Page D1

Chapter Four

Electrical Systems
Knowing What’s Watt
A Simplified Approach for Those With Little or No Understanding of Electricity
Welcome to Volts for Dolts, the room door you’re on. Now we’re com- The model’s language isn’t precise
Machado QuickCourse for those municating. enough to describe the intricate elec-
afraid of electricity. Unfortunately, the philosophy of trical nuances necessary to accurate-
Attention, class. This is going to be simplicity has not been applied to ly convey the point (besides, what
easy. understanding the airplane’s electri- would you do if water suddenly shot
Watt? Easy? Yes, because we’re cal system—until now. out of your hard drive?). You can,
going to learn what electricity does, We’re going to approach this like a however, use the water model to
rather than split atoms over what it plumber, by thinking about electrici- describe—accurately enough to suit
is. ty as though it were water. This may any normal private pilot—how an
airplane’s electrical system works.
Let’s be practical. You don’t know, be the only chance you will ever have
and don’t much care, about the dif- to mix electricity and water safely, so I caution you not to take this
ference between jewels and joules. pay attention. model literally, and if you actually
You do want and need to know how A water model of electricity uses are knowledgeable about things elec-
to detect and direct electrons in your basic plumbing language to explain trical, I also urge you not to take
airplane and put them to work for how electrons flow in a circuit. The offense. The model is only used to
you. You also need to know when the only problem with the model is that help clarify certain cause and effect
electrical system is threatening to you can’t use it to build a computer. relationships.
roll over and play dead, and what can
be done about it. IF YOU STUDY THE WATER THEORY OF ELECTRICITY...
Read on. Fear not. Think volt, not
bolt.
... you need not worry
Electricity and Water that stepping on the elec-
Albert Einstein once said, “Make trical cord will cut off
everything as simple as possible, but
not simpler.” For instance, Einstein’s
the flow of juice to your
concept of time distortion is often electrical equipment!
Hey acorn
discussed from a mathematical per- head! Get
spective. For most of us, this is like off the
listening to a lecture delivered in cord.
Martian. Actually, Southern Martian.
On the other hand, suppose someone
said that the length of one minute
depends on which side of the bath-
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 Rod Machado’s Private Pilot Handbook
D2

WATER ANALOGY OF ELECTRICITY flows (Figure 2). All the water analogy elec-
The water analogy of electricity uses water to represent the flow of elec- trical definitions you’ll need are listed in
tricity in a circuit and pipes to represent wires. Water pressure repre- Figure 3.
sents the amount of voltage in a system. More For electrical equipment to work, some-
voltage means greater water pressure. A 24 thing must provide voltage or electrical
volt system (the bigger balloon) can push
more water through the pipes than a 12 pressure. In most airplanes this device is
volt system. The amount of water actu- called an alternator, as shown in Figure
ally flowing within the 4. Using the water analogy, the alterna-
pipes represents tor can be thought of as the pump that
the electrical provides water pressure to the primary
current within bus and the avionics bus (Figure 5). (In
the system.
Therefore, a the electrical world, a bus is a pathway for
24 volt system electricity, not a yellow conveyance for
can provide kids.)
more electric A bus is essentially a drinking trough for
current (more
water flow) than a hungry electrical equipment. Normally, it’s a
12 volt system. Fig. 1 piece of conductive metal that thirsty electrical
equipment taps into when drawing the electric cur-
rent it needs to operate. (From now on I’ll speak of
electricity in terms of the water analogy as often as pos-
sible and, when possible, discuss how it relates to electri-
cal theory.)
10 Gal/Hr The Water Pump
5 Gal/Hr (More Current)
(Less Current) Where might the water pump get the water it needs to
pressurize the primary bus? Imagine a tray of water rest-
ing on the ground under the schematic of Figure 5. The
One more disclaimer. This model uses conventional water pump draws water up from the tray and pumps it
current flow, where things go from positive to negative. into the primary bus. From here the water flows to the
In reality, electrons flow from the negative to the positive electrical equipment, where it does useful work. Then it
side of a battery. The reason for the difference lies in flows back to the tray resting on the ground. This com-
physics theory, but that’s not what this book is about. I pletes the circuit, allowing the water to return to its orig-
use conventional flow because it makes much more sense inal source.
to mere mortals when things flow from high to low, plus Electricity follows a similar circuit. A spinning alterna-
to minus, big to little, etc. tor causes electric current to flow into the primary bus
Electricity involves many terms that can be directly and through the electrical equipment, where it lights up
related to water or plumbing (Figure 1). Voltage is com- lights, spins up motors, spins round gyros, and otherwise
parable to, and can be thought of as, the pressure that makes things go bang, whang and clang in the night (and
pushes water through pipes. Current is the amount of day). After leaving the electrical equipment, electric cur-
water actually flowing through the pipes at any given rent flows back to its original source in a manner similar
time. The greater the water pressure (voltage) in a line, to the tray in our water analogy. This tray is called the
the greater the amount of water (electric current) that electrical ground.

WATER ANALOGY OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

At 24 volts of electrical pressure, only 20 24 Volt
amps of electrical current (water) can be 20 battery
pushed through this wire (tube). pressure

At the same 24 volts of electrical pres-

sure, electrical equipment draws only 24 Volt
battery
10 amps of current (water). 10 pressure

Fig. 2
Even though 24 volts can provide 20
amps of current (water), the electrical 24 Volt
equipment here draws only 5 amps of battery
current (water). 5 pressure

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 Chapter 4 - Electrical Systems: Knowing What’s Watt
D3

WATER ANALOGY OF ELECTRICITY

(SCHEMATIC) CB GYRO

CB GYRO

PANEL
CB

Primary bus
LIGHTS

RADIO
Fig. 3 CB LIGHTS

CB CIG
AN AIRPLANE’S ALTERNATOR
Engine driven
water pump
LAND
(alternator) CB LIGHT

NAV
Fig. 5 CB LIGHT

Avionics
Electrical master switch
ground
Battery
CB RADIO

Avionics bus
CB NAV

CB RADIO

CB NAV
Fig. 4 CB = Circuit breaker

For electrical circuits to work, elec-
tric current must have a way of
returning to its original source, as
shown in Figure 6A. Electric current
flows from one side of the battery,
through the light bulb (doing useful
work), then back into the other side
of the battery. If the return wire is
broken, there is no way for the cur-
rent to return to its source and the ground, which is represented by
light doesn’t shine (Figure 6B). small slashed triangles.
Even though the wires are not con- The Electrical Ground
nected, as shown in Figure 6C, the
light shines because the bulb and one The electrical ground is not the
side of the battery are connected to ground upon which you stand. It’s
an electrical conductor, which allows usually the airplane’s metal frame—
electricity to flow between them. which is a great conductor of electric-
This conductor is the electrical ity. This frame acts as one large wire,

THE FLOW OF
Flashlight Flukes Flashlight Rules ELECTRICITY
Electricity flows from Battery
Prior to my departure on a nighttime currency flight I Rule Number 1: one side of the battery,
placed my mini-flashlight in my pants pocket. The flight Always carry one through the bulb, then
proceeded without incident and, after landing, I took out flashlight (preferably two) back to the other side
the flashlight to complete some postflight paperwork. A on every flight. of the battery. A
penny had become lodged in the lens and the light was
completely blocked. It took a pocket knife to dislodge Battery
the coin. This would have been difficult had the Rule Number 2:
Electricity can't flow
necessity arisen in flight. Always have your because of a broken wire.
ASRS Report flashlight within easy
reach in the event of B
Next time: no coins in pocket. complete electrical failure Fig. 6
No worries at night.
mate! Slashed triangles Battery
Sorry, indicate that an
about Rule Number 3:
that. electrical conductor,
In addition to spare (usually the metal C
batteries, carry a spare frame of airplane),
bulb! allows electricity to flow.
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 Rod Machado’s Private Pilot Handbook
D4

returning current to the alternator

(or any other piece of electrical equip-
WATER ANALOGY OF ELECTRICITY
ment that’s connected to the electri- Water pump Load meter
CB GYRO
cal ground). It is similar to the water (alternator)
tray in our water analogy which ALT 0 60

CB ALT
AMPERES
CB GYRO
allows water to return to the pump.
Since the alternator is connected to PANEL
CB

Primary bus
LIGHTS
this electrical ground, the circuit is
completed as electric current returns RADIO
to its original source—the alternator. CB LIGHTS

Load Meter CB CIG

A load meter is located between
LAND
the pump and the primary bus of our CB LIGHT
plumbing system (Figure 7). It shows Fig. 7
the water load placed on the pump by NAV
CB LIGHT
the airplane’s water (electrical) sys-
tem. In other words, it shows how Avionics
much water is demanded from the Electrical master switch
pump by the airplane’s water (electri- ground
Battery
cal) equipment. CB RADIO

If the load meter reads zero (a full
left deflection), either the pump isn’t
providing any pressure to the prima-
ry bus or the electrical (water) equip-
ment simply isn’t demanding any
water. Load meter readings above
zero represent the pump’s water out-
put. This output should equal the
total water draw by equipment con-
nected to both buses. An actual load
meter is shown in Figure 8.
The load meter provides similar
information about alternator output
in an electrical system. A zero read-
ing means the alternator isn’t provid-
ing electricity to the primary bus or
there is no electrical current drawn
THE LOAD METER
Fig. 8
Avionics bus
CB NAV
CB RADIO
CB NAV
by the airplane’s electrical equip- amps). Amps are a measure of cur-
ment. This can happen because the rent flow, equivalent to gallons per
alternator is disconnected from the hour of water. If the airplane’s elec-
bus, the alternator has failed, or all trical equipment demands 30 amps of
the airplane’s electrical equipment is current from the alternator, the load
turned off. meter should indicate a 30 amp nee-
Load meters are also known as dle deflection.
ammeters, and their readings are cal- The alternator circuit breaker (CB)
ibrated in amperes (abbreviated as is also located between the alternator
and the primary bus, as shown in
Figure 7. Circuit breakers protect
THE ALTERNATOR electrical equipment (and wires) from
CIRCUIT BREAKER receiving more current than they can
safely handle. Figure 9 shows the air-
plane’s alternator circuit breaker.
By now you should have a fair
understanding of how the electrical
system works when the alternator is
turning. But since the alternator is
driven by the engine, what source
provides current for the airplane’s
equipment when the engine isn’t
running? The answer is simple. It’s
the thing missing from most chil-
dren’s Christmas presents—a bat-
tery. Figure 10A shows how the bat-
Fig. 9
tery connects to the primary bus.
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 Chapter 4 - Electrical Systems: Knowing What’s Watt
WATER PUMP (ALTERNATOR) & BATTERY
PRESSURIZING THE PRIMARY BUS
Water pump (alternator)
A operating
WATER (CURRENT) FLOW
Primary bus
Water pump
(alternator)
working
ELECTRICAL
GROUND
Battery
Fig. 10
Battery
Being
Charged
The Battery
Using the water analogy, the bat-
tery can be thought of as a box con-
taining a thin, square piston with a
powerful spring on one side. The bat-
tery’s square piston is capable of slid-
ing toward or away from the spring
depending on whether water flows
into or out of the battery. Water
flowing into the battery is said to
charge it; water flowing out of the
battery, drains or discharges it.
Since the primary bus is already
pressurized by the spinning pump,
water should easily flow into the bat-
tery. As it does, it pushes the sliding
square piston to the left against the
spring (Figure 10A). The battery has
now stored water pressure and can
be thought of as being fully charged.
In the event the water pump stops
working, the battery provides water
under pressure (electrical current) to
the primary bus (Figure 10B).
THE AIRPLANE’S BATTERY
D5
electrical equipment when the engine
isn’t running or when the alternator
fails in flight. Figure 11 shows an air-
Water pump (alternator)
plane battery.
B not operating
Battery Potential
You should know how much elec-
tricity your battery stores for one
Water (current) flow
good reason: in-flight alternator fail-
Primary bus
Water pump ure. How much power the battery
(alternator)
not working stores is indicated by its amp-hour
rating. A 35 amp-hour battery should
(in theory) provide 35 amps of con-
Battery tinuous current to the electrical sys-
tem for one hour. In other words, if
the electrical equipment draws a
Battery
Being total of 35 amps, the battery should
Drained
run that equipment for one hour
before it’s depleted.
Have you ever used a pressure-
type thermos to store your coffee? I say theoretically because this rat-
ing assumes many things: a new bat-
It’s the kind where you put in the
tery, a new electrical system, ideal
coffee, pump the handle on top, open
conditions and perfect harmony with
a spigot, and out squirts coffee. The
the universe. In reality, many battery
thermos stores coffee under pressure,
engineers (people with two terminals
so that caffeine-hungry pilots can
protruding from their necks) say that
quickly slake their thirst (on late
you should only count on half of that
night flights, pilots often lock their
rating. In other words, 35 amps for
lips onto the spigot, push the handle
30 minutes or 17.5 amps for one
and absorb just enough caffeine to
hour. You know those federal ratings
vibrate through solid matter).
of how many miles per gallon some
In an electrical system, the battery shiny new car will give you? Keep in
chemically stores the electrical mind that there’s always that little
charge provided by the alternator. disclaimer, the one that says “Your
The process is different, but the prin- mileage may vary.” Very right, and
ciple is the same as that of the coffee it’s not likely to vary on the high
thermos. Most airplanes have either
side.
a 12 or 24 volt battery (think of a
While airplane batteries are rated
larger battery as one with a bigger
at 12 or 24 volts, airplane electrical
spring that puts water under greater
systems (their alternators) are rated
pressure). It’s the battery that
for 14 or 28 volts. Why does the alter-
allows you to operate the airplane’s
nator have a higher voltage rating
than the battery it charges? It’s a lot
easier and quicker to charge a bat-
tery to its full potential when the
alternator pressure is stronger than
the battery pressure. If we want the
pump in our water system to store
water in the battery, the pump must
provide a little more pressure than
the spring to push the piston back.
The alternator’s extra 2 or 4 volts is
all it takes to keep the battery
Fig. 11
charged (to push against its chemical
potential).
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 Rod Machado’s Private Pilot Handbook
D6

The Charge-Discharge WATER ANALOGY OF ELECTRICITY

Ammeter Water pump Load meter
CB GYRO
Between the positive terminal of (alternator)
the battery and the primary bus is ALT 0 60
CB GYRO
another version of an ammeter found CB ALT
AMPERES

on some airplanes (Figure 12). PANEL

Ammeters of this variety are often CB LIGHTS

called charge-discharge ammeters.

RADIO
Figure 13 shows a charge-discharge CB LIGHTS

Primary bus
ammeter. As the name implies, the 0
Charge/ 60 60
charge-discharge ammeter tells you if discharge AMPERES CB CIG
electrical current is flowing into or ammeter
out of the battery. This directly LAND
CB LIGHT
informs you about your electrical sys-
tem’s state of health. Whether you Fig. 12 NAV
CB LIGHT
have a load meter or a charge-dis-
charge ammeter depends on the spe- Avionics
cific make and model of your air- Electrical master switch
plane. Most airplanes have one or the ground
Battery
other but seldom both.
CB RADIO
Current flow from the primary bus

Avionics bus
into the battery is indicated by a pos- CB NAV
itive needle deflection (Figure 14).
Think of water (electrical current)
pushing the needle toward the (+) or
CB RADIO

(-) side of the ammeter as it enters or

leaves the battery. A positive deflec-
tion usually implies that the battery
is being charged (water is moving
into the battery). A negative needle
deflection indicates that the battery
is supplying the primary bus with
electrical current (water is moving
out of the battery).
Normally, the needle should be
resting near the zero or center mark.
This implies that the battery is nei-
ther being charged nor discharged (a
good sign). Continuous needle deflec-
tions too far from cen-
Electrical CB NAV
ground
ter, however, are cause for concern. the alternator is replenishing battery
There are circumstances where the energy consumed by the current-
needle will indicate a large deflection hungry starter. Expect a similar
from the center position for short ammeter indication if the radios were
periods.
Starter motors demand large POSITIVE (+)
amounts of electrical current for AMMETER
their operation. After startup, the INDICATION
battery is sure to be slightly drained. Water (current) flow
Expect to see a positive (+) needle
deflection of five, maybe six or seven 0
60
needle widths on the ammeter right Charge/
60

after engine start. This means that discharge

AMPERES

CHARGE ammeter
THE CHARGE/DISR
AMMETE A wise man says, “Man Fig. 14
who use tongue to test
airplane battery find Battery
experience re-volting.”
Battery
being
charged

Fig. 13
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 Chapter 4 - Electrical Systems: Knowing What’s Watt
used extensively prior to engine
start. But beware! Too much charge
is not a good thing—for batteries or
credit cards!
Most airplane operation manuals
suggest that after approximately 30
minutes of cruising flight, the amme-
ter needle should return to within a
two-needle-width deflection from
center on the positive (+) or charging
side. A larger (positive) needle deflec-
tion suggests problems with the bat-
tery or the alternator. A runaway
(unregulated) alternator can provide
too much current and overcharge the
battery. This is usually indicated by a
large positive needle deflection (more
than one or two needle widths).The
excess voltage can boil off battery
fluid (electrolyte), damaging the battery
and possibly causing a battery fire.
A needle deflection on the negative
(-) side means current is flowing out
of the battery onto the primary bus
(Figure 15). It also means the alter-
nator isn’t providing the necessary
voltage to keep the battery charged.
This situation is similar to a flight
instructor’s bank account, where
more is going out than is coming
in. Chances are the alternator
has failed, has been automatically
NEGATIVE (-)
AMMETER
INDICATION
Water (current)
flow
0 for one thing. On every final approach
60
Charge/
discharge AMPERES
ammeter
Fig. 15
Water (current) flow
Battery
Battery
being
drained
D7
Airplanes With Volt and Ammeters
The voltmeter gives you more direct information
about the alternator’s output or, if the alternator isn’t
on line, about the energy available in the battery.
Unlike the ammeter, the voltmeter can tell you the
condition of your battery before the engine is
started.
An excessive system-voltage reading probably
indicates voltage regulator trouble that can lead to
battery overcharge and electrical equipment dam-
age. Insufficient voltage indicates that the battery
isn’t being charged properly. Remember, system
voltage must be higher than battery voltage for the
battery to charge.
disconnected from the system, or is load meters and discuss them in rela-
being improperly regulated. Any way tion to the airplane’s battery.
you look at it, you have a problem.
Load Meters
The battery will eventually lose its
charge. There are benefits and disadvan-
This situation is best handled by tages to almost everything you do.
conserving battery energy (turning For instance, whenever I travel to a
off everything you don’t need) and, if location for a speech, I always get the
necessary, landing at the nearest air- most economical airfare for the client.
port. Remember, you may need bat- However, economy is not without its
tery power to lower landing gear or disadvantages. On my last flight to
flaps, or power the landing lights if Nome, Alaska I had four plane
flying at night. This is why good changes. Unfortunately, two were in
pilots carry flashlights (and bad flight. Load meters in lieu of charge-
pilots use flashlights to carry their discharge ammeters have their bene-
dead batteries). A nearly centered fits and disadvantages. Essentially,
charge-discharge ammeter needle both kinds of meters provide pilots
usually means an electrical system with the same type of information,
that knows what’s watt and is taking but in a slightly different format.
care of business.
Load meters provide important
In the early 1980’s I had the plea-
sure of checking out an airline captain
indications about the health of the
in a Cessna 152. We had a wonderful
airplane’s electrical system. Unlike
charge-discharge ammeters, they are
time learning the systems and flying
calibrated to reflect the actual
the aircraft. He did quite well except
ampere load placed on the alternator.
60 he would call the tower and say, Both varieties of ammeter are shown
in Figure 16. Remember, most air-
“Ahhh, John Wayne Tower, this is
United heavy, we’re on a long final planes will have either one variety of
approach for 1-9-Left.” The controller ammeter or the other.
thought this was really funny. The
pilots of the little planes on short final TWO VARIETIES OF
for runway 19 Left didn’t. The AMMETERS
thought of an enormous metallic Pac
Man gaining on them was downright 0 30
60
scary! Attempting to understand the 60
0 60
electrical system is somewhat like AMPERES ALT
AMPERES
being the guy on short final for 19L.
It’s scary at first, but when you get a
good, clear look at the threat, it’s not
so bad after all. Hopefully, you haven’t Charge/discharge Load meter
been scared by the electrical system so ammeter type ammeter
far. Let’s return to our discussion on Fig. 16
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 Rod Machado’s Private Pilot Handbook
D8

Load meters with a zero or full-left LOAD METER INDICATION & CURRENT FLOW
deflection indicate the alternator RADIO
isn’t providing current to the prima- Water pump CB
30 .5 amp
(alternator)
ry bus. Any electrical equipment 60
that’s in use must be receiving its ALT 0
CB
RADIO
.5 amp
electrical energy from the battery. A CB ALT
AMPERES
NAV
full left deflection of a load meter CB RADIO
1 amp
needle is similar to a charge-dis-
NAV
charge ammeter reading pointing to Load meter
the negative (-) side of its scale.
CB RADIO
1 amp
showing 16 amp

Primary bus
Load meter needle deflections to deflection GYRO
CB 1 amp
the right of the zero index represent
the electrical current drain on the TRANS-

alternator. Another way of saying
this is that a right needle deflection
represents the alternator’s output. If
you add all the electrical current used
by the active electrical equipment,
this sum should be equal to the
amount the needle’s deflected. After
all, the alternator should be produc-
ing what the system demands, other-
wise battery energy is being drained.
A wise man says,
“Pilot who thinks that
‘primary bus’ means good
transportation, not travel far
in world of aviation.”
Electrical Drain
If you’re piloting an airplane
equipped with a load meter, you need
to know how much electrical current
each piece of electrical equipment
consumes. Think of each piece of
electrical equipment as having a min-
imum thirst level. Some equipment
needs more water (current) to oper-
ate than others. Amperes are a mea-
sure of the amount of electrical cur-
rent (gallons of water per hour) con-
sumed by each of the airplane’s elec-
trical items. Understanding how
The load meter needle shows CB PONDER
2 amps
the approximate amount of AUTO-
current output by the alternator. CB PILOT
10 amps
Electrical equipment on this
Fig. 17
bus uses a total of 16 amps
autopilots about 10 amps. Full deice ment imply that the battery will
equipment (this is special equipment eventually be drained. That’s why
for advanced airplanes) might gulp as it’s absolutely necessary that you
much as 70 amps for continued oper- know how much current each piece of
ation. electrical equipment draws.
With two receiving radios, two nav Suppose the load meter’s needle
radios, one electric gyro, a transpon-
deflection is greater than the needs
der and an autopilot in use, a 16 amp of the electrical equipment, as shown
deflection should be shown on the in Figure 18. This is similar to a
load meter (Figure 17). A needle
charge-discharge ammeter indicating
deflection less than 16 amps implies
a large, positive (+) needle deflection.
that the alternator isn’t providing
enough current to run the equip- In either case, such indications sug-
ment. Where is the extra electrical gest that the alternator isn’t working
energy coming from? Need a hint? properly or that there is a leak in the
There’s only one place: the battery. electrical plumbing (otherwise known
as a short). Soon, we’ll discuss how
Needle deflections less than the
summed amperage of active and the alternator is regulated and why it
properly working electrical equip- may develop problems.
ALTERNATOR REGULATION PROBLEM
Water pump RADIO
(alternator) 30 CB .5 amp
60
ALT 0
CB
RADIO
.5 amp
CB ALT
AMPERES
NAV
CB RADIO
1 amp
NAV
Load meter
CB RADIO
1 amp
showing 50 amp
Primary bus

thirsty each electrical item is, is the deflection GYRO

key to understanding if your alterna- CB 1 amp
tor is working properly. TRANS-
The load meter needle shows CB PONDER
Radios typically consume one-half alternator output in excess of 2 amps
amp of current while receiving and that used by electrical equipment. AUTO-
about 5 amps while transmitting. CB PILOT
10 amps
Nav radios and gyros require about 1 Fig. 18 Electrical equipment on this
amp, transponders about 2 amps, bus uses a total of 16 amps
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 Chapter 4 - Electrical Systems: Knowing What’s Watt
D9

What is Electricity?
Electricity is a form of energy that arises when electrons and positive Skip Forster
ions become separated from each other. The atoms in the matter
around us are made of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by
negatively charged electrons. Sometimes an electron becomes separat-
ed from its atom. The part left behind (called a positive ion) has an elec-
tric charge equal to that of the electron but opposite in polarity.
How do electrons and ions become separated? One way is by a
chemical reaction. In a battery, for example, a chemical reaction causes
positive ions to collect at the positive terminal while electrons gather at
the negative terminal. If a conductor is placed between the terminals,
electrons will flow from the negative terminal to combine with the ions at
the positive terminal. This flow of electrons is called electric current.
Another way to separate electrons and ions is by friction. In a thunder-
storm, friction from turbulent air causes electrons and ions to separate,
creating static electricity. Eventually, the electrons and ions dramatically
recombine as lightning.
Electricity and magnetism are related. Movement of a conductor through a magnetic field will cause current to flow in the con-
ductor. This principle is used in the magneto. Likewise, wherever current flows, a magnetic field is created. This is what makes
the starter motor spin.
Skip Forster is president of Results Pilot Training, Inc. in San Jose, California and is a recovering electrical engineer.

Load meter indications in excess of
the system’s electrical demands are
the system’s cry for help. Ignored,
this cry can lead to unhappy results
such as evaporating battery fluid or
battery and electrical fires. This is
referred to as a battery losing its
cool. You, in turn, will lose your juice.
Remember, the alternator needs to
replenish the battery energy drained
by extended use of the starter or
radio, so expect to see a slightly high-
er load meter reading immediately
after engine start
I always make it a point to look at
the ammeter right after engine start
for two reasons. First, I get a sense of
battery health by observing how fast
the ammeter needle returns to its
normal position after starter use. A
failing battery will show up as an
ammeter needle taking progressively
longer to return to a normal position.
Establishing a trend of needle
response over a long period of time
makes needle movement even more
meaningful.
Second, starter motors have been
known to stick and not disengage
(actually it’s the starter contactor
that sticks but the results are the
same). If this happens, the starter
remains engaged, guzzling enormous
amounts of battery current. You
might not be able to hear the The Voltage Regulator
engaged starter once the engine is Airplanes with complete electrical
running, but you will see a very, very
systems have voltage regulators or
large negative (-) needle deflection on
alternator control units (they’re
the charge-discharge ammeter right
essentially the same thing). As the
after start. On airplanes with load
meters, a stuck starter contactor name implies, these devices regulate
might be identified by an abnormally the alternator’s output. If the engine
large reading, indicating an enor- is turning the water pump (alterna-
mous drain on the alternator. Shut tor), it’s logical to assume that higher
the engine down immediately if you RPMs produce greater water pres-
see this type of unusual needle sure. In an electrical system this
deflection right after starting the results in alternators producing vari-
engine. able voltage. This would wreak havoc
Don’t be too concerned with with electrical components that
ammeter needles that wiggle slightly. demand consistent voltage for accu-
Ammeters have needle dampening rate operation. Fortunately, voltage
mechanisms in them to steady wig- regulators—the brains of the electri-
gling needles. Sometimes these mech- cal system—help alternators main-
anisms just wear out. As a student, I tain a constant voltage output under
thought it was my careless applica- variable RPM conditions.
tion of rudder that caused needle Voltage regulators consist of tran-
wiggling. I mentioned this to my sistors, diodes, capacitors and possi-
instructor. He said that this wasn’t
bly relays and contact points.
possible since I never seemed to use
Describing the workings of these
the rudder.
intricate components by use of the
Does an unusual ammeter or load
water analogy would get us into deep
meter indication in the air mean an
water, where we don’t want to go.
immediate need to land? It depends.
There are several things we can do Therefore, let’s use a human brain
about airborne electrical problems, with a big hand connected to its cor-
but solving them requires an under- tex to represent these detailed elec-
standing of how alternator voltage is trical components (artist’s license is
regulated. such a wonderful thing)!
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 Rod Machado’s Private Pilot Handbook
D10

Figure 19 represents a water model WATER ANALOGY AND THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR
of how a voltage regulator might work. + Pressure sense tube Load meter
Most turbine pumps (similar to that used B
ALT 0
CB GYRO
60

as the model for our alternator) need to F CB

ALT
AMPERES

be primed before they will start pump- W

(alternator field current)

CB GYRO

Pump priming flow

ing water. In other words, they need to ALT S PANEL
have a little water running through V - Pressure
FIELD
CB
CB LIGHTS
sense
them before they can create enough

Primary bus
RADIO

suction to pump more water.

tube
Water pump T 0
CB LIGHTS

G (alternator) 60 60
CB CIG
Alternators operate in a similar man- Water pressure regulator
AMPERES

ner. They need a little bit of electricity (voltage regulator) LAND

CB LIGHT
running through them before they’ll Charge/
NAV
discharge CB LIGHT
start producing more electricity. This ammeter
small amount of electrical prime is
BAT
ALT
Electrical
ground Avionics
called the alternator field current. Take A master switch
away this alternator field current
(prime) at any time, and the alternator

Avionics bus
CB RADIO
stops producing electricity. Battery
CB NAV
Water prime flows directly into the pump through
tube F. Like alternators, our water pump needs to be con- Fig. 19 CB RADIO
tinuously primed if it is to keep on pumping. The greater CB NAV
the prime flowing through tube F, the greater the output
of the pump. Alternator’s operate similarly; varying the How does the brain know whether to open or close the
alternator field current varies the alternator’s voltage
valve? It senses the pump’s output water pressure, or in
output.
an alternator, its voltage. By comparing the pump’s
When the engine is not running, prime for the pump intake pressure at point G, with its output pressure at
comes from the battery. In Figure 19, water flows from point B, the regulator’s brain can compute the precise
the battery to the primary bus. It then goes through line amount of prime needed to produce the required water
S and the alternator field circuit breaker T to the left pressure. In electrical terms, these sense lines allow the
hand side of a split-rocker master switch A. By turning
voltage regulator to restrict an alternator’s output to 14
on (pushing) the alternator side of the master switch (the
or 28 volts of electrical pressure.
left side), water flows into the voltage regulator V and
through valve W which is inside the voltage regulator. When switch A is turned on during engine start, valve
Prime (alternator field current) must pass through valve W starts in the full-open position, thus providing the ini-
W and through tube F, to get to the pump for priming. tial prime. After engine start, the pump commences to
Valve W is controlled by the hand attached to the volt- produce water pressure (voltage) and brain V decides how
age regulator’s brain (those electronic components men- much to close valve W to bring this output into regula-
tioned earlier). The brain tells the hand to open or close tion. It is in this initial startup period that the pump’s
Valve W. This controls the amount of prime (alternator output is momentarily unregulated and you DO NOT
field current) reaching the pump. want your electrical equipment turned on. A sudden
surge of pressure could damage this equipment—despite
Machado’s Believe It or Not #1 each piece of equipment having protective circuit
breakers.
Sometimes brains in a voltage regulator, just like in
humans, behave errantly. I recall a student pilot who was
flying solo near the Southern California coast when he
looked down and saw an aircraft carrier. A little devil on
his left shoulder said, “Do it! Do it!!” A little angel on his
right shoulder said, “Yeah, do it!” He did it—a carrier
landing (actually, more like a touch-and-go). The captain
of the ship was not amused. Neither was the FAA. It was
a clearcut case of a brain gone astray, and it occasionally
Oh boy, happens to voltage regulators as well. When the brain in
I must have flown a voltage regulator goes south, it usually presents definite
into an electrical symptoms. You can expect either an over or underproduc-
storm. tion of voltage by the alternator.
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 Chapter 4 - Electrical Systems: Knowing What’s Watt
D11

Problems With Brains THE LOW- OR HIGH-

Most airplanes have a warning light
to alert pilots about electrical prob-
lems. This light is commonly known
as either a high- or low-voltage warn-
ing light (Figure 20). When illuminat-
ed, it informs you that the alternator
isn’t supplying appropriate voltage to
meet the system’s electrical needs.
If your airplane has a low-voltage
light, it can illuminate during low
engine idle when there isn’t enough
RPM to develop even minimal volt-
age (pressure). Increasing the RPM
raises the water pressure (voltage)
and usually shuts off the light.
A low-voltage light can also illumi-
nate if the alternator has been taken
off line because of excessive voltage
production. This usually follows a
popped alternator circuit breaker or
alternator field circuit breaker. As
far as the electrical system is con-
cerned, no voltage is interpreted as
low voltage.
If your airplane has a high-voltage
warning light, it can activate when
an overvoltage condition occurs. The
alternator field current (the prime) is
automatically removed, which takes
the alternator off line. This keeps the
circuits from being damaged by
excessive system voltage (pressure).
In either case, the activation of a
high- or low-voltage warning light
may follow a popped alternator or
VOLTAGE WARNING THE VOLTAG
E WARNING
LIGHT LIGHT
h- or low-
Illumination of the hig
ht ind ica tes
vo lta ge wa rni ng lig
su pplying ade-
the alternator isn’t
vo lta ge . Most air-
quate system
ste ms ha ve
pla ne ele ctr ica l sy
cu itr y th at
se lf- pr ot ec tio n cir
r off line in the
takes the alternato
ce s ex ce ss ive volt-
event it produ
the illumina-
age. This results in
low-voltage
tion of the high- or
llo w your POH’s
warning light. Fo
d pr oc ed ur e fo r
re co mm en de
r back on
bringing the alternato Fig. 20
line.
produces the same result. Manually ied out to the runway and forgot his
taking the alternator off line becomes tail number (which is usually posted
an important consideration if an inside the airplane). Hoping to catch
overvoltage condition occurs and the a glimpse of the number, he leaned
circuitry doesn’t automatically iso- out and slipped off his seat. He was
late the alternator. Figure 21 shows hanging inverted, half outside, half
three ways of manually taking the inside the airplane, suspended by a
alternator off line. loose shoulder harness. The funniest
Occasionally, a benign overvoltage part was that he held onto the micro-
condition exists and the voltage regu- phone and continued talking to the
lator’s brain automatically takes the tower. I couldn’t quite hear what he
alternator off line. This is sometimes said, but I think it was, “Ahhh,
called a nuisance tripout. Even tower... aghhh... I’ve fallen out and I
human brains experience nuisance can’t get back in!” I ran over and
tripouts. It happened to a student helped this guy back into his air-
pilot in a Cessna 150. This fellow tax- plane. I’m just glad he didn’t forget
STOPPING A RUNAWAY
ALTERNATOR (WATER PUMP)
Fig. 21 + Pressure sense tube Load meter

alternator field circuit breaker. When

B
ALT 0 60
CB GYRO
any circuit breaker pops, it is always F CB
ALT
AMPERES

W
(alternator field current)

worth paying attention. Personally, if CB GYRO

Pump priming flow

I’m airborne and a circuit breaker

V
ALT
FIELD
S CB
PANEL
LIGHTS
pops, I don’t reset it if the equipment - Pressure
sense
CB
Primary bus

RADIO
it’s protecting isn’t essential. tube
Water pump T 0
CB LIGHTS

Resetting a circuit breaker is playing G (alternator) 60

AMPERES
60
CB CIG
with fire—literally, and an in-flight Water pressure regulator
LAND
(voltage regulator) CB
fire is considerably less comforting LIGHT
Charge/
than a campfire. If I need to use the discharge CB NAV
LIGHT
ammeter
equipment, I reset the circuit breaker
BAT

once and only once, but only after let-

ALT

Electrical
ground Avionics
ting it cool for several minutes. If it A Master Switch
pops again, I leave it alone. In other
Turning the left
Avionics bus

words, it’s not a good idea to reset a CB RADIO

side of the master "OFF," Battery
circuit breaker a second time. or pulling the alternator or CB NAV

If a popped circuit breaker (alter- alternator field circuit breaker

will take an alternator CB RADIO
nator CB or alternator field CB)
off line.
takes the alternator off line, then if CB NAV

you manually pop either of these, it

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 Rod Machado’s Private Pilot Handbook
D12

his number while airborne! Mental nuisance tripouts are

often amusing; in airplanes, they’re simply annoying. HANDLING A HIGH OR LOW
The brain in the airplane’s voltage regulator is subject VOLTAGE WARNING LIGHT Fig. 22
to similar perturbations. A nuisance tripout may be
indicated by a low-voltage light or an overvoltage A WARNING!
Master is Low/high ON

warning light, depending on how the airplane’s elec- AL BA

trical system is wired. We can attempt to reacti- STEP 3 T T "ON" voltage

warning
vate the voltage regulator by turning the B light illuminates
OFF

avionics master switch to the off position (to Turn both sides FD NAV
HDG APPR
ON
FD A

of master switch
protect the avionics from a power surge), DH Direct

BAT
ALT
"OFF"
230 40
Enter
220 50 TRB
60 Slave HSI
210 KNOTS To VOR
50
resetting the alternator or alternator-field 200
190
180
70
80
90
OFF
Menu
GCR
RCT 40 AZ
C
170 100
110

circuit breaker (if popped), then turning

160 Pull
5"
150 140 130 120
ON Turn TCT LX 30 SCT
4" 6"
RCT 20
Suction
Nav Radios
WXT
AL BA Turn both sides
inches of Hg

DC
1 2 3 4 T 10

both sides of the master switch off then on

ELEC

T T
NO PITCH INFORMATION GS GMAP LX
FP GAIN TILT+ SBY
WX CLR
SBY TST

of master
OFF TST
TO FREQ OFF
MIN MAX - BRT

OFF
FROM

again (Figure 22). This signals the voltage switch "ON" L

TURN COORDINATOR

2 MIN
R
HDG
OFF 115.7
MicronNav Radios

regulator’s brain to give the alternator again

5
10
15 20
RPM
25
HUNDREDS

30
- 0

SLAVE
+
LEG
OBS
ACTV
ARM
APR
GPS
NAV
SELECT TO FREQ TIME -25-50-100-200

another chance to produce normal voltage. STEP 2

IN
0 35 NAV
ON 0
UP TEST
Carb0 Temp
C
0 10
20 10

Should the low-voltage or high-voltage

30 20 30
40 40
50 50

20
25 30
ALT CB ALT FIELD
35
OFF
Reset these
MANIFOLD

STEP 1
PRESSURE
15 40

light illuminate again, something is seri- 10 CB

two circuit
INCHES OF MERCURY
ABSOLUTE

ously wrong with the system. Conserve breakers

Turn
battery energy and land at the nearest air- avionics
port. master
Making Connections
Having gone downstream with our water analogy
model this far, you now understand several important
things about the limitations of alternators. First, if the
battery is dead, the alternator isn’t going to work. You
can still start the engine by hand propping, but as
explained earlier, this is a risky maneuver which is not
recommended for those who enjoy being bilaterally sym-
metrical.
Since the magnetos are independent of the airplane’s
electrical system, they generate their own energy for igni-
tion when spun. According to our water analogy, how-
ever, with a dead battery no prime is available
through tube F in Figure 19 to coax the water pump
ON
(if popped)
switch OFF
"OFF"
cuit breaker eliminates the alternator-field current flow
and shuts down the alternator.
Third, if you want to use the airplane’s electrical equip-
ment on the ground without starting the engine, you
should activate only the battery half of the master switch.
Leave the alternator half in the OFF position. This pre-
vents alternator field current from flowing to the alterna-
tor, wasting precious battery power. It makes no sense to
waste battery energy to prime the alternator if it won’t be
WATER ANALOGY OF ELECTRICITY
+ Pressure sense tube Load meter

into developing water pressure. The water pump B

ALT 0
CB GYRO
60

will turn, but it will not pump. No priming, F CB ALT

AMPERES

no pumping. It’s as simple as that. In elec- W

(alternator field current)

CB GYRO
Pump priming flow

trical terms, without enough battery ener-

V
ALT
FIELD
S PANEL
CB LIGHTS
gy for the alternator-field current, the - Pressure
sense
CB
Primary bus

RADIO
alternator spins, but it doesn’t produce tube
Water pump T 0
CB LIGHTS
any voltage. You will not have any electric- G (alternator) CB CIG
60

AMPERES
60

ity nor will the battery charge. Water pressure regulator

(voltage regulator) LAND
CB LIGHT
Second, if the brain in the voltage regu-
Charge/
NAV
lator goes bad and the alternator produces discharge CB LIGHT
ammeter
too much voltage, you can take the alter-
BAT
ALT

Electrical
nator off line. Pull the main alternator cir- ground Avionics
cuit breaker, located schematically A Master Switch
between the alternator and the primary
Avionics bus

bus, as shown in Figure 23 (if the circuit CB RADIO

breaker is the pullable type). Of course, this assumes Battery
CB NAV
that it hasn’t already popped out on its own. You can Fig. 23
CB RADIO
turn off the alternator half of the master switch, which
will shut off the alternator field current flow, thus deac- CB NAV
tivating the alternator. Pulling the alternator field cir-
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 Chapter 4 - Electrical Systems: Knowing What’s Watt
D13

in use. Airborne electrical emergencies caused

by voltage regulator problems require conser- MODIFIED ELECTRICAL SCHEMATIC
vation of battery energy. These situations To STBY VAC
should also be dealt with by turning the instrument s
circuit AIR COND
alternator half of the master switch to the LOW VOLT OUT CIR FAN
breaker
off position. POWER IN ALT FIELD
Low voltage
If faced with an errant voltage regulator warning light FLAP
in flight, unload the system by turning off SENSE (+)
PITOT HEAT
all nonessential equipment. This includes ALT FIELD CRNT Alternator
the waterbed heater and the disco strobe circuit INST
SENSE (-)

Primary bus
lights you installed in your Cessna 172. See breaker INST LT
if this returns the needle to a normal Voltage
Alternator NAV LT
deflection. If not, then deactivate the alter- regulator
nator by turning the alternator half of the BCN LT
master switch to the off position. Let the LAND LT
AL BA
battery provide the energy needs temporar- T T
STROBE LT
ily. This will allow an overheated voltage To alternator
regulator to cool down (assuming that’s the field TURN COOR
Master switch circuit
problem). After 5 to 10 minutes, reactivate FUEL PUMP
the alternator by turning the alternator half of the mas- breaker Ammeter
ter switch back on. See if the voltage regulator functions
RADIO 1
normally. If not, then deactivate the alternator by turn- Avionics
ing the alternator half of the master switch off and land Fig. 24 RADIO 2

Avionics bus
master
as soon as practical. switch/ RADIO 3
I’ve had great success using this “cooling off period” circuit
+ RADIO 4
approach. Most voltage regulators have moving parts -
breaker
RADIO 5
(relays and contacts) that can stick when subjected to
high heat loads. Cooling lets the components contract and AUTOPILOT
return to their normal position. If this doesn’t work, then Battery AVIONICS FAN
it’s best to leave the alternator off line, conserve electrici-
ty and head towards an airport for repairs.
Have Rudder, Won't Travel
Drawing It All Together
Figure 24 is an electrical schematic excerpted from a ....This was the first flight after the
Tower,
general aviation airplane’s owner’s manual. I have taken annual inspection...I banked with my controls
the wind on takeoff and while stopped
the liberty of leaving out a few items, such as the clock, moving the rudder to the right I
8 working
at the same
starter, battery and starter contactor, Hobbs meter, etc. noticed a restriction in rudder time my
head
Of course, we would all like to see electrical schematics travel (I wasn't getting full rudder did.
without a Hobbs meter, but I did this for the sake of travel in both directions). So, I
simplicity. This figure should look familiar to you. It’s told the tower, "I have a
the electrical version of the water analogy drawing in problem...." The tower said I
could have any runway.... I
Figure 23. landed and taxied off the runway.
The first introduction to the electrical system in After shutting down, I found my
ground school is traumatic for most students. After the flashlight on the cabin floor near
first view of a schematic, many students sit limp, eyes the rudder pedal on the
passenger side. I usually keep it
bugged as if they’ve been hit by a megawatt stun gun. I in the passenger seat before
hope the water analogy makes consumption of this tech- taxiing. It must have fallen to the
nical subject more palatable. Take time to compare floor on takeoff and gotten
Figures 23 and 24. I think you’ll be surprised at how behind the rudder pedal....
much less frightening electrical schematics are. ASRS Report
Proper stowage of cockpit
TAKING IT IN THE SHORTS equipment, including flashlights,
Battery will prevent hazardous incidents
NAV
of this kind. Another preventive
Think of a short as a leak
in the plumbing. Water measure is to give special 26
(electricity) can't get to its attention to the first preflight after
destination and electrical equipment won't work. annual inspection.
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 Rod Machado’s Private Pilot Handbook
D14
WATER ANALOGY & THE BATTERY CONTACTOR
+ Pressure sense tube Load meter
Postflight Briefing #4-1 B
ALT 0
ALT
60
CB GYRO
Contact! CB AMPERES

W F

(alternator field current)

CB GYRO
How the Battery Contactor Works

Pump priming flow

V
ALT
FIELD
S CB
PANEL
LIGHTS
An aircraft battery (very much like a - Pressure
sense
CB

Primary bus
tube RADIO
car’s battery) stores a tremendous amount
G Water pump T 0
CB LIGHTS
of electrical energy. Anyone who’s ever (alternator) CB CIG
60

AMPERES
60

banged cables together while jump starting Water pressure regulator

a car has seen the sparks fly. This is raw

(voltage regulator) U LAND
CB LIGHT
Charge/
electrical energy on tap. Controlling this NAV

Master switch
discharge CB LIGHT
ammeter
amount of current from the cockpit would
require a rather large, well-insulated Electrical

BAT
ALT
ground Avionics
switch. In the cockpit, however, big switch- A master switch
es mean increased weight, cramped space

Avionics bus
and a greater chance of sparks flying dur- CB RADIO
Fig. 25
N
ing a malfunction. Airplane engineers pre- CB NAV
fer a more indirect means of battery con- E
trol—the battery contactor. Battery
CB RADIO
contactor
The battery contactor allows a small switch
M D CB NAV
(the battery half of the master switch) to control a
great deal of electrical energy. It gives an itty-bitty
switch, galactic-power-switching ability. Activating the P L H - Battery +
battery half of the master switch closes a solenoid in the
battery contactor (the big switch) allowing battery energy
C
to flow directly onto the primary bus. Figure 25 provides K J
a working water analogy model for the battery contactor.
ONE WAY FLOW TUBE R
Activating the battery half or the right side of master
switch (A) allows water to flow from the positive terminal
(C) of the battery up through line D and into the battery ley L spins counterclockwise, it pulls the lever down
contactor (E). As line D enters the contactor, a smaller and opens valve M. This lets water from the battery
line (H), splits off and flows to a small turbine/pulley flow through valve M and line N, pressurizing the
arrangement (J). primary bus.
Water flows over the turbine (J), spinning it counter- In reality, a solenoid relay device in the battery contac-
clockwise. Then it flows out and up line K toward the bat- tor takes the place of turbine J, and valve M. Perhaps the
tery half of master switch A. From here it flows to the most important item to be understood from this battery
ground (remember, we learned to think of the electrical contactor model is that a small flow of water through line
ground as a thin H and K allows a larger flow of water through line D and
BATTERY CONTACTOR pool of water N. A small flow of electrical current, controlled from the
SOLENOID & RELAY underlying our cockpit via the master switch, allows the safe manage-
TO PRIMARY plumbing circuitry). ment of large amounts of battery energy.
Fig. 26 BUS
0
This completes the
60 60
Remember, the water model is for electrical cause and
flow of water through
AMPERES

effect understanding only; don’t take it literally. But do

the master switch.
AMMETER take the electrical results of our model’s operation as
ZAn interesting plumb- fact. For instance, as water flows over turbine J it pulls
ing reaction occurs the lever on valve M down opening the valve. For valve
w h e n t u r b i n e J M’s lever to remain open, water must continue to flow
spins counterclock-
over turbine J. Turbine J will stop spinning once the pul-
Q wise. Pulley L is
ley and rope have pulled the lever on valve M downward,
connected directly
into the on position. But a continuous flow of water over
to turbine J and
TO
has a small rope the turbine maintains the pressure needed to keep pulley
BATTERY TO (+) wrapped around it L from unwinding. This keeps valve M open.
HALF OF TERMINAL that connects to In the actual battery contactor, a solenoid opens valve
MASTER OF the on/off lever of M. Figure 26 shows this simplified schematic. Activating
BATTERY valve M. When pul- the battery half of the master switch sends a small amount
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 Chapter 4 - Electrical Systems: Knowing What’s Watt
D15

MODIFIED ELECTRICAL SCHEMATIC Having taken a reasonable amount of

To artist’s license with this model, let’s
STBY VAC
instrument’s look at what it helps us understand.
circuit AIR COND
LOW VOLT OUT CIR FAN Unless a slight amount of battery ener-
breaker gy exists, the battery contactor isn’t
POWER IN Low voltage ALT FIELD
going to work. Remember, it takes a
warning light FLAP slight amount of water pressure from
SENSE (+)
PITOT HEAT the battery to pull valve M’s lever
ALT FIELD CRNT Alternator open. Only the battery can provide the
circuit INST
SENSE (-) initial energy to activate the battery

Primary bus
breaker INST LT
Voltage contactor. If the battery contactor
Alternator NAV LT doesn’t work, water will not flow from
regulator
BCN LT the primary bus through line S to
Master LAND LT
prime the water pump. In electrical
AL BA
T T
switch terms, if the alternator field current
To alternator STROBE LT isn’t available, the alternator won’t
field TURN COOR work. Inability to activate the battery
circuit contactor is another reason why an
breaker FUEL PUMP
Ammeter airplane with a dead or very low bat-
tery can’t have its battery recharged
RADIO 1 by running the engine.
Avionics RADIO 2 After engine start, assuming enough
Avionics bus

master
switch/
circuit
+ RADIO 4
Battery -
breaker
contactor
Fig. 27
Battery
of current flowing through coil Q. This creates a magnet-
ic field that pulls a heavy duty relay (Z) down onto two
circuit points. Electricity now flows from the battery to
the primary bus between these contact points.
Turning the battery half of the master switch off pre-
vents water from flowing over turbine J in Figure 25.
This allows spring P to pull valve M’s lever upward into
the off position which shuts off battery power to the pri-
mary bus. In a similar manner, placing the battery half of
the master switch in the off position releases the pull on
the solenoid in Figure 26. Relay Z pops up preventing
electricity from flowing to the primary bus.
Notice there is a one-way flow valve R connecting line
K with line D in Figure 25. This is known as a clipping
diode in electrical parlance. It’s designed to avoid voltage
spikes across the coil relay, caused by a collapsing mag-
netic field, when turning off the master switch.
What was that??? A clipping what??? Here’s another
way of looking at what a clipping diode does. Turning off
the battery half of the master switch causes turbine J to
momentarily spin in a clockwise direction. This occurs
because spring P pulls valve M’s lever shut and unwinds
the pulley. This might create a spike or surge of water
flow into line K (or any other delicate elements of the cir-
cuitry). To prevent damage to line K the one-way valve
(diode) allows the pressure in line K and D to equalize.
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RADIO 3 battery energy, the water pump will
immediately provide water pressure to
the primary bus. From the primary bus,
RADIO 5 water flows through the charge-dis-
AUTOPILOT charge ammeter (U) (if your airplane has
AVIONICS FAN
this type of ammeter) and down line N,
through open valve M and into the bat-
tery. It does so until the battery is charged. Remember,
the battery may have lost a little of its charge by operat-
ing a current-hungry starter or by operating the radios
prior to engine start.
Because the pump is charging the battery, the amme-
ter has a deflection to the positive side. If your airplane
has a load meter, it would indicate the water pump’s out-
put. If the battery’s charge is low, expect an ammeter
needle deflection to the positive side (+) until the battery
regains its 12 or 24 volt charge. Similarly, expect the load
meter needle to indicate an alternator output slightly
greater than required by all the electrical equipment in
use while the battery is being charged.
When the battery is charged, water no longer flows
from the primary bus to the battery through line D.
However, a slight amount of water continues to flow
through valve M and down line H, over the turbine, thus
keeping valve M open. This explains why the charge-dis-
charge ammeter needle remains nearly centered in a
healthy electrical system with a fully charged battery.
Once the battery is charged, a load meter should show
the approximate energy drain by the electrical equip-
ment in operation. Readings higher than this should
arouse a pilot’s suspicion about the health of the electri-
cal system.
Figure 27 shows a more complete electrical schematic
with the battery contactor included.
 Rod Machado’s Private Pilot Handbook
D16

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