kms-1
at top speed?
(d) 24.5km to cm (j) 10ms-1 to kmhr-1
(c) Convert 200kmhr-1 to ms-1.
(e) 5min to s (k) 50ms-1 to kmhr-1
2) Light travels at 3x108ms-1 in a vacuum. How long (f) 10hr 30min to s (I) 800kmhr-1 to ms-1
does light take to reach the Earth from:
5) (a) It takes 8.33 minutes for light from the Sun to reach the
(a) the Moon at a distance of 385,000km?
 Earth. How far is the Sun from the Earth if light travels at
Remember to convert km to m
3x108ms-1?
(b) the Sun at a distance of 150,000,000km?
(b) Given that a light-year is the distance travelled by light in a
year, compute this distance in kilometres.

13
Section 6

Velocity: Average or Instantaneous

Distinguishing between Average and When an object moves with the same velocity at every
instant of time, it is said to have constant or uniform
Instantaneous Velocity velocity. Here, the average velocity will equal the
An Olympic sprinter can cover a 100m sprint in about instantaneous velocity.
10s. This gives an average velocity of 10ms-1. But is
he or she is moving at 10ms-1 all the time? The
answer is no. At the start, the velocity was zero, and
he or she accelerated (sped up) after the 'gun'.
Obviously, moving objects do not travel at their
average velocity all the time.
The velocity of an object at a particular time is known
as the instantaneous velocity. The speedometer in a
car registers instantaneous velocity.
• Average velocity is the velocity calculated over

Pete Niesen / Shutterstock.com

a measured time interval
• Instantaneous velocity is the velocity of the
object at an instant of time
As the time interval for the calculation of average
velocity is decreased, so the value of the average
velocity approaches the instantaneous velocity of the
moving object.
Usain Bolt in the 2008 Beijing Mens 100m Final.

14
 Section 7

Measuring Velocity
To determine velocity, measurements of both displacement and time are needed. In practice, displacement is easy to
measure with precision. The measurement of time is more difficult.

1. Measuring tape and stopwatch

For comparatively long times, a stopwatch can be used without much difficulty. Imagine you are to find the average velocity
of a friend riding a bicycle. You could measure a distance (of say 50m) and use a stopwatch to time the motion. For
example, a time of 4s would lead to an average velocity of 12.5ms-1.
The major problem with this technique occurs when the time to be measured is small (usually 1s or less). When the human
body is required to react to a stimulus (e.g. moving your hand from a hot plate, applying the brakes to stop suddenly), the
reaction is not immediate. Time is needed for the nerves to carry messages to the brain, the brain to decide a course of
action, the response to be transmitted to the muscles and, finally, for the muscles to act. Known as the reaction time, it can
range from about 0.2s to 0.5s. In measuring a small time interval (e.g. 1s) with a stopwatch, you will see that the reaction
time is significant when compared to the time to be measured. Errors in the time measurement increase and other more
accurate techniques should be used.

15
 2. Motion sensors
Fast speeds, and very short time intervals, can be
measured with the use of motion sensors. These usually
operate by employing ultra sonic pulses bouncing off an
object; this can give the position of an object. The time
Shutterstock

between reflected pulses is measured very accurately

and so the velocity can be calculated.

Courtesy of Anpico
16
3. Measuring tape and ticker timer
In the laboratory, a convenient method for measuring speed over
short time intervals is the ticker timer. Here, a length of ticker
tape is attached to a moving object. The tape passes through the
ticker timer, under a piece of carbon paper and a hammer. The
hammer strikes the carbon paper and tape at regular time
intervals, leaving a series of dots on the tape. These dots provide
information about the motion of the object. Below is a picture of a
ticker timer in use and a representation of fast motion (a) and
slower motion (b).
This method eliminates the problem of reaction time errors but
does introduce slight inaccuracies arising from friction between
the ticker timer and the tape. To improve accuracy when using
ticker tape, calculate average velocities over four or five tick
intervals.
The A.C. ticker timer operates using an electro magnet. The
electromagnet turns on and off in response to the alternating
current from the power pack. This causes the hammer to be
attracted to the electromagnet and then released many times a
second.

17
4. Multiple Image The Slow Mo Guys: Droplet Collisions
Photography
Another useful technique for studying
motion in the laboratory is multiple
image photography. This enables quite
detailed analysis of complex
movement.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cNI-LIVs-to
2.48 Slow motion of milk droplets hitting a milk surface or colliding with other droplets, with
explanation of equipment used at the beginning.

18
Worked Example C b)
For the length of ticker tape below, find
a) the average velocity for the first and last time intervals and
b) the average velocity for the whole tape.
Assume a time interval of 1/50s (0.02s) between dots.

Obviously, the object is accelerating.

a)

19
Section 8

Distance, Displacement and Direction

Distance and Displacement

So far, we have looked at motion is in one direction only. What if the

moving body reverses direction? Here the direction of the motion
must be considered in all calculations.
If a cyclist travels 100m to the east, turns around and
travels back 60m (to the 40m mark) in 20s, then what
distance has the cyclist travelled and what the cyclist's
displacement?
The total distance travelled in the above example is
160 m, but the displacement (the straight-line distance
from the reference position) is only 40 m from the
start.
This example highlights the difference between
the terms 'distance' and 'displacement'.

20
 Section 9

Speed, Velocity and Direction

Speed and Velocity Average velocity and average speed are significantly
different. It is important to distinguish between motion in
different directions. If velocity is said to be positive when
the motion is to the east, then when the motion is to the
west, the velocity negative (e.g. -5ms-1 or
-1
5ms to the west).
If a cyclist travels 100m to the east, turns around and
travels back 60m (to the 40m mark) in 20s, what is the average
velocity?
The displacement is 40 m giving an average velocity of
s 40
v av = = = 2ms -1
t 20
Remember the total distance travelled in the above example is
160 m, but the displacement is only 40 m from the start.
What is the average speed?
The speed is the distance travelled in unit time. Here, the
average speed is 160/20=8ms-1 but the average velocity is 2ms-1
and involves the displacement of the object.
If the cyclist had returned to the starting position, that is, cycled
100m east, and then 100m west, then the total displacement is
zero, yielding zero average velocity. The total distance travelled
here is 200 m and if the time taken were 25s, the average speed
would be 4ms-1.

21
Worked Example D
A car travels 500m to the right, turns around and travels another
1000m to the left. The car travelled with a uniform speed and the
time taken was 150s. Find
a) the total distance travelled

b) the total displacement

c) the average speed of the car

d) the average velocity of the car

22
Section 10

Questions
(b) If the glider’s velocity was 2ms-1, what time
6) The speedometer in a car reads 60kmhr-1. Is this an
would the timer register?
instantaneous or average velocity? Explain your
answer.


7) What is meant by the term 'reaction time'? How can it

interfere with the accuracy of a stopwatch
measurement?


8) (a) John has a reaction time of 0.5s for applying the foot
brake in his car. If he is driving at 72kmhr-1, how far will he
10) Draw dots on a piece of ticker tape to represent:
travel before his brakes are applied, after seeing a stop
sign?
(a) a fast speed
(b) How would the answer for (a) change if he drove at
(b) a slow speed
144kmhr-1?
(c) an acceleration.
(c) Use these results to comment on the occurrence of 'chain
collisions' on freeways.
Explain how the speed of an object can be
determined from a ticker tape.
9) An electronic timer is connected to a photoelectric gate
and arranged over a linear air track. A glider of length
10cm passes through the gate causing the timer to
operate.

(a) If the timer measured 0.1s for the glider to pass, what was
the velocity for the glider? 23
11)If the time interval between each dot is 1 second,
calculate the time elapsed for the motion recorded
on the ticker tape.
(a) find the average speed over the first second
(b) find the average speed over the last second
(c) find the average speed over the whole tape.
Account for any difference in the answers of (a), (b)
and (c).

12) See the table of world speed records held at

various times over the last 200 years.
Use a piece of graph paper with suitable axis scales
to draw a graph of velocity (y axis) against time (x
axis). To help in your graph, ignore the last two
records and plot from the year 1800 to 1980.
(a) What shape is your graph?
(b) From the shape of the graph, what do you predict Click here to view a website about the 15 fastest
about future speed records? things.
(c) Do you think that such speed records will continue
to increase as rapidly as in the past? Explain your This site claims the fastest spacecraft travelled at
answer. 59,000kmhr-1.
(d) In 1974, a helios probe travelling towards the sun,
reached approximately 252,000kmhr-1. It has been
the fastest man-made object ever. Does it fit your
curve?

24
Noolwlee / Shutterstock.com

Chapter 3

Motion
Graphs
Section 1
Displacement-Time and Velocity-Time Graphs

Displacement and Velocity for a Ticker-tape

The velocity did change over the 13cm tape. Detail
Consider the piece of ticker tape above. From this, the
about the velocity over smaller time intervals can be
displacement and average velocity of the object can be
gained by cutting up the tape, measuring the length of
calculated. By treating each piece separately, much more detail
each piece and calculating the velocity for these smaller
about the motion can be determined.
time intervals.
For this ticker tape, the tick interval was 0.1s. By measuring, the
The speed has increased over the length of the tape to
total displacement is found to be 13.0cm, so the average
20cms-1 and has remained constant at that value. The
velocity is
trend is much easier to see if graphs are used. Two
s 13 types of graph are easily drawn using pieces of ticker
v av = = = 13cms -1 tape: the displacement-time graph and the velocity-time
t 1
graph.

26
Displacement-Time Graph
A displacement-time graph for
the motion of the ticker tape.
By sticking the pieces of ticker tape on a graph such
that the next piece starts level with the end of the
previous piece, a displacement-time graph results.
Note that the total displacement at any time is the
distance from the start and equals the sum of all the
ticker tape pieces up to that point. From this the
displacement at any time can be seen.
Velocity-Time Graph
A velocity-time graph for the motion
of the ticker tape.
A velocity-time graph can be obtained from the ticker tape
in a similar way. The actual pieces of tape represent the
average velocity of the object for the time interval
between the two dots. Hence, they can be stuck together
on a graph to give the velocity at any point in the motion.
This graph shows the the velocity is increasing at a
uniform rate, and then remaining constant at 20 cms-1.
27
Velocity-Time Graph (continued)

As each value of velocity to be plotted is an average

over a time interval, it is assumed that this value, in
most situations, does not equal the velocity at the
beginning or end of this interval. Hence, the velocity is
plotted half way into the time interval it represents.
That is, values of 0.05s, 0.15s, 0.25s, etc. are used.
Once plotted, a line of best fit is drawn through the
points giving a more complete picture of the motion.

Points plotted from the table for the ticker tape

yield this velocity-time graph.

The graph can also be plotted from the information in

the table at the beginning of this section.

28
 Velocity-Time Graphs and Slope
When the slope of a velocity-time graph is positive, the object is speeding up (section A of the previous
graph). When the slope is zero (section B) the velocity is constant. A negative slope indicates that the motion
is slowing down. When the actual velocity is negative, the object is moving in the reverse direction.

Speeding up in the positive direction. Slowing down in the positive direction Slowing down in the positive direction,
stopping and speeding up in the
negative direction.

29
Section 2
Velocity from a Displacement-Time Graph

Finding Average Velocity This holds true in all situations, even when the velocity
Consider the displacement-time graph below. An object has is not constant. In the graph below, the slope of CD is
moved a distance of s1 in time t1. From the graph, the slope less than the slope of AB indicating a lower average
can be calculated: velocity for the section CD.

y 2 - y1 s1 - 0 s1
slope = = = = v1
x2 - x1 t1 - 0 t1

The slope of the displacement-time graph equals the

average velocity of the object. In this case, the slope is
constant all along the graph, hence the velocity is constant.
Average velocity is the slope of a displacement-time
graph segment.

Finding Instantaneous Velocity

Instantaneous velocity is the slope of the tangent
of a displacement-time graph.
The slope of the tangent to the curve at the point E
equals the instantaneous velocity at time tE

30
Section 3
Displacement from a Velocity-Time Graph

Finding Displacement using a

Velocity-Time Graph
Consider a strip of ticker tape. The distance
between the dots, is a measure of the velocity of
the object. These can be arranged to give a
velocity-time graph if laid side by side, so the
width of the tape can represent the time taken.

Hxdyl / Shutterstock.com
Now, s = vt, hence the area of the piece of tape is
a measure of the displacement of the tape.
(Area = length x breadth for a rectangle.)

Hence: 31
Displacement from a Velocity-Time
Graph: Example 1
This graph was obtained from an object accelerating
to 25ms-1 in 3s, and then travelling at constant
velocity for another 3s.

To calculate the displacement, merely calculate the

area under the graph.

Area(triangle)
Area = 21 base ´ height
Area = 21 ´ 3s ´ 25ms -1
Area = 37.5m
Area(rectangle)
Area = base ´ height
Area = 3s ´ 25ms -1
Area = 75m
Total displacement = 112.5m

32
Displacement from a Velocity-Time Graph:
Example 2
If there is some area under the t-axis, the magnitude of this area
should be given a negative sign, as it is displacement in the
negative or opposite direction. This means that the total
displacement in the graph on the right is zero.
Here, the object moves in the positive direction at 5ms-1, for 2s. It
then turns around and travels for a further 2s at -5ms-1. The area
above the t-axis is a +10m displacement while the area under the
axis is a -10m displacement, yielding a total displacement of
zero.
Total displacement is the area under a velocity-time graph with
areas below the horizontal axis representing a negative
displacement.

The total displacement of the objects whose motion is

represented in these graphs can be calculated from the
area under the graph.

33
Section 4

Questions

13) From the displacement-time graph below, calculate the 14) Draw sketch graphs to illustrate displacement-
following: time graphs for an object moving with
(i) constant velocity (ii) zero velocity.

(a) What is the average velocity over the first 2

seconds?
(b) What is the average velocity over the last 2
seconds?
(c) What is the average velocity over the full 6
seconds?
(d) Explain the motion of the object whose
movements are represented here.

34
Michael Stokes / Shutterstock.com

Chapter 3

Acceleration
Section 1

Introduction
Tesla Model S v Holden V8 Supercar v Walkinshaw HSV GTS Drag Race

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6eGhjhx8O9M
6:08 Tesla Model S v Holden V8 Supercar v Walkinshaw HSV GTS Drag Race

36
Section 1

Introduction

Car 0-100kmhr-1 Cars and Acceleration

Car 0-100kmhr-1 Typically cars take about 10 seconds to
Mazda 3 SP25 8.0 accelerate from 0 to 100 kmhr-1. Under 7
Hyundai i30 10.0 seconds to accelerate from 0 to 100 kmhr-1 is
Ford Falcon XT 7.5 very good, and an under 4 seconds in
VW Golf TSI 110 8.2 extraordinary.
Toyota Aurion Prodigy 9.9 Electric cars have produced some extraordinary
Holden Commodore Berlina 12.3 results in 0-100kmhr-1 tests with Tesla’s Model
Holden HSV GTS 4.7 being one of the fastest cars in the world.
Subaru Impresa WRX 6.4 But how do we calculate a car’s acceleration?
Audi RS5 4.5
Ferrari F50 GTI V12 3.0
Telsa Model S (Insane Mode) 2.8

37
Section 2

Defining Acceleration
Extreme Acceleration!
Equation for Acceleration
As two velocities are required for any calculation, two
symbols are needed to distinguish them. Final velocity will
be given the symbol v, while initial velocity will be
represented by the symbol v0. Acceleration is given the
symbol a.
Acceleration is the change in velocity divided by the time
taken.
v - v0
a=
t
Units for acceleration in the SI system are metres per
second per second (ms-2).
An acceleration of 5ms-2 really means an increase of 5ms-1
in velocity every second. An acceleration of -5ms-2 means a
slowing down in velocity by 5ms-1 each second.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3UEYxf4fl_A Often, the symbol ∆ (delta) is used to replace the
3:19 Manned Rocket Sled Run expression 'change in'. So:
The acceleration of gravity for the earth is given a special
Definition of Acceleration symbol, g. The acceleration of gravity is approximately
A change in velocity, either speeding up or slowing 9.8ms-2.
down, is an acceleration. Dv
a=
•Acceleration is how quickly the velocity is Dt
changing.

38
Worked Example E
a) A car accelerates form 10ms-1 to 20ms-1 in 4s. b) The same car can break from 20ms-1 to rest in 5s.
Calculate its acceleration. Find the acceleration here.

39
 Section 3
Acceleration from a Velocity-Time Graph

Finding Acceleration for a Velocity-

Time Graph
The acceleration of an object can be found from the
slope of a velocity-time graph. Consider the following
graph.

The slope of the graph is given by:

Hence, slope = average acceleration.

Acceleration is the slope of a velocity-time graph.

The velocity-time graph is a straight

line representing constant
acceleration.

40
Positive slope in a velocity-time graph corresponds
to an object speeding up, or a positive
acceleration. Negative slope corresponds to
slowing down or a negative acceleration.

The velocity-time graphs above are straight line

graphs. Hence the slope is constant and so the
acceleration in constant.

41
Worked Example F
Consider the velocity-time graph below for a cyclist
travelling in a straight line.

From the graph, find

a) the cyclist’s velocity at t=5s and t=50s

b) the acceleration of the cyclist over the time
intervals (i) t=0 to 10s (ii) t=40s to 50s

c) the total distance travelled by the cyclist.

d) the total displacement of the cyclist. 

e) the average velocity of the cyclist (in first 70s).
f) draw an acceleration-time graph illustrating this
motion.

42
f) acceleration-time graph

The acceleration of the cyclist at any point equals the slope of

the velocity-time graph at that point.

43
It is interesting to graph the motion of everyday bodies. The information for
this graph was gained from a car road test.
Each successive gear operates with less acceleration. This corresponds to a
smaller slope in the velocity-time graph. Eventually, the car will reach a
constant velocity. Note that the acceleration of the car in first gear is over
half the acceleration due to gravity.

44
 Section 4

Acceleration due to Gravity

Galileo and Measuring the Acceleration of
Gravity
About 2300 years ago, Aristotle, the famous Greek philosopher,
taught that an object falls at a rate dependent upon its mass. He
reasoned that a heavier object should fall at a faster rate than a
lighter one. This was accepted for centuries until Galileo Galilei, an
Italian physicist, wished to test Aristotle's theory.
Galileo had two iron spheres of different sizes taken to the top of
the leaning Tower of Pisa, where they were released
simultaneously. They both reached the base of the tower at the
same time.

45
Acceleration of Gravity at the Earth’s Surface
This experiment and others like it have shown that all objects fall with
the same acceleration. On the Earth, the acceleration due to gravity is
9.8ms-2. This means that a falling body will increase its velocity by
9.8ms-1 every second. A question often asked is why, when a stone and
a feather are released from the same height and allowed to fall, will the
stone reach the ground in a much shorter time? Galileo realised that it
was the air resistance pushing on the feather causing it to be slowed.
When a feather and stone are released in a vacuum (i.e. no air), both
fall at the same rate.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KDp1tiUsZw8
1:22 (Skip first 20 seconds) Astronaut David Scott drops a feather and a
hammer on the moon’s surface

46
Acceleration of Gravity at the Earth’s Surface
Visiting NASA’s huge experimental vacuum chamber allows Brian Cox to carry the feather and stone dropping
experiment on earth.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E43-CfukEgs
4:31 (Could skip final minute) Brian Cox drops a ‘cannonball’ and feathers

47
Section 5

Questions
15) For the situations below, assign appropriate velocity- 17) Look at the velocity versus time graph below.
time graphs.

(a) a ball thrown into the air

(b) a car accelerating uniformly to a constant velocity

a) For what times is the object

16) Draw velocity-time and acceleration-time graphs for (i) stationary?

(a) a piece of putty dropped from a height of 1 metre (ii) moving with constant velocity?

(b) a sprinter (b) What is the object's velocity at t=11s?

(c) At what times was the object travelling at 5ms-1?

(d) Calculate the acceleration for each segment of the graph.

Calculate the distance travelled by the object.

48
18) A ball is to be thrown into the air. Joanne, a
physics student, using a motion sensor finds
this velocity-time graph.
(a) Find the initial velocity of the ball.
(b) Find the final velocity of the ball.
(c) What is happening at t=1.0s?
(d) Compute the acceleration of the ball, and
draw an acceleration-time graph.
(e) How high did the ball go?
(f) Find the distance travelled by the ball. What
is its average speed?
(g) Find the displacement of the ball. What is
its average velocity?
(h) Comment on answers to (f) and (g).
19 With the aid of some internet information, draw a
velocity-time graph, and an acceleration-time graph for a
fast sports car accelerating to 200kmhr-1.
20 A bus starts from rest at a bus terminal and accelerates
at 1ms-1 for 10s. It then continues with a constant velocity
for 60s before coming to rest at the first bus stop with a
deceleration of 2.5ms-1.
(a) Graph
(i) acceleration versus time for the bus
(ii) velocity versus time for the bus
(b) From the graph compute the distance between the
terminal and bus stop.
(c) Does the bus exceed the speed limit of 60kmhr-1?
(d) How long does the bus take to reach the first stop and
hence what is the average speed for the bus over the
journey?
49
21) A runner travels with a constant velocity of 5ms-1 for
30s to the east, turns around and travels with a constant
velocity of 3ms-1 to the west for 50s.

a) Calculate the total distance travelled by the runner.

b) Calculate the total displacement of the runner.

c) Find the average velocity and average speed for the

runner. Comment on your answer.

22) (a) Define acceleration.

(b) A stone is dropped from the window of a building. If

the stone hits the ground 2 seconds later with a final
velocity of 19.6ms-1, calculate the acceleration due to
gravity.

23) An automobile accelerates to 100km hr-1 in 10s from

rest. Find the acceleration in (i) kmhr-1s-1 and (ii) ms-2

24) A toy car accelerates from rest to 2ms-1 in 0.5s.

Calculate the acceleration of the car.

50
Ssuaphotos / Shutterstock.com

Chapter 4

Motion
Equations of
 Section 1

Equations of Motion

Equations for Constant Velocity Equations for Constant Acceleration

Problems Problems
For objects travelling at constant velocity it is easy to Objects that are accelerating are more challenging, and
make calculations about their motion using: other equations are needed. Altogether there are 5
equations of motion for objects that travel with constant
acceleration.
s = v 0t + 21 at 2
v = v 0 + at
v 2 = v 0 2 + 2as
s v + v0
=
t 2
s = vt - 21 at 2

The first three equations are used much more often than
the final two equations. (If the objects have a changing
acceleration then these equations don’t apply and calculus
is generally required.)

52
Section 2

Deriving the Equations of Motion

Using Tables to Derive the Equations of Motion
The following video clips show how formulae can be found to describe the motion of objects travelling at a constant
acceleration. The first two equations can be ‘discovered’ by looking at patterns in some motion tables, and all three
equations can be derived mathematically. If you want to, just jump ahead to the next section giving examples using
the equations of motion, but you’ll miss out on some great mathematical physics!

Showing v = v0 + at After 1 seconds the car would be travelling at 0+2=2ms-1.

After 2 seconds it would be travelling at 4ms-1
Imagine sitting in stationary car, which begins After 3 it would be travelling at 6ms-1.
accelerating at 2ms-2. A table of velocities could be
constructed that would look like this. Time (in s) Velocity in ms-1
Time (in s) Velocity in ms-1
0 0
0 0
1 2
1
2 4
2
3 6
3

t
t

53
Section 2

Deriving the Equations of Motion

Using Tables to Derive the Equations of Motion
The following video clips show how formulae can be found to describe the motion of objects travelling at a constant
acceleration. The first two equations can be ‘discovered’ by looking at patterns in some motion tables, and all three
equations can be derived mathematically. If you want to, just jump ahead to the next section giving examples using
the equations of motion, but you’ll miss out on some great mathematical physics!

Showing v = v0 + at
Imagine sitting in stationary car, which begins After 1 seconds the car would be travelling at 0+2=2ms-1.
accelerating at 2ms-2. A table of velocities could be After 2 seconds it would be travelling at 4ms-1
constructed that would look like this. After 3 seconds it would be travelling at 6ms-1.
And after t seconds it would be travelling at 2tms-1
Time (in s) Velocity in ms-1
Time (in s) Velocity in ms-1
0 0
0 0
1
1 2
2
2 4
3
3 6

t
t 2t

54
Section 2

Deriving the Equations of Motion

Showing v = v0 + at (continued)
If the car has been accelerating at a ms-2 then the table If the car started with a velocity of v0 the
would be: table would become:

Time (in s) Velocity in ms-1 Time (in s) Velocity in ms-1

0 0 0 v0
1 a 1 V0+a
2 ax2 2 V0+ax2
3 ax3 3 V0+ax3

t axt=at t v0+at

Hence v=v0+at.

55
Section 2

Deriving the Equations of Motion

Showing s=v0t+1/2at2 But how far would they travel during this time?
During the first second the skydiver starts with a
Imagine a skydiver who leaps from the plane and velocity of 0m-1 and ends with a velocity of -10m-1.
accelerate downwards at approximately 10ms-2. What is Hence the skydiver has an average velocity of -5m-1
their velocity during the first few seconds? Because they Since s=vavxt
are accelerating downwards, their velocity gets more s=-5x1=-5m
and more negative.
Time Velocity Displacement
Time (in s) Velocity in ms-1 (in s) (in ms-1) (in m)

0 0 0 0 0

1 -10 1 -10 -5

2 -20 2 -20 ?

3 -20
t -10

t -10t

56
Section 2

Deriving the Equations of Motion

Showing s=v0t+1/2at2 (continued)
But what would the displacement be during the next
second? Time Velocity Displacement
During the second second the skydiver starts with a (in s) (in ms-1) (in m)
velocity of -10m-1 and ends with a velocity of -20m-1. 0 0 0
Hence the skydiver has an average velocity of -15m-1
Since s=vavxt 1 -10 -5
s=-15x1=-15m 2 -20 -5-15=-20
Hence the total displacement is -5m+-15m=-20m.
During the third second the skydiver starts with a 3 -30 -5-15-25=-45
velocity of -20m-1 and ends with a velocity of -30m-1. t -10 1/2at2
Hence the skydiver has an average velocity of -25m-1
Since s=vavxt
s=-25x1=-25m
Hence the total displacement is -5m+-15m-25m=-45m.
The displacement depends on t2.
s=1/2at2

57
Section 2

Deriving the Equations of Motion

Showing s=v0t+1/2at2 (continued)
If the skydiver has been moving upwards at a velocity v
when he started his free fall then Time Velocity Displacement
(in s) (in ms-1) (in m)
0 0 0
1 -10 -5
2 -20 -5-15=-20
3 -30 -5-15-25=-45
t -10 1/2at2

58
Deriving of the Equations of Motion
Mathematically 3: Derivation of v = v 0 + 2as
2 2

1: Derivation of v = u + at From equation 1

From the definition of acceleration we have v = v 0 + at

v - v0 v 2 = (v 0 + at)2
a=
t v 2 = v 0 2 + 2v 0at + a 2t 2
at = v - v 0
v 2 = v 0 2 + 2a(v 0t + 21 at 2 )
v = v 0 + at
But s = v 0t + 21 at 2
v 2 = v 0 2 + 2as
2: Derivation of s = v 0t + 21 at 2

From an earlier part of the chapter, we have

s Care needs to be taken applying these equations
v av = v +v
As Well v av = 0 (a) These equations only hold in the situation involving
t 2 constant acceleration e.g. falling bodies with
But v = v 0 + at (from equation 1). So negligible air resistance.
(b) When dealing with an object with decreasing velocity
v 0 + v 0 + at 2v 0 + at the acceleration is negative. The acceleration is
v av = =
2 2 directed against motion.
v av = v 0 + 2 at
1

s
\v 0 + 21 at =
t
s = v 0t + 21 at 2

59
 Chapter 5
Applying the
Equations of
Motion
NASA
Section 1

Examples and Introductory Problems

Use the following examples to help you answer the
introductory questions I to X.

Worked Example G
A car accelerations for 5s at 3ms-2. The car is
originally travelling at 10ms-1. Find the final velocity
and the distance travelled by the car.

61
I. A car accelerates from 10ms-1 to 14ms-1 in 8
seconds.
a) What is its acceleration?

b) How far has it travelled in this time?

II. A cyclist can accelerate at 2ms-2. He is

given an initial push, which starts him at 5ms-1.
What is his speed 8 seconds later?

III. You slow down to 8ms-1 to drive through a

school crossing. Three seconds later you have
accelerated to 23ms-1 and are in hot pursuit of a
guy/girl you are very interested in the car in
front!

a. What was your acceleration?

b. How far did you travel while accelerating?

62
Worked Example H
A mountain climber stands on the edge of a cliff.
She wishes to find the height of the cliff. A stone is
dropped, and it is seen to hit the foot of the cliff 5s
later. How high is the cliff? (Assume a=9.8ms-2)

IV. A boy drops a pebble down a well and 2

seconds later he hears a splash. Its acceleration is
9.8ms-2.

a. How deep is the well?

b. What is the velocity of the pebble just before

hitting the water?

63
Worked Example I
Kate can throw a ball with an initial speed of
12ms-1.

a) How high can she throw the ball?

b) How long is the ball in the air?

64
V. Garfield jumps vertically upwards to catch a forkful of
lasagne before it gets from Jon’s plate to his mouth. If he was
moving at 3ms-1 when he took off find:
a. The time taken to reach the maximum height
b. How long is Garfield in the air

VI. The police are investigating an accident in which a car

crashed into a wall. From the damage to the wall they were
able to estimate that the car was traveling at 10ms-1 when it
hit the wall. They know that a skidding car accelerates at -
8ms-2. The skid mark was measured and found to be 50m
long. What was the velocity of the car when the skid started?

VII. A rifle bullet leaves the muzzle with a velocity of 400 ms-1.
a. If the barrel is 0.5m long, find the acceleration of the
bullet.
b. For how long is the bullet in the barrel?

VIII. A train moving at 110kmhr-1 is brought to rest in a

distance of 200m, with a constant acceleration.
a. What was the acceleration of the train?
b. How long did it take to come to rest?

IX. On Planet Phys an object was dropped and fell with an

acceleration of 2ms-2. It was observed to strike the surface of
the planet at 30ms-1. From what height was it dropped?

X. A car, which started from rest, accelerated at 5ms-2 for 10

seconds. How far did it travel in this time?

65
 Section 5
Questions
25)The photograph at right shows a multiple flash
record of a ball in free fall. Calculate the
acceleration due to gravity given that the
interval between images is 1/30 s. The
numbers on the rulers are cm.
26) A ball is thrown vertically upward at 25ms-1.
Assuming the acceleration due to gravity is
10ms-2 down,
(a) how fast is the ball travelling at the top
of its flight?
(b) how high will the ball go?
(c) how long will the ball take to return to
the ground?
(d) what will be the final speed of the ball
just before it hits the ground?
27) A grasshopper's legs extend by 2.0cm in
0.020s when jumping from rest. Assuming the jump
is vertical,
(a) What is the average acceleration of the
grasshopper while extending its legs?
(b) With what velocity does the grasshopper
leave the ground?
(c) What is the maximum height the
grasshopper can jump?
28)A jet plane lands on one end of a runway of
length 1000m. Its maximum deceleration is
4ms-2 and It takes 20s before coming to rest.
Does the plane stop in time?
29)A flea takes 1 millisecond to reach its take-off
speed of 1.2ms-1 In a jump,
(a) What is its average acceleration?
(b) Assuming a vertical take-off, how high
does it jump?
66
30) A very fast bowler in cricket can accelerate a ball to
160kmhr-1.
(a) Assuming the ball is brought from rest to this
speed in a distance of 4m, calculate the
average acceleration of the ball.
Compare this figure to the acceleration due to
gravity.
(b) A cricket pitch is 20m long. How long will the
ball take to reach the batsman? Compare this
to a typical reaction time (Assume the ball
travels at its maximum speed for the length of
the pitch).
31) A motorist is travelling with constant velocity at
72kmhr-1 along a road. The road crosses a railway
line. At 55m from the tracks, the driver sees that a
train has stalled across the road. The driver
immediately applies the brakes (after a reaction time
of 0.5s). The brakes decelerate the car at a rate of 5
ms-2.
(a) Will the car collide with the train?
(b) What would be the situation if the brakes
could only slow the car at a rate of 4ms-2
32) A stone is dropped down a well, taking 4s to reach
the bottom.
(a) How deep is the well?
(b) How fast was the stone moving just before it
hit the bottom?
33) A student on planet PHYS dropped an object in
order to find the acceleration due to gravity. On this
planet, time is measured in zos and distance in
zees. The data obtained is
(a) Calculate the acceleration due to gravity in
zeezo-2.
(b) A visitor from the Earth determines that 1zo =
1.16 s and 1zee = 4.11 m.
(c) What is the acceleration on PHYS in ms-2?
What can you say about PHYS?
34) A good athlete can high-jump 3m.
a)What is the minimum vertical speed an athlete
will need to reach this height? (Acceleration due
to gravity, g=10 ms-2) What have you assumed?
(b) What will happen to the answer in (a) if the
athlete attempts his jump on the Moon?
g(Moon) = 1/6g (Earth)
35) Use the internet to help you write on the following
topics: car safety, speeds in nature, speeds in sport
67
Chapter 6
Solutions
Full solutions for odd numbered questions and (b) How far would the Mallard travel in 1
numerical answers for even numbered minute at top speed?
questions.
Facts
1) In 1938, the British set a world record for the
fastest steam locomotive ever. The Mallard set v = 200kmhr -1
a record of 200kmhr-1 which still stands. 1
t = 60min = hour
60
(a) How long would it take the Mallard to travel s=?
a distance of 400km?
Formula
Facts s
v=
t
v = 200kmhr -1
s = tv
s = 400kmhr -1
Findit
t=?
1
Formula s = 200 ´
60
s Fixit
v=
t
s = 3.3km
vt = s
s
t=
v
Findit
400
t=
200
Fixit
t = 2hr

69
(c) Convert 200kmhr-1 to ms-1. Mars is 80 million km from the Earth at its closest
point. If light travels at 3x108ms-1, how much time
200km 200000m will elapse before a space scientist knows that a
= command has been received by a spacecraft on
1hr 3600s
-1 the surface of Mars?
= 55.5ms
or Facts
200 ¸ 3.6 = 55.5ms -1 v = 3 ´ 108 ms -1 = 300000000ms -1
s = 80 ´ 10 6 km = 80 ´ 109 m
3x108ms-1
2) Light travels at in a vacuum. How
long does light take to reach the Earth from: Formula
s
v=
(a) the Moon at a distance of 385,000 km? t
1.28s Findit
(b) the Sun at a distance of 150,000,000 km?
s = tv
500s
s 3 ´ 108 ms -1
\t = = = 266.6s
v 80 ´ 109 m
Fixit
266.6 ´ 2(for return journey) = 533.3s

70
4) Perform the following conversions: 5) (a) It takes 8.33 minutes for light from the Sun
(a) 1km to m (g) 5millisecond to s to reach the Earth. How far is the Sun from the
(b) 1000m 0.005s Earth if light travels at 3x108ms-1?
(b) 5200m to km (h) 10 ms-1 to mhr-1
5.2km 3.6x104mhr-1 Facts
(c) 530cm to m (i) 10ms-1 to km s-1 t = 8.33min = 499.8s
5.3m 0.01 km s-1 v = 3 ´ 108 ms -1
(d) 24.5km to cm (j) 10 ms-1-to kmhr-1
s=?
2.45x106cm 36 km hr-1
(e) 5min to s (k) 50ms-1 to kmhr-1 Formula
300s 180 km hr--1 s
(f) 10hr 30min to s (I) 800 km hr-1 to ms-1 v=
t
3.78x10 s4 222 ms-1 Findit
s = tv
s = 499.8 ´ 3 ´ 108 ms -1
Fixit
s = 1.5 ´ 1011m

71
(b) Given that a light-year is the distance 7) What is meant by the term 'reaction time'? How
travelled by light in a year, compute this can it interfere with the accuracy of a stopwatch
distance in kilometres. measurement?
Reaction time is the time taken for nerves to send
Facts signals to the brain, for the brain to decide on an
1yr = 365d action to take, the brain’s response sent to the
365d = 8760hr muscles and then the time for the action of the
muscles. This time can range from 0.2s to 0.5s, so
8760hr = 525600min
for small times (such as a second or smaller) a large
525600min = 31536000s percentage of the time could be reaction time.

Formula
s 8) (a) John has a reaction time of 0.5s for applying
v= the foot brake in his car. If he is driving at 72kmhr-1,
t
how far will he travel before his brakes are applied,
Findit
after seeing a stop sign?
s = tv 10m
s = 3 ´ 108 ms -1 ´ 31536000s = 9.47 ´ 1015 m (b) How would the answer for (a) change if he drove
Fixit at 144 km hr-1?
20m
s = 9.47 ´ 1012 km

6)The speedometer in a car reads 60 kmhr-1. Is

this an instantaneous or average velocity?
Explain your answer.
Instantaneous

72
 (b) If the glider’s velocity was 2ms-1, what time
9) An electronic timer is connected to a
would the timer register?
photoelectric gate and arranged over a linear air
track. A glider of length 10cm passes through the Facts
gate causing the timer to operate. v = 2ms -1
d = 10cm = 0.1m
(a) If the timer measured 0.1s for the glider to
t=?
pass, what was the velocity for the glider?
Formula
Facts s
v=
t
s = 10cm = 0.1m
Findit
t = 0.1s
s = tv
v=?
s 0.1m
Formula \t = =
v 2ms -1
s
v= Fixit
t
t = 0.05s
Findit
0.1m
v=
0.1s 11) If the time interval between each dot is 1
Fixit second, calculate the time elapsed for the
v = 1ms -1 motion recorded on the ticker tape below.
7 seconds.
(a) find the average speed over the first second
5mm
= 5mms -1
1s

73
(b) find the average speed over the last second (b) What is the average velocity over the last 2
seconds?
38mm
= 38mms -1 Facts
1s
v av = ?
(c)find the average speed over the whole tape.
s = -30m
144mm t = 2s
= 20.6mms -1
7s Formula
(d) Account for any difference in the answers of s
v av =
(a), (b) and (c). t
The tape (or rather the object pulling the tape) is Findit
accelerating. -30
v av =
2
13) From the displacement-time graph below, Fixit
calculate the following: v av = -15ms -1
(a) What is the average velocity over the first 2
seconds? (c)What is the average velocity over the full 6
Facts seconds?
v av = ? Facts
s = 0m v av = ?

t = 2s s = -60m
t = 6s
Formula
Formula
s
v av = s
t v av =
t
Findit Findit
0 -60
v av = v av =
2 6
Fixit Fixit
v av = 0ms -1 v av = -10ms -1
74
(e) Calculate the distance travelled by the object. 18) A ball is to be thrown into the air. Joanne, physics student
using a motion sensor finds this velocity time graph.
Area 0-3s = distance travelled (a) Find the initial velocity of the ball.
A = 21 bh 10ms-1
A = 21 ´ 3 ´ 10 (b) Find the final velocity of the ball.
-10ms-1
A = 15 (c) What is happening at t = 1.0 s?
Area 3-5s = distance travelled Object stationary as it reverses direction.
A = bh (d) Compute the acceleration of the ball, and draw an
A = 2 ´ 10 acceleration-time graph.
-10ms-2
A = 20 (e) How high did the ball go?
Area 5-6s = distance travelled 5m
A = 21 bh + bh (f) Find the distance travelled by the ball. What is its average
speed?
A = 21 ´ 1´ 10 + 1´ 10
distance = 10m, average speed = 5ms-1
A = 15 (g) Find the displacement of the ball.What is its average velocity?
Area 6-9s = distance travelled displacement = 0, average velocity = 0
A = bh
A = 3 ´ 20
A = 60
Area 9-13s = distance travelled
A = 21 bh
A = 21 ´ 4 ´ 20
A = 40
Total distance = 15 + 20 + 15 + 60 + 40
= 150m

75
(h) Comment on answers to (f) and (g). 21) A runner travels with a constant velocity of 5ms-1
Distance is the total distance traveled by an for 30s to the east, turns around and travels with a
object whereas displacement is the distance constant velocity of 3ms-1 to the west for 50s.
traveled from a set point, so the answers are a) Calculate the total distance travelled by the runner.
different.
19) With the aid of some internet information, Facts
draw a velocity-time graph, and an acceleration- v av (east) = 5ms -1
time graph for a fast sports car accelerating to
200kmhr-1. See text. t(east) = 30sec
20) A bus starts from rest at a bus terminal and v av (west) = 3ms -1
accelerates at 1ms-1 for 10s. It then continues t(east) = 50sec
with a constant velocity for 60s before coming to
rest at the first bus stop with a deceleration of s=?
2.5ms-1. Formula
(a) Graph s = v av t
(i) acceleration versus time for the bus
Findit
(ii) velocity versus time for the bus
(iii) displacement versus time for the bus s = 30 ´ 5 + 3 ´ 50
(b) From the graph compute the distance Fixit
between the terminal and bus stop. 670m s = 150 + 150 = 300m
(c) Does the bus exceed the speed limit of
60kmhr-1? No

76
(b) Calculate the total displacement of the (c) Find the average velocity and average speed for the
runner. runner. Comment on your answer.

Facts Facts
v av (east) = 5ms -1
s = 300m
t(east) = 30sec t = 8sec
v av (west) = 3ms -1 Formula
t(east) = 50sec s
v av =
t
s=?
s
Formula v av =
t
east - west = s Findit
Findit 300
v av =
30 ´ 5 - 50 ´ 3 = 0m 8
Fixit 0
v av =
The runner has returned to his/her starting 8
position and as such has no displacement. Fixit
v av = 37.5ms -1
v av = 0ms -1
The answers are different, because velocity uses the
displacement, which is the distance travelled
from a fixed point, in this case 0, whereas speed uses
distance, which is the total distance travelled, in this case 300m.

77
22) (b) A stone is dropped from the window of a (b) How far did the car travel in the 10 s?
building. If the stone hits the ground 2 seconds Facts
later with a final velocity of 19.6 ms-1, calculate
the acceleration due to gravity. v 0 = 0kmhr -1
v = 100kmhr -1
-2
9.8ms s=?
23) a) An automobile accelerates to 100kmhr-1 in a = 2.8ms -2
10s from rest. Find the acceleration in (i) kmhr-1 t = 10s
and (ii) ms-2 Formula
s = v 0t + 21 at 2
Facts
Findit
v = 100kmhr -1
s = 21 ´ 2.8 ´ 100
t = 10s
Formula Fixit
Dv v - v 0 s = 140m
a= =
Dt t
Findit 24) A toy car accelerates from rest to 2ms-1 in
0.5s.Calculate the acceleration of the car. How far did
100
a= the car travel in the 0.5s?
10
Fixit a = 4ms -2
a = 10kmhr -1s -1 s = 0.5m
10kmhr -1 ¸ 3.6 = 2.8ms -1
Hence 10kmhr -1s -1 = 2.8ms -1s -1 = 2.8ms -2

78
25) The photograph shows a multiple flash 26) A ball is thrown vertically upward at 25ms-1.
record of a ball in free fall. Calculate the Assuming the acceleration due to gravity is
acceleration due to gravity given that the interval 10ms-2 down,
between images is 1/30s. The numbers on the (a) How fast is the ball travelling at the top of its
rulers are cm. flight?
0
(b) how high will the ball go?
31.25m
(c) how long will the ball take to return to the
ground?
5s
(i) what will be the final speed of the ball just
before it hits the ground?
25ms-1

79
27) A grasshopper's legs extend by 2.0cm in b) With what velocity does the grasshopper leave the
0.020 s when jumping from rest. Assuming the ground?
jump is vertical,
Facts
(a) What is the average acceleration of the
grasshopper while extending its legs? u = 0ms -1
s = 2cm
Facts
t = 0.02s
u=0
a = 100ms -2
v = not given
v=?
s = 2cm
Formula
t = 0.02s
v = u + at
a=?
Findit
Formula
v = 100 ´ 0.02
s = ut + 21 at 2
Fixit
s - ut = 21 at 2
v = 2ms -1
s - ut
=a
t
1 2
2

Findit
2-0
=a
0.0002
Fixit
a = 10000cms -2 = 100ms -2

80
(c) What is the maximum height the grasshopper 29) A flea takes 1 millisecond to reach its take-off speed of
can jump? 1.2ms-1 In a jump,
(a) What is its average acceleration?
Facts
v 0 = 0ms -1 Facts
s=? t = 0.001
t = Not given v = 1.2ms -1
a = -9.8ms -2 a=?
v = 2ms -1 Formula
Formula v
a=
v 2 - v 0 2 = 2as t
Findit
v 2 - v02
=s 1.2
2a a=
0.001
Findit
Fixit
4-0
s= a = 1200ms -2
19.6
Fixit
h = 0.2m

28) A jet plane lands on one end of a runway of

length 1000m. Its maximum deceleration is 4ms-
2 and It takes 20s before coming to rest. Does

the plane stop in time?

Yes - stops in 800m

81
(b) Assuming a vertical take-off, how high does it 30) A very fast bowler in cricket can accelerate a ball to
jump? 160kmhr-1.
Facts (a) Assuming the ball is brought from rest to this speed in a
distance of 4m, calculate the average acceleration of the
v 0 = 0ms -1 ball.
s=? Compare this figure to the acceleration due to gravity.
t = Not given
-2
247ms -2 .
a = -9.8ms
This is approx. 25 ´ g
v = 1.2ms -1
Formula b) A cricket pitch is 20m long. How long will the ball take to
reach the batsman? Compare this to a typical reaction time
v = v 0 + 2as
2 2
(Assume the ball travels at its maximum speed for the
v 2 - v02 length of the pitch).
=s
2a 0.45s which is comparable to reaction time.
Findit
1.44 - 0
=s
19.6
Fixit
s = 0.073m = 7.3cm

82
 Part1
Facts
31) A motorist is travelling with constant velocity v = 72kmhr -1 = 20ms -1
at 72kmhr-1 along a road. The road crosses a s=?
railway line. At 55m from the tracks, the driver t = 0.5s
sees that a train has stalled across the road. The
Formula
driver immediately applies the brakes (after a
s
reaction time of 0.5s). The brakes decelerate the v=
car at a rate of 5ms-2. t
s = vt
(a) Will the car collide with the train?
Findit
s = 20 ´ 0.5
Fixit
s1 = 10m
Part2
Facts
v 0 = 20ms -1
a = -5ms -1
s1 = 10m
v = 0ms -1
Formula
v 2 = v 0 2 + 2as
Findit
v 2 - v02
s=
2a
-400
=s
-10
Fixit
s2 = 40m
s1 + s2 = 50m
50m < 55m thus the driver avoids the collision
83
 Part1
(b) What would be the situation if the brakes Facts
could only slow the car at a rate of 4 ms-2 v = 72kmhr -1 = 20ms -1
s=?
t = 0.5s
Formula
s
v=
t
s = vt
Findit
s = 20 ´ 0.5
Fixit
s1 = 10m
Part2
Facts
v 0 = 20ms -1
a = -4ms -2
s1 = 10m
v = 0ms -1
Formula
v 2 = v 0 2 + 2as
Findit
-400ms -1 = 2 ´ -4 ´ s
-400
=s
-8
Fixit
s2 = 50m
s1 + s2 = 60m
55m < 60m thus the driver collided with the train.
84
32) A stone is dropped down a well, taking 4s to 33) A student on planet PHYS dropped an object in
reach the bottom. order to find the acceleration due to gravity. On this
(a) How deep is the well? planet, time is measured in zos and distance in
78.4m zees. The data obtained is shown in this table.
(b) How fast was the stone moving just before it
hit the bottom?
39.2ms-1

85
(a) Calculate the acceleration due to gravity in (b) A visitor from the Earth determines that 1zo =
zeezo-2. 1.16 s and 1 zee = 4.11 m.
What is the acceleration on PHYS in ms-2? What
Facts
can you say about PHYS?
v 0 = 0ms -1
Facts
v = not given
v 0 = 0ms -1
s = 14.4zee
a=? v = not given
t = 3zo s = 14.4zee ´ 4.11= 59.184m
Formula a=?
s = v 0t + 21 at 2 t = 3zo ´ 1.16 = 3.48s
Formula
s - v 0t = 21 at 2
s = v 0t + 21 at 2
s - v 0t
a= s - v 0t = 21 at 2
t
1 2
2

Findit s - v 0t
a=
14.4 - 0 2
t
1 2

a= Findit
0.5 ´ 3 2
Fixit 59.184 - 0
a=
a = 3.2zeezo -2 0.5 ´ 3.48 2
Fixit
a = 9.8ms -1
The gravity on PHYS is approximately the
same as the acceleration of gravity on Earth.

86
34) a) A good athlete can high-jump 3m. What is
the minimum vertical speed an athlete will need
to reach this height? (Acceleration due to gravity,
g=10 ms-2)
7.75ms-1
(b) What will happen to the answer in (a) if the
athlete attempts his jump on the Moon? g(Moon)
= 1/6g (Earth)
3.16ms-1

87
 SACE Curriculum Statement

Students are advised to check the current subject outline on the SACE website
www.sace.sa.edu.au for any changes, especially
https://www.sace.sa.edu.au/web/physics/2017-subject-changes/planning-to-
teach/subject-outline

1 Linear Motion and Forces

The study of Physics is the pursuit of understanding the physical world and the laws that govern it. One starting point for
developing an understanding of matter, energy, forces, and the relationship that each has to another is the motion of
physical bodies. While the motion of objects is instantly recognisable, the laws governing this motion can be subtle and
often counterintuitive. In their study of Stage 1 Physics, students build on aspects of physics studied previously and then
explore fundamental concepts and relationships in motion such as displacement, velocity, and acceleration, and the
principles upon which each is founded.
In the first part of this topic, students acquire the skills and understanding to describe and explain motion in a variety of
formats, including algebraic and graphical representations. They use the equations of motion and various graphical
methods to elicit quantitative and qualitative information about moving objects that undergo constant acceleration and
hence further build their literacy and numeracy skills.
Following the study of motion under constant acceleration, students consolidate their understanding of forces and the
effect that forces have on the motion of objects, using Newton’s Laws of Motion.
Throughout this topic the importance of the concepts and laws in explaining physical phenomena is emphasised and
their role in providing a foundation for contemporary applications is also highlighted. Students explore the limitations of
the models and ways in which concepts can inform and explain existing, developing, and emerging technologies.
Critical thinking and an understanding of linear motion and forces enables students to devise solutions and make
reasonable predictions.

1.1 Motion under Constant Acceleration

In this subtopic students become familiar with examples of motion under constant acceleration and with the use of
notation, units, prefixes, and representations in physics. Students develop an awareness of the differences between
vertical and horizontal motion under constant acceleration, with an emphasis on motion under the acceleration due to
gravity.
88
 SACE Curriculum Statement

Science Understanding Possible Contexts

This connects to the concept of acceleration used in the Stage 1 Sub-
topic 1.2: Forces and the Stage 2 subtopics 1.1: Projectile Motion, 1.2
Forces and Momentum, 1.3 Uniform Circular Motion and Gravitation and
2.2 Motion of Charged Particles in Electric Fields.
Compare current definitions of units with other systems of measurement
Linear motion with constant velocity is described in terms of relationships
such as imperial measure, and consider the benefits and limitations of
between measureable scalar and vector quantities, including
each.
displacement, distance, speed, and velocity
𝑠 Discuss the nature and difference between scalar and vector quantities,
• Solve problems using 𝑣 = and how each explains different aspects of motion.
𝑡
• Interpret solutions to problems in a variety of contexts. Discuss velocity vectors for an object moving in a curved path, to
• Explain and solve problems involving the instantaneous velocity of an understand instantaneous velocity.
object. Investigate the physical interpretation of negative velocities and
Acceleration is a change in motion. accelerations in context.
Uniformly accelerated motion is described in terms of relationships Use SI units and common prefixes such as kilo (k), milli (m) and micro
between measurable scalar and vector quantities, including (μ) in practical activities to develop an awareness of reasonable
displacement, speed, velocity, and acceleration. estimates of physical quantities.
• Solve problems using equations for constant acceleration and Extend understanding and use of the equations 𝑣 = and
𝑠
∆𝑣 𝑡
a= ∆𝑣 ∆𝑠Ԧ ∆𝑣
∆𝑡 a= . This could include the vector equations 𝑣Ԧ = and 𝑎= .
• Interpret solutions to problems in a variety of contexts. ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

• Make reasonable and appropriate estimations of physical quantities in

Explore and clarify the relationship between velocity and acceleration
a variety of contexts.
using the computer interactive ‘The Maze Game’
https://phet.colorado.edu/
Investigate the development and use of the SI units. Analyse the
significance of the development of internationally agreed definitions of
absolute measures of time, mass, and distance, and the challenges
facing scientists since the introduction of SI units.

89
 SACE Curriculum Statement Heat
Science Understanding
Graphical representations can be used qualitatively and
quantitatively to describe and predict aspects of linear motion.
• Use graphical methods to represent linear motion, including the
construction of graphs showing:
- position versus time
- velocity versus time
- acceleration versus time.
• Use graphical representations to determine quantities such as
position, displacement, distance, velocity, and acceleration.
• Use graphical techniques to calculate the instantaneous velocity
and instantaneous acceleration of an object.
Possible Contexts
Demonstrate how the gradient of a displacement versus time graph
can be shown to be equivalent to the velocity of the object.
Relate the gradient of a velocity versus time graph to the
acceleration of the object.
Use the area under the graph to determine the distance and
displacement of an object.
Construct different graphical representations using sections from
popular movies or television shows. Those with ‘chase’ scenes
may be particularly effective. Graphical representations can be
constructed using data from professional athletes.
Construct position versus time graphs and velocity versus time
graphs using trolleys on an inclined plane.
Consider the accelerations of different masses. Use motion
sensors or other multi-image technology to collect data.
Refer to computer interactive ‘The Moving Man’
https://phet.colorado.edu/
Connect and investigate different graphical representations by
calculating gradients and areas. For example:
- use a position versus time graph to construct a velocity versus
time graph.
- use a velocity versus time graph to construct an acceleration
versus time graph.
Work out how to determine the instantaneous velocity and
instantaneous acceleration from non- linear graphs, using
mathematical techniques.
90
 SACE Curriculum Statement

Science Understanding Possible Contexts

Equations of motion quantitatively describe and predict
aspects of linear motion.
• Solve and interpret problems using the equations of
motion:
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
1
𝑠 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
2 Further develop scientific inquiry skills by investigating different aspects of
𝑣 2 = 𝑣0 + 2𝑎𝑠
Vertical motion is analysed by assuming that the acceleration
due to gravity is constant near Earth’s surface.
The constant acceleration due to gravity near the surface of
the Earth is
approximately g =9.80ms-2 .
• Solve problems for objects undergoing vertical motion
because of the acceleration due to gravity in the absence
of air resistance.
• Explain the concept of free-falling objects and the
conditions under which free-falling motion may be
approximated.
• Describe qualitatively the effects that air resistance has
on vertical motion.
Use equations of motion and graphical representations to
determine the acceleration due to gravity.
Show how equations can be derived using different methods:
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 using the definition of acceleration
1
𝑠 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 using a velocity versus time graph
2
2
𝑣 2 = 𝑣0 + 2𝑎𝑠 algebraically.
Calculate and analyse the acceleration due to gravity on the moon using NASA
footage showing a hammer and feather being dropped simultaneously. Use
and discuss appropriate estimations.
Use stop motion animation to illustrate an understanding of motion. Footage of
objects in motion may be analysed using tracking software.
projectile motion in sport.
Experimentally determine the acceleration due to gravity by recording an object
falling against an appropriate scale using a ticker-timer, motion sensor, or other
multi-image applications. Use data to construct a velocity time graph.
Design investigations to determine if mass has any effect on vertical
acceleration.
Investigate side-show rides to measure and calculate physical quantities.
Investigate what quantities make a ride enjoyable and how these are
maximised. Consider factors such as g- force, acceleration, average speeds.
Mobile devices could have suitable sensors and applications to record
measurements. Explore the principles behind different methods used to
determine the speed of an object and evaluate the benefits and limitations of
each method.
Examples include radars and laser guns, point-to-point cameras.
Decide the best location for point-to- point cameras to identify speeding
vehicles.
Investigate the methods used to determine the gait and speed of dinosaurs
based on their tracks (such as that devised by Robert Alexander).which
contribute to better understanding of early life on earth Conduct experiments
and analyse data based on this work.

91