Artificial intelligence (AI) is an area of computer science that emphasizes the creation of intelligent machines that work

and react like humans. Some of the activities computers with artificial intelligence are designed for include: Speech
recognition, Learning, Planning, Problem solving. Research associated with artificial intelligence is highly technical and
specialized. The core problems of artificial intelligence include programming computers for certain traits such as:
Knowledge, Reasoning, Problem solving, Perception, Learning, Planning, Ability to manipulate and move objects.
Knowledge engineering is a core part of AI research. Machines can often act and react like humans only if they have
abundant information relating to the world. Artificial intelligence must have access to objects, categories, properties and
relations between all of them to implement knowledge engineering. Initiating common sense, reasoning and problem-
solving power in machines is a difficult and tedious task. Importance of AI: To Create Expert Systems − The systems
which exhibit intelligent behavior, learn, demonstrate, explain, and advice its users. To Implement Human Intelligence in
Machines − Creating systems that understand, think, learn, and behave like humans. Applications of AI: Gaming − AI
plays crucial role in strategic games such as chess, poker, tic-tac-toe, etc., where machine can think of large number of
possible positions based on heuristic knowledge. Natural Language Processing − It is possible to interact with the
computer that understands natural language spoken by humans. Expert Systems − There are some applications which
integrate machine, software, and special information to impart reasoning and advising. They provide explanation and
advice to the users. Vision Systems − These systems understand, interpret, and comprehend visual input on the
computer. Speech Recognition − Some intelligent systems are capable of hearing and comprehending the language in
terms of sentences and their meanings while a human talks to it. It can handle different accents, slang words, noise in the
background, change in human’s noise due to cold, etc. Handwriting Recognition − The handwriting recognition software
reads the text written on paper by a pen or on screen by a stylus. It can recognize the shapes of the letters and convert it
into editable text. Intelligent Robots − Robots are able to perform the tasks given by a human. They have sensors to
detect physical data from the real world such as light, heat, temperature, movement, sound, bump, and pressure. They
have efficient processors, multiple sensors and huge memory, to exhibit intelligence. In addition, they are capable of
learning from their mistakes and they can adapt to the new environment. Expert systems (ES) are one of the prominent
research domains of AI. It is introduced by the researchers at Stanford University, Computer Science Department. The
expert systems are the computer applications developed to solve complex problems in a particular domain, at the level of
extra-ordinary human intelligence and expertise. Characteristics of Expert Systems: High performance, Understandable,
Reliable, Highly responsive, Capabilities of Expert Systems. The components of ES include − Knowledge Base, Inference
Engine, User Interface. Steps in developing the ES include −Identify Problem Domain: The problem must be suitable for
an expert system to solve it. Find the experts in task domain for the ES project. Establish cost-effectiveness of the system.
Design the System: Identify the ES Technology. Know and establish the degree of integration with the other systems and
databases. Realize how the concepts can represent the domain knowledge best. Develop the Prototype: From Knowledge
Base: The knowledge engineer works to : Acquire domain knowledge from the expert. Represent it in the form of If-THEN-
ELSE rules. Test and Refine the Prototype: The knowledge engineer uses sample cases to test the prototype for any
deficiencies in performance. End users test the prototypes of the ES. Develop and Complete the ES: Test and ensure the
interaction of the ES with all elements of its environment, including end users, databases, and other information systems.
Document the ES project well. Train the user to use ES. Maintain the ES: Keep the knowledge base up-to-date by regular
review and update. Cater for new interfaces with other information systems, as those systems evolve. Benefits of Expert
Systems: Availability − They are easily available due to mass production of software. Less Production Cost − Production
cost is reasonable. This makes them affordable. Speed − They offer great speed. They reduce the amount of work an
individual puts in. Less Error Rate − Error rate is low as compared to human errors. Reducing Risk − They can work in the
environment dangerous to humans. Steady response − They work steadily without getting motional, tensed or fatigued.
Pattern Recognition: Human have developed highly sophisticated skills for sensing their environment and taking actions
according to what they observe. For example: recognizing a face, reading handwriting or distinguishing fresh food from its
smell. Pattern recognition is the study of how machines can observe the environment, learn to distinguish patterns of
interest and make sound and reasonable decisions about the categories of the patterns. Pattern is an abstraction,
represented by a set of measurements describing a physical object. The different types of pattern are: visual, temporal,
sonic, logical and etc.There are different pattern recognition models to cope with problems: Statistical or fuzzy pattern
recognition, Syntactic or structural pattern recognition, knowledge based pattern recognition. Pattern recognition process
includes: Data acquisition and sensing: Measurements of physical variables Pre- Processing: Removal of noise in data and
isolation of patterns of interest from the background. Feature Extraction: Finding a new representation in terms of
features. Classification: Using features and learned models to assign a pattern to a category. Post- processing: Evaluation
of confidence in decisions. For example: Sorting of fish on a conveyor belt according to species. Assuming there are only
two classes exist: 1. Sea Bass 2. Salmon. To distinguish one species from the other we can check length, width, weight,
number and shape of fins, tail shape etc. Things that can cause problems during sensing are: lighting condition, position of
fish on belt, camera noise, etc. The steps to finish this process are: 1. Capture image, 2. Isolate fish, 3. take
measurements, 4. make decision. Natural Language Processing: Natural Language Processing (NLP) refers to AI method of
communicating with an intelligent systems using a natural language such as English. Processing of Natural Language is
required when you want an intelligent system like robot to perform as per your instructions, when you want to hear
decision from a dialogue based clinical expert system, etc. The field of NLP involves making computers to perform useful
tasks with the natural languages humans use. The input and output of an NLP system can be – Speech, Written Text
Components of NLP: There are two components of NLP as given − Natural Language Understanding (NLU):
Understanding involves the following tasks − Mapping the given input in natural language into useful representations.
Analyzing different aspects of the language. Natural Language Generation (NLG): It is the process of producing
meaningful phrases and sentences in the form of natural language from some internal representation. It involves − Text
planning − It includes retrieving the relevant content from knowledge base. Sentence planning − It includes choosing
required words, forming meaningful phrases, setting tone of the sentence. Text Realization − It is mapping sentence plan
into sentence structure. The NLU is harder than NLG. Difficulties in NLU: NL has an extremely rich form and structure. It is
very ambiguous. There can be different levels of ambiguity − Lexical ambiguity − It is at very primitive level such as word-
level. For example, treating the word “board” as noun or verb? Syntax Level ambiguity − A sentence can be parsed in
different ways. For example, “He lifted the beetle with red cap.” − Did he use cap to lift the beetle or he lifted a beetle
that had red cap? Referential ambiguity − Referring to something using pronouns. For example, Rima went to Gauri. She
said, “I am tired.” − Exactly who is tired? One input can mean different meanings. Many inputs can mean the same thing.
Steps in NLP: There are general five steps − Lexical Analysis − It involves identifying and analyzing the structure of words.
Lexicon of a language means the collection of words and phrases in a language. Lexical analysis is dividing the whole
chunk of txt into paragraphs, sentences, and words. Syntactic Analysis (Parsing) − It involves analysis of words in the
sentence for grammar and arranging words in a manner that shows the relationship among the words. The sentence such
as “The school goes to boy” is rejected by English syntactic analyzer. Semantic Analysis − It draws the exact meaning or
the dictionary meaning from the text. The text is checked for meaningfulness. It is done by mapping syntactic structures
and objects in the task domain. The semantic analyzer disregards sentence such as “hot ice-cream”. Discourse Integration
− The meaning of any sentence depends upon the meaning of the sentence just before it. In addition, it also brings about
the meaning of immediately succeeding sentence. Pragmatic Analysis − During this, what was said is re-interpreted on
what it actually meant. It involves deriving those aspects of language which require real world knowledge. Evolutionary
Algorithm: An evolutionary algorithm is considered a component of evolutionary computation in artificial intelligence. An
evolutionary algorithm functions through the selection process in which the least fit members of the population set are
eliminated, whereas the fit members are allowed to survive and continue until better solutions are determined. In other
words, evolutionary algorithms are computer applications which mimic biological processes in order to solve complex
problems. Over time, the successful members evolve to present the optimized solution to the problem. Evolutionary
algorithms are typically used to provide good approximate solutions to problems that cannot be solved easily using other
techniques. Many optimisation problems fall into this category. It may be too computationally-intensive to find an exact
solution but sometimes a near-optimal solution is sufficient. In these situations evolutionary techniques can be effective.
Due to their random nature, evolutionary algorithms are never guaranteed to find an optimal solution for any problem,
but they will often find a good solution if one exists. One example of this kind of optimisation problem is the challenge of
timetabling. Schools and universities must arrange room and staff allocations to suit the needs of their curriculum. There
are several constraints that must be satisfied. A member of staff can only be in one place at a time, they can only teach
classes that are in their area of expertise, rooms cannot host lessons if they are already occupied, and classes must not
clash with other classes taken by the same students. This is a combinatorial problem and known to be NP-Hard. It is not
feasible to exhaustively search for the optimal timetable due to the huge amount of computation involved. Instead,
heuristics must be used. Genetic algorithms have proven to be a successful way of generating satisfactory solutions to
many scheduling problems. Fuzzy Logic : Fuzzy Logic (FL) is a method of reasoning that resembles human reasoning. The
approach of FL imitates the way of decision making in humans that involves all intermediate possibilities between digital
values YES and NO. The conventional logic block that a computer can understand takes precise input and produces a
definite output as TRUE or FALSE, which is equivalent to human’s YES or NO. The fuzzy logic works on the levels of
possibilities of input to achieve the definite output. Implementation: It can be implemented in systems with various sizes
and capabilities ranging from small micro-controllers to large, networked, workstation-based control systems. It can be
implemented in hardware, software, or a combination of both. Why Fuzzy Logic? Fuzzy logic is useful for commercial and
practical purposes. It can control machines and consumer products. It may not give accurate reasoning, but acceptable
reasoning. Fuzzy logic helps to deal with the uncertainty in engineering. Fuzzy Logic Systems Architecture: It has four
main parts − Fuzzification Module − It transforms the system inputs, which are crisp numbers, into fuzzy sets. It splits the
input signal into five steps such as − LP x is Large Positive, MP x is Medium Positive, S x is Small, MN x is Medium
Negative, LN x is Large Negative. Knowledge Base − It stores IF-THEN rules provided by experts. Inference Engine − It
simulates the human reasoning process by making fuzzy inference on the inputs and IF-THEN rules. Defuzzification
Module − It transforms the fuzzy set obtained by the inference engine into a crisp value. Example of a Fuzzy Logic
System: Let us consider an air conditioning system with 5-level fuzzy logic system. This system adjusts the temperature of
air conditioner by comparing the room temperature and the target temperature value. Step 1: Define linguistic variables
and terms: Linguistic variables are input and output variables in the form of simple words or sentences. For room
temperature, cold, warm, hot, etc., are linguistic terms. Step 2: Construct membership functions for them Step 3:
Construct knowledge base rules: Create a matrix of room temperature values versus target temperature values that an
air conditioning system is expected to provide. Step 4: Obtain fuzzy value: Fuzzy set operations perform evaluation of
rules. The operations used for OR and AND are Max and Min respectively. Combine all results of evaluation to form a final
result. This result is a fuzzy value. Step 5: Perform defuzzification: Defuzzification is then performed according to
membership function for output variable. Application Areas of Fuzzy Logic The key application areas of fuzzy logic are as
given − Automotive Systems: Automatic Gearboxes, Four-Wheel Steering, Vehicle environment control. Consumer
Electronic Goods: Hi-Fi Systems, Photocopiers, Still and Video Cameras, Television. Domestic Goods: Microwave Ovens,
Refrigerators, Toasters, Vacuum Cleaners, Environment Control: Air Conditioners/Dryers/Heaters, Humidifiers
Advantages of FLSs: Mathematical concepts within fuzzy reasoning are very simple. You can modify a FLS by just adding
or deleting rules due to flexibility of fuzzy logic. Fuzzy logic Systems can take imprecise, distorted, noisy input information.
FLSs are easy to construct and understand. Fuzzy logic is a solution to complex problems in all fields of life, including
medicine, as it resembles human reasoning and decision making. Disadvantages of FLSs: There is no systematic approach
to fuzzy system designing. They are understandable only when simple. They are suitable for the problems which do not
need high accuracy. Neural Networks: It is another research area in AI, neural networks, is inspired from the natural
neural network of human nervous system. Neural Network is defined as a computing system made up of a number of
simple, highly interconnected processing elements, which process information by their dynamic state response to
external inputs. Basic Structure of ANNs: The idea of ANNs is based on the belief that working of human brain by making
the right connections, can be imitated using silicon and wires as living neurons and dendrites. ANNs are composed of
multiple nodes, which imitate biological neurons of human brain. The neurons are connected by links and they interact
with each other. The nodes can take input data and perform simple operations on the data. The result of these operations
is passed to other neurons. The output at each node is called its activation or node value. Each link is associated with
weight. ANNs are capable of learning, which takes place by altering weight values. Types of Artificial Neural Networks:
There are two Artificial Neural Network topologies − FeedForward ANN: The information flow is unidirectional. A unit
sends information to other unit from which it does not receive any information. There are no feedback loops. They are
used in pattern generation/recognition/classification. They have fixed inputs and outputs. FeedBack ANN: Here, feedback
loops are allowed. They are used in content addressable memories. Working of ANNs: Each arrow represents a
connection between two neurons and indicates the pathway for the flow of information. Each connection has a weight,
an integer number that controls the signal between the two neurons. If the network generates a “good or desired”
output, there is no need to adjust the weights. However, if the network generates a “poor or undesired” output or an
error, then the system alters the weights in order to improve subsequent results. Applications of Neural Networks: They
can perform tasks that are easy for a human but difficult for a machine − Aerospace − Autopilot aircrafts, aircraft fault
detection. Automotive − Automobile guidance systems. Military − Weapon orientation and steering, target tracking,
object discrimination, facial recognition, signal/image identification. Electronics − Code sequence prediction, IC chip
layout, chip failure analysis, machine vision, voice synthesis. Medical − Cancer cell analysis, EEG and ECG analysis,
prosthetic design, transplant time optimizer. Speech − Speech recognition, speech classification, text to speech. MYCIN,
an early expert system, or artificial intelligence (AI) program, for treating blood infections. In 1972 work began on MYCIN
at Stanford University in California. MYCIN would attempt to diagnose patients based on reported symptoms and medical
test results. The program could request further information concerning the patient, as well as suggest additional
laboratory tests, to arrive at a probable diagnosis, after which it would recommend a course of treatment. If requested,
MYCIN would explain the reasoning that led to its diagnosis and recommendation. Using about 500 production rules,
MYCIN operated at roughly the same level of competence as human specialists in blood infections and rather better than
general practitioners. Types of learning: There are three types of learning: Supervised (Task driven), Unsupervised(Data
Driven) and Reinforcement. Supervised learning: as we know from last story machine learning takes data as input. lets
call this data Training data. The training data includes both Inputs and Labels(Targets). We first train the model with the
lots of training data(inputs&targets) then with new data and the logic we got before we predict the output. This process is
called Supervised Learning which is really fast and accurate. Supervised learning is of two types: Regression: This is a type
of problem where we need to predict the continuous-response value (ex : above we predict number which can vary from
-infinity to +infinity) Some examples are: what is the price of house in a specific city? what is the value of the stock? how
many total runs can be on board in a cricket game? etc… there are tons of things we can predict if we wish. Classification:
This is a type of problem where we predict the categorical response value where the data can be separated into specific
“classes” (ex: we predict one of the values in a set of values). Some exmples are : this mail is spam or not? will it rain
today or not? is this picture a cat or not? Basically ‘Yes/No’ type questions called binary classification. Unsupervised
learning: The training data does not include Targets here so we don’t tell the system where to go , the system has to
understand itself from the data we give. Here training data is not structured (contains noisy data,unknown data and etc..).
There are also different types for unsupervised learning like Clustering and anomaly detection (clustering is pretty
famous). Clustering: This is a type of problem where we group similar things together. Bit similar to multi class
classification but here we don’t provide the labels, the system understands from data itself and cluster the data. Some
examples are : given news articles,cluster into different types of news, given a set of tweets ,cluster based on content of
tweet, given a set of images, cluster them into different objects. Reinforcement learning, in the context of artificial
intelligence, is a type of dynamic programming that trains algorithms using a system of reward and punishment. A
reinforcement learning algorithm, or agent, learns by interacting with its environment. The agent receives rewards by
performing correctly and penalties for performing incorrectly. The agent learns without intervention from a human by
maximizing its reward and minimizing its penalty.Reinforcement learning is an approach to machine learning that is
inspired by behaviorist psychology. It is similar to how a child learns to perform a new task. Reinforcement learning
contrasts with other machine learning approaches in that the algorithm is not explicitly told how to perform a task, but
works through the problem on its own. In General learning model, the environment has been included as a part of the
overall learner system. The environment may be regarded as either a form of nature which produces random stimuli or as
a more organized training source such as a teacher which provides carefully selected training examples for the learner
component. Inputs to the learner component may be physical stimuli of some type or descriptive , symbolic training
examples. The information conveyed to the learner component is used to create and modify knowledge structures in the
knowledge base. This same knowledge is used by the performance component to carry out some tasks, such as solving a
problem playing a game, or classifying instances of some concept. When given a task, the performance component
produces a response describing its action in performing the task. The critic module then evaluates this response relative
to an optimal response. Feedback , indicating whether or not the performance was acceptable , is then sent by the critic
module to the learner component for its subsequent use in modifying the structures in the knowledge base. If proper
learning was accomplished, the system’s performance will have improved with the changes made to the knowledge base.
The cycle described above may be repeated a number of times until the performance of the system has reached some
acceptable level, until a known learning goal has been reached, or until changes ceases to occur in the knowledge base
after some chosen number of training examples have been observed.