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MARCH-APRIL 2014
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Keywords: ductility; high strength; shear walls; web crushing. RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
Elastic and inelastic web crushing failures were consis-
INTRODUCTION tently achieved in a series of large-scale structural wall
Over the past 50 years, web crushing capacity of reinforced tests designed to study the relationship between concrete
concrete members has emerged as a primary design concern in compressive strength and web crushing strength of thin-
three distinct contexts: gravity loading of thin-webbed beams in webbed members. The results of these tests validate both the
the 1960s,1-4 seismic loading of structural walls with confined dependence of web crushing capacity on fc′ and the signif-
boundary elements in the 1970s,5-9 and seismic loading of icant degradation of web crushing capacity experienced for
hollow bridge piers with confined corner elements in the a range of concrete strengths under cyclic loading in the
1990s.10-13 In each context, motivation to design lightweight inelastic range. Physical insight developed from observa-
members based on physical insight led to large-scale struc- tions and measurements of these tests provides a firm foun-
tural testing programs that discovered web crushing capaci- dation for establishing the limits of thin-webbed reinforced
ties significantly in excess of the average shear stress limits concrete member design. Consistency of the test results indi-
recommended by ACI-318.14 Researchers in charge of these cates that it may be possible to design thin-webbed elements
testing programs have repeatedly emphasized the importance to experience significant inelastic deformations before
of understanding shear behavior in terms of diagonal tension failing in shear, opening up new possibilities for acceptable
and diagonal compression instead of average shear stresses. ductile failure modes of reinforced concrete members.
While diagonal compression demands depend on member
geometry and reinforcement, diagonal compression capacities WEB CRUSHING SHEAR CAPACITY
depend on the size and strength of the most heavily loaded Work in the 1960s on thin-webbed girders established
struts. Previous research programs established consensus that properly reinforced concrete webs could resist diag-
regarding the linear dependence of web crushing capacity on onal compression loads in the elastic range almost equal
concrete compressive strength fc′ and web thickness. Limits
ACI Structural Journal, V. 111, No. 2, March-April 2014.
on the value of fc′ itself, however, were not evaluated. Could MS No. 2011-322.R2, doi:10.14359.51686515, was received May 23, 2013, and
the web crushing capacity of a 30 MPa wall be increased by reviewed under Institute publication policies. Copyright © 2014, American Concrete
Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is
a factor of four simply by increasing the concrete strength to obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including author’s
closure, if any, will be published ten months from this journal’s date if the discussion
120 MPa? Seismic researchers have hesitated to endorse this is received within four months of the paper’s print publication.
A f
jd v yv + f1t w
s jd
θ fs = tan −1 −1
= tan L (2)
(
2 T − Tyav ) pr
OBSERVATIONS
Common behavior
Common behavior observed on all test units is described
herein. No cracking was observed up to 0.25Fy′. At 0.5Fy′,
flexural cracking in the boundary elements and diagonal
Fig. 4—Test setup overview. shear cracking in the webs appeared. At 0.75Fy′, elastic shear
cracking developed throughout the entire web. The HSC
ment ductility levels μΔ = 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4, and 6, or until walls developed a denser pattern of flexural and shear cracks
failure of the test unit. The monotonic tests were conducted than the NSC walls. With increasing displacement ductility
by applying the lateral load in force control until Fy′, and crack density increased and the active cracks became wider.
then in displacement control until failure. The values of Fy′ Overall, shear crack spacing in the HSC walls was much
and Δy that defined the loading protocol are listed in Table 4. smaller than for the NSC walls. Even though diagonal shear
cracking under tension does not control the capacity of the
Instrumentation walls, it defines the height and width of the struts, and thus
The walls were instrumented to measure segmental flex- affects the strut capacities. Strut capacity is also affected by
ural curvatures, shear deformations, and steel reinforcement crack width, which dictates shear slip behavior at the crack
strains. The layout of the external instrumentation is shown interface. Finally, relatively larger cover concrete spalling
in Fig. 5. Flexural section curvatures were calculated using on the compression boundary element was observed on the
displacement transducers placed along the height of the HSC walls. Nonetheless, the heavily confined boundary
column on both sides of the boundary elements. Average elements had no problem resisting the compression force.
Fig. 8—Hysteretic force-displacement response of cyclic tests. (Note: 1 MPa = 0.145 ksi; 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)
cally tested units at the first positive peak of each ductility web. Shown in Fig. 11(c) are longitudinal strain profiles for the
level. The flexure-induced displacement Δf at the top of M20 walls, which have a linear variation along the height (with
the wall was calculated by adding the contribution of indi- disturbance near the footing). The strains were calculated using
vidual sectional rotations. The top wall displacement due to the displacement transducers along both sides of the boundary
shear Δs was calculated by summing the shear deformations elements (Fig. 5). The profiles are consistent with the moment
measured on the two wall segments (Fig. 5). From the data gradient on the wall. It can be further observed that the strain
in Table 5 it can be confirmed that the shear displacements profiles for both M20 walls are essentially the same at equal
are linearly related to the flexural displacements.12 For the displacement ductility demands. This was consistent for the
eight tested walls,18 the average ratio of shear to flexural other three wall sets, supporting the evidence of equal flexural
displacements was 0.23, with a standard deviation of 0.04. demands on monotonic and cyclic tests.
Figure 10 shows the average shear stress versus shear strain Principal strains in the wall web were estimated from consid-
hysteretic response of Wall M20C in the bottom and top wall eration of a whole wall segment (web and boundary elements)
segments. The shear deformations were mainly concentrated through Mohr’s circle with the measured longitudinal strains,
in the bottom wall segment (1016 mm [40 in.] from the base), the measured average shear strains (Fig. 5), and neglecting the
which is where the plastic hinge region develops. It can be transverse strains (due to the presence of the heavily reinforced
seen that the average shear stresses considerably exceeded boundary elements). Principal strain values calculated this way
the ACI limits. This observation applies to all walls because at the web mid-depth are shown in Fig. 11(b) against displace-
they had similar levels of lateral load resistance. ment ductility for all walls. Except for some deviations for
To provide further insight and quantitative information on the M05 walls, the average principal strains were equal for all
the performance of the tested walls, Fig. 11 provides a brief walls at the same displacement ductility level.
overview of average strain demands at mid-depth on the wall
Fig. 10—Average shear stress-strain response of: (a) bottom; and (b) top segments of Wall M20C.
Monotonic versus cyclic loading Table 5—Flexure and shear components of wall
A comparison of the force-displacement envelopes of top displacement at first positive peak of each
the cyclic and monotonic tests is shown in Fig. 12. It is ductility level
clear that higher fc′ resulted in higher inelastic deformation Ductility Displacement M05C M10C M15C M20C
capacity. The force-deformation response of the walls, up
Δf, mm 18.5 18.0 14.5 14.5
to their respective deformation limit, is considered to have μΔ = 1.0
been essentially the same, with minor differences due to: a) Δs, mm 5.08 6.10 3.53 3.30
variations in fc′; b) longitudinal reinforcement differences Δf, mm 28.4 27.7 22.6 23.1
for Wall M15C (Fig. 3); c) earlier spalling in the compres- μΔ = 1.5
Δs, mm 7.62 7.87 4.83 4.57
sion toe for Wall M20C; and d) reduction of the effective
Δf, mm — — 30.5 30.7
concrete compressive strength due to more severe cracking μΔ = 2.0
for the cyclically loaded walls. Δs, mm — — 6.60 6.60
The increase in deformation capacity, however, was not Δf, mm — — 47.0 47.0
directly proportional to fc′, particularly for the cyclic loaded μΔ = 3.0
Δs, mm — — 9.40 9.91
walls. The monotonic and cyclic deformation capacities of
Δf, mm — — 62.5 62.0
the M05 walls were essentially the same (Fig. 12(a)). The μΔ = 4
response was similar because both walls failed close to Δs, mm — — 13.2 15.5
the elastic range, and only minimal cycling was done on Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.
Wall M05C. The responses of the other walls show that
while increased concrete strength leads to larger deforma- significant effect of cyclic loading on the deformation limit
tion capacity, cyclic loading curtails this improvement. of Wall M20C despite the larger concrete strength in M20C
The deformation capacity reduction of the cyclically tested compared with that in M20M. It is thus hypothesized that the
walls is attributed to the damage of the flexure-shear struts reduced deformation capacity in the cyclically tested HSC
from cyclic loading, which reduces their capacity to transfer walls is due to the negative convergence of an increased
load from the tension to the compression boundary element. stress intensity field at crack misalignment and a reduced
This effect is best seen by observing the responses for the M15 cracking bridge zone from the higher strength concrete. This
walls in Fig. 12(c). The effect was not as clearly captured for can be understood upon considering that HSC experiences
the M10 walls (Fig. 12(b)) because fc′ for M10C was lower dramatic strength degradation in the postpeak response, and
than that for M10M. Nonetheless, given the response of Wall the effect of further strength increase is not appreciable. For
M15C, it can be expected that if fc′ for Wall M10C had been structural walls, the later effect would indicate a curtailing
closer to the design target, its deformation capacity would effect on the increased inelastic deformation gains on web
have been increased, and the cyclic and monotonic envelopes crushing capacity for increasing values of fc′.
would have been similar to those obtained for the M15 walls. The reduced gain in deformation capacity of Wall M20C
Comparison of the M20 wall response envelopes indicates a compared with that of Wall M15C would seem to indicate
Fig. 13—Average compression softening factor k versus: (a) normalized maximum shear distortion in plastic region; and
(b) concrete compressive strength.
Test unit Δu, mm Fu, kN Δu, mm Fu, kN Difference, % Δu, mm Fu, kN Difference, %
M05C 45.0 803 8.64 342 –81 48.5 821 8
2. Increase in concrete compressive strength enhances the While this conclusion may be generally well recognized for
ductility and hysteretic energy capacity of structural walls walls limited by both elastic and inelastic web crushing, exper-
by preventing web crushing shear failures; imental evidence from this research, based on corresponding
3. Web crushing strength increases in proportion to fc′ as long monotonic and cyclic tests, showed that degradation from
as struts remain undamaged. Hence, transformation from an cyclic loading increases with increasing concrete strength;
elastic web crushing failure to an inelastic web crushing failure 5. Concrete compressive strength does not linearly
can be achieved simply by increasing the concrete strength; increase web crushing strength as implied by rational web
4. Damage to struts caused by cyclic loading and inelastic crushing models; rather, the relationship is nonlinear, with a
deformations limits web crushing strength independently of fc′. decreasing limit as concrete strength increases. This obser-
Fig. 3—Increase in stress relaxation with increasing Specific heat, J/kgK (Btu/lb°F) 900 (0.21)
temperature, after fib Bulletin 55: Model Code 2010.7 (Note: Convective heat transfer coeffi-
8.33 (1.47)
1°F = 1.8°C + 32.) cient, W/m2K (Btu/h ft.2°F)
Fig. 4—Deformed contour of stresses and associated internal force distribution for comparison with Priestley1 (in MPa). (Note:
1 MPa = 145 psi.)
Fig. 5—Verification of modeling procedure with Priestley,1 Ghali and Elliott,2 and Vitharana and Priestley.24 (Note: 1 m =
3.28 ft; 1 MPa = 145 psi; 1 kN/m = 5.71 kip/in.; 1 kNm/m = 0.225 kip-ft/ft.)
Fig. 6—Finite element model showing deformed contour of hoop stresses (in MPa). (Note: 1 MPa = 145 psi.)
Vertical prestressing
The vertical bending moment distribution arising from
hydrostatic and thermally induced loading is given in
Fig. 9. To establish an approximate upper limit on the
vertical moments, a cracking moment was calculated from
the following equation
I
M cr = ( ft + fmax ) (1)
t / 2
NOTATION
D = diameter
Ec,eff = effective or age-adjusted concrete modulus of
elasticity
Ecm = secant concrete modulus of elasticity
fck = concrete compressive cylinder strength
fcu = concrete compressive cube strength
fmax = maximum concentric precompression
stress required to eliminate tensile stresses
ft = concrete tensile strength
H = wall height
I = second moment of area
Mcr = cracking moment
R = radius
T = wall thickness
x = height from base of wall
f(∞,t0) = final creep coefficient
l = eigenvalue
REFERENCES
1. Priestley, M. J., “Ambient Thermal Stresses in Circular Prestressed
Fig. 14—Internal forces resulting from thermal storage Concrete Tanks,” ACI Journal, V. 73, No. 10, Oct. 1976, pp. 553-560.
2. Ghali, E., and Elliott, E., “Serviceability of Circular Prestressed
for a free-sliding wall. (Note: 1 kNm/m = 0.225 kip-ft/ft; Concrete Tanks,” ACI Structural Journal, V. 89, No. 3, May-June 1992,
1 kN/m = 5.71 kip/in.) pp. 345-355.
3. NZS 3106, “Code of Practice for Concrete Structures for Retaining
1. For the most part, the temperature under consideration Liquid,” Standards Association of New Zealand, 2009, 83 pp.
4. AS 3735, “Concrete Structures for Retaining Liquids—Commentary
for the present study does not have a significant adverse (Supplement to AS 3735-2001),” Standards Australia, 2001, 65pp.
effect on the material properties. The most important factors 5. EN 1992-1-2, “General Rules—Structural Fire Design,” Brussels,
that require consideration are creep of the concrete, bond Belgium, 2004.
6. EN 1992-3, “Design of Concrete Structures, Part 3: Liquid Retaining
strength, and stress relaxation for pretensioned and non- and Containment Structures,” Brussels, Belgium, 2006.
pretensioned reinforcement. Where material properties form 7. Fédération Internationale du Béton (fib), “Model Code 2010: Volume
inputs for analysis and design, any associated reduction 1 First Complete Draft,” fib Bulletin 55, Lausanne, Switzerland, 2010,
317 pp.
should be accounted for, particularly if unfavorable. 8. Mears, A. P., “Long Term Tests on the Effect of Moderate Heating
2. For a tank wall restrained radially at its ends, the internal on the Compressive Strength and Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity of
forces resulting from the storage of heated liquids have been Concrete,” Concrete for Nuclear Reactors, SP-34, C. E. Kesler, ed., Amer-
ican Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1972, pp. 355-375.
shown to be significant. As such, a temperature exceeding 9. Komendant, J.; Nicolayeff, V.; Polivka, M.; and Pirtz, D., “Effect
approximately 50°C (90°F) across the concrete section of Temperature, Stress Level, and Age at Loading on Creep of Sealed
appears to be prohibitive based on compressive stress limits Concrete,” Douglas McHenry International Symposium on Concrete and
Concrete Structures, SP-55, B. Bresler, ed., American Concrete Institute,
and vertical prestressing constraints. Consequently, it is Farmington Hills, MI, 1978, pp. 55-81.
recommended that internal insulation be provided to prevent 10. Nasser, K. W., and Lohtia, R. P., “Mass Concrete Properties at High
temperatures from exceeding this. Temperatures,” ACI Journal, V. 68, No. 3, Mar. 1971, pp. 180-186.
11. Carette, G. G., and Malhotra, V. M., “Performance of Dolostone
3. A linear eigenvalue buckling analysis has revealed that and Limestone Concretes at Sustained High Temperatures,” Temperature
the ultimate limit state of buckling for a wall with restrained Effects on Concrete (ASTM STP 858), T. R. Naik, ed., ASTM International,
ends was not reached for the temperature range considered. West Conshohocken, PA, 1985, pp. 38-67.
12. Comité Euro-International du Béton (CEB), “Fire Design of Concrete
A minimum eigenvalue of 2.52 was observed. Structures: in Accordance with CEB/FIP Model Code 90,” Bulletin D’In-
4. Where provisions are made for radial displacements at formation 21, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1991, 120 pp.
the wall ends during service, the 95°C (171°F) maximum 13. Brown, R. D., “Properties of Concrete in Reactor Vessels,” Confer-
ence on Prestressed Concrete Pressure Vessels, Westminster, Mar. 1968,
temperature does not induce excessive stresses. Complica- Paper 13, pp. 131-151.
tions may arise, however, surrounding possible leakage at 14. Gross, H., “High-Temperature Creep of Concrete,” Nuclear Engi-
the joints. Accordingly, it is recommended that a polymer neering and Design, V. 32, No. 1, Apr. 1975, pp. 129-147.
15. Nasser, K. W., and Neville, A. M., “Creep of Concrete at Elevated
liner be included, thereby eliminating concerns regarding Temperatures,” ACI Journal, V. 62, No. 12, Dec. 1965, pp. 1567-1579.
liquid-tightness. 16. Hannant, D. J., “Strain Behaviour of Concrete Up to 95°C under
Compressive Stresses,” Conference on Prestressed Concrete Pressure
Vessels, Westminster, Mar. 1968, pp. 177-192.
AUTHOR BIOS 17. McDonald, J. E., “Creep of Concrete under Various Temperature,
ACI member Michael J. Minehane is a Structural Design Engineer at RPS Moisture and Loading Conditions,” Douglas McHenry International
Group Ltd., Cork, Republic of Ireland. He received his BEng and MEng Symposium on Concrete and Concrete Structures, SP-55, B. Bresler, ed.,
from Cork Institute of Technology, Republic of Ireland, in 2010 and 2011, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1978, pp. 31-53.
respectively. His research interests include prestressed concrete, strut- 18. Harada, T.; Takeda, J.; Yamane, S.; and Furumura, F., “Elasticity
and-tie modeling, and finite element analysis. and Thermal Properties of Concrete Subjected to Elevated Tempera-
tures,” Concrete for Nuclear Reactors, SP-34, C. E. Kesler, ed., American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1972, pp. 377-406.
Concrete
The same mixture proportion was used for all test series.
Fig. 3—Carbon, glass FRP, and steel bars. The concrete used a coarse aggregate consisting of river
FRP reinforcement (glass and carbon), allowing for evalua- gravel with a 0.75 in. (19 mm) maximum aggregate size.
tion of the influence of the material type independent of the Batch weights and slump for each series are provided in
surface deformation. Table 5. Concrete compressive and splitting tensile strengths
Tensile tests on representative coupons were performed were obtained from the average of three 6 x 12 in. (152 x
for each type of reinforcement to determine their mechanical 305 mm) cylinders, and are also provided in Table 5.
properties. Coupons for FRP bars were tested considering the Concrete material tests were timed with the testing program
requirements of ACI 440.3R-04 (ACI Committee 440 2004). such that results were obtained on the first, middle, and
The measured modulus of elasticity and ultimate strength of last day of specimen testing for each series. The concrete
the FRP bars are provided in Table 3. Two types of sand and strengths reported are the average over the days of testing
wrapped bars were tested: HGO and HG1. The designation for each test series. As noted in Table 2, which provides the
HGO represents older GFRP bars from the same manufac- concrete age on the day of testing, specimens in each series
turer that were previously tested in the study by Mosley et were tested within a fairly short timeframe. Therefore, the
al. (2008). Over time, the surface deformation on the bars variation of concrete strengths from the average during the
has changed slightly; therefore, two different configurations duration of testing was within 3% for each series. Across all
of the same surface treatment were considered. In addition, series, concrete compressive strength varied from 4010 to
these bars allow for comparison with the earlier study. 5470 psi (27.7 to 37.7 MPa), even though the same concrete
mixture was ordered.
Steel reinforcement
Deformed steel reinforcement consisted of No. 5 and 8 CONSTRUCTION
(15.9 and 25.4 mm) bars, meeting ASTM A615 Grade 60. Specimens in each series were cast at the same time from
To evaluate the effect of axial rigidity, a No. 8 (25.4 mm) the same batch of concrete. The concrete was placed in
hollow reinforcing bar was constructed by drilling a 0.5 in. the forms in two layers, and each layer was vibrated using
(12.7 mm) diameter hole through a 16 in. (406 mm) length mechanical vibrators. The beams were screeded, and the
of the deformed bar to reduce the cross-sectional area in the surface was finished with a magnesium float. The beams
splice region, as shown in Fig. 3. Bars of each size were were covered with wet burlap, and plastic sheets were placed
obtained from the same heat to ensure consistent reinforce- on top of the burlap to prevent moisture loss before final set.
ment material properties in each phase. Table 4 presents the For each series, cylinders were cast simultaneously with the
properties of the steel bars. beams. The cylinders were consolidated, cured, and stored
in the same manner as the test specimens.
TEST SETUP AND PROCEDURE bars, and one was attached to the outer reinforcing bar. The
Beams were placed on two supports, and two equal, strains measured with strain gauges and strains calculated
concentrated loads were applied at the end of the cantilever based on flexural theory agreed well; therefore, no strain
with hydraulic rams, creating a constant moment region gauges were installed on the FRP reinforcing bars for the
between the supports as shown in Fig. 1. The rams were remaining series. Strain gauges, however, were installed on
connected to a single hydraulic hand pump to obtain equal all steel reinforced specimens where there was a possibility
pressure in each ram. Load was applied in 0.5 kip (2.22 kN) of yielding the reinforcement.
increments for the specimens with No. 5 (15.9 mm) bars,
and 1 kip (4.45 kN) increments for the specimens with No. 8 STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR
(25.4 mm) bars. At each load stage, the crack pattern was Specimens with the same beam width and shear span in
mapped, and crack widths were measured on the beam top a given series cracked at approximately the same load. The
surface. Cracks were mapped and measured up to a critical stiffness of the specimens was approximately the same up to
load, beyond which it was considered unsafe to approach the cracking load. Flexural cracks usually first occurred at the
the beam. support or simultaneously at the support and in the constant
Displacements at the ends, supports, and midspan were moment region. As loading increased, further cracks formed
monitored with displacement transducers, while loads were within the constant moment region, shear span, and splice
monitored using load cells. In Series I and II, three strain region. All specimens failed in a brittle side-splitting mode
gauges were placed on the reinforcing bars at the ends of the in the splice region. Two different types of side splitting
splice region. Two were attached to the middle reinforcing were observed during failure. In the first type, the concrete
tionally used to represent tensile strength would produce and wrapped bars for No. 5 (15.9 mm) glass bars can be seen
similar findings. in Fig. 6. For this bar size, the results of the sand-coated bars
and the wrapped and sand-coated bars were similar, with
Splice length the sand-coated bars reaching slightly higher bond stresses
The influence of splice length on bond strength was eval- than the wrapped and sand-coated bars except for the 54 in.
uated among specimens with the same bar size and surface (1372 mm) splice specimens, which failed at approximately
type for splice lengths ranging from 12 to 54 in. (305 to the same stress. In addition to these commercially available
1372 mm), and is presented in Fig. 6 for the No. 5 (15.9 mm) reinforcing bars, No. 5 (15.9 mm) fabric texture glass bars
specimens and Fig. 7 for the No. 8 (25.4 mm) specimens. were specifically produced for this test program to evaluate
Best-fit power trend lines are also provided to illustrate the the effect of the bar surface. This bar type was tested using a
trends of the data. As shown, bar stresses reached at failure 24 in. (610 mm) splice (B-HG2-5-24) and reached a normal-
increase as the splice length increases. The effectiveness ized stress of 45.9 ksi (316 MPa), which is essentially the
of increasing the splice, however, decreases as the length same as that achieved with the companion sand-coated bar
increases, as evidenced by the decreasing slope. In addi- (46.3 ksi [319 MPa] for B-PG-5-24). Therefore, GFRP bars
tion, the slope of the curve, which indicates the strength with a fabric surface texture that is considerably smoother
gain provided by increasing the splice length, is different were capable of reaching stresses as high as the sand-coated
for each reinforcement type. The strength gain for the steel GFRP bar. In considering the No. 8 (25.4 mm) bar reinforced
and carbon bars as the splice length increases is significantly specimens (Fig. 7), the same trend is apparent where the
greater than that for the glass bars. For example, doubling sand-coated bars provided similar bond stresses to the sand
the splice length of the No. 5 (15.9 mm) glass bars from and wrapped bars. Slightly higher bond stresses were devel-
18 to 36 in. (457 to 914 mm) increased the stress by only 6%, oped with the sand-coated bars for the shorter splices, with
while the same increase in splice length for the carbon bars approximately the same stress for the longer 36 in. (914 mm)
resulted in a 43% increase in bar stress. In previous studies, splice. Overall, the sand-coated GFRP bars were observed
the influence of splice length for steel (Canbay and Frosch to reach slightly higher stresses for the shorter splice lengths
2005) and short FRP splices (Mosley et al. 2008) was found among the deformation types tested in the experimental
to be proportional to the square root; therefore, increasing program. Considering the minor differences in test results
the splice length from 18 to 36 in. (457 to 914 mm) results in and the variations expected in bond tests, however, the vari-
a 41% increase in bar stress. While the square root is reason- ations in surface deformation produced little difference in
able for the carbon bars, it significantly overestimates the bond strength.
increase for the glass reinforcement, and is not appropriate.
Based on these results, the effect of splice length on the Modulus of elasticity
ultimate stress reached by the reinforcement appears to be The effect of the modulus of elasticity of the reinforce-
a function of the modulus of the elasticity of the reinforce- ment was investigated among the specimens having the
ment. The benefits of an increase in splice length decrease same surface deformation and bar size. Figure 8 shows
as the modulus of elasticity is decreased. As previously the normalized bar stress versus modulus of elasticity
discussed, the bar stress at failure increases as the modulus for No. 5 (15.9 mm) bars with a 24 in. (610 mm) splice.
of elasticity increases. Although two different surface deformations are consid-
ered, the data points follow a linear trend as the modulus of
Surface deformation elasticity increases. Clearly, the modulus of elasticity of the
Three types of surface deformations induced on GFRP reinforcement has a significant influence on the bond strength
bars were tested to evaluate the effect of surface deformation of the reinforcement, with bond strength increasing as the
on splice strength. A comparison of sand-coated versus sand modulus increases.
fc′ l C le C
f fe = 13.6 e + + 340 where ≤ 3.5 (1)
a db db db db
Material properties
by proper detailing: short stirrups in the chords, and posts Table 2 tabulates the compressive strength of concrete of
and full-depth stirrups next to openings. Furthermore, RC each specimen on the test day obtained from 150 x 300 mm
beams with different opening geometries were tested within (6 x 12 in.) cylinder tests. The mean values and standard
the scope of the program to establish the geometry which deviations of these material tests are tabulated in Table 2
affects the strength and ductility of an RC beam to a lesser together with the number of material tests. The mean values
extent. This paper reports 10 experiments carried out within and standard deviations of the yield and tensile strengths of
the program. The influence of the use of diagonal reinforce- the S420 reinforcing bars and the number of samples for
ment around the openings, the use of stirrups in the posts, each bar size are tabulated in Table 2.
and the opening geometry are the main test parameters. A
comparison of the experimental results with the estimates Test setup and procedure
from the theoretical methods yielded valuable conclusions. A 200 kN (45 kip) capacity steel frame was used for the
tests. The load, applied by a hydraulic cylinder and measured
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE by an electronic load cell, was equally distributed to four
This study investigates the effects of different shear loading points by main and secondary spreader beams
reinforcement schemes and the opening geometry on flex- (Fig. 4). In this way, the simply supported beams were
ural behavior of RC beams with multiple transverse open- loaded at two points, each located at a distance of 300 mm
ings. RC beams with different longitudinal reinforcement (11.8 in.) from midspan, and two points, each located at a
ratios were tested, and different failure modes of RC beams distance of 1200 mm (47.2 in.) from midspan. Six-point
with openings were investigated within the course of the bending was adopted instead of four-point bending to more
study. The experimental results were compared with esti- closely simulate the moment distribution in a beam subjected
mates from different theoretical formulations in the literature to uniform distributed loading, which is the most common
to provide background knowledge for establishing design loading condition in real practice. The midspan vertical
rules for RC beams with multiple openings. The findings of deflection, the support settlements, and the distortions in
the present study will also guide further studies in the field.
Fig. 2—Reinforcement details of specimens with openings. (Note: All dimensions in mm; 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)
openings were measured with the help of linear variable
displacement transducers (LVDTs). The load and deflection
measurements were recorded by a data acquisition system.
The beams were loaded up to failure, and the cracks were
marked and the crack widths measured.
For frame-type shear failure, Mansur (1998) suggested ANALYSIS OF TEST RESULTS
that the shear capacities of both chords should be checked
against the shear forces calculated from the following equa- Failure modes, ultimate loads, ductilities, and
tions, proposed by Nasser et al. (1967) rigidities of beams
Both reference beams (RBn and RBb) underwent
At ( Ab ) tension-controlled flexural failure (Fig. 6). In both beams,
Vut (Vub ) = Vu ⋅ (6) the load was preserved, while the cover concrete crushed
At + Ab
and later dropped suddenly resulting in failure when the top
bars buckled and concrete crushing initiated. In both beams,
where At and Ab are areas of the top and bottom chords, no considerable diagonal cracking took place in shear spans
respectively; Vu is the shear force in the section; and Vut and (Fig. 7(a)). Table 3 indicates that the experimental ultimate
Vub are the shear forces at the top and bottom chords, respec- load of RBn was in close agreement with the values calcu-
tively. Tan and Mansur (1996) suggested that the shear force lated from the rectangular stress block analysis of ACI 318-05
in the section should be distributed to the chords in accor- (ACI Committee 318 2005) PACI and from the Todeschini et
dance to their flexural rigidities rather than their cross-sec- al. (1964) stress-strain model Pan. The load capacity of RBb
tional areas. remained below the bending capacities calculated from both
Flexural modes of failure—The bottom and top chords in models. Furthermore, Table 4 indicates that the ultimate
RC beams with openings are subjected to axial and shear shear forces Vu in both beams at failure were smaller than
forces and bending moments. Due to axial forces and moments their respective shear strength values Vn, implying that shear
in the chords, the liability of an RC beam to develop a failure had no influence on failure.
mechanism composed of four hinges can be evaluated with Table 5 tabulates the deformation ductility index (DDI)
the help of interaction diagrams as established by Tan and and rigidity values of the specimens. DDI is the ratio of a
Mansur (1996) and Mansur and Tan (1999). Considering beam’s deflection at the instant when the applied load drops
that the hinges at the top and bottom chords are subjected to to 85% of the ultimate load to the deflection at yielding of
compression and tension, respectively, and the differences tension reinforcement. DDI is an indicator of the deform-
in the directions of moments at different hinges, an interac- ability of a beam without a significant reduction in load.
tion diagram is prepared for each hinge and checked against The rigidity values in the table correspond to the slope of
the forces and moments that develop in the hinges at service the initial linear branch of the load-deflection curve. In RC
loads. Tan and Mansur (1996) proposed that the axial forces beams, it is quite cumbersome to determine the slope of
in the chords can be obtained from the moment-curvature diagram due to variation of the flex-
ural stiffness along the span caused by the discrete flexural
Mm cracks. Therefore, slope of the load-deflection curve was
Nb = − Nt = (7)
z adapted.
Four different types of failure were observed in beams
with openings. RRxn and RRxb failed due to the forma-
where Nt and Nb are the axial forces in the top and bottom
tion of plastic failure mechanism (Fig. 8(a) and (b)). In
chords, respectively; Mm is the bending moment at the section
both RRxn and RRxb, two hinges formed at the ends of
the top and bottom chords of the opening closest to the end
Fig. 7—(a) Cracking patterns of specimens at failure; and (b) load-deflection curves of specimens.
Nevertheless, both the chords and the entire beam were however, underwent web crushing failure. The maximum
subjected to shear forces above their maximum allowable allowable shear is calculated from Eq. (5) by assuming that
shear forces calculated from Eq. (5), which caused crushing the depth of each chord is constant along its length, which
of concrete between the diagonals. Table 6 indicates that is an over-conservative assumption for circular openings. In
RRxb, RCb, RCcb, RCxb, and RCxcb were also prone to chords above and below circular openings, the chord depth
web crushing because the shear forces at failure exceeded increases from mid-length of the chord to sides. Therefore,
the maximum allowable shear forces. None of these beams, the maximum shear force tolerable by a chord in an RC
tative, as closely as possible, of the fixed-fixed sway support exhibited wide cracks localized at the bottom and at the
condition of wall components in multi-story buildings. top of the walls (refer to Fig. 5) accompanied by rupture
Compressive axial load was applied to the wall piers using of longitudinal reinforcement located adjacent to the wall
four high-strength bars that were positioned parallel to the boundaries. No significant flexural and shear deformations
wall centerline and anchored to the strong floor (refer to were observed or recorded within the body of the walls.
Fig. 2(a) and (b)). The magnitude of the sliding deformations observed at the
Typical test specimen instrumentation is shown schemat- wall-foundation block interfaces was insignificant when
ically in Fig. 3. Load cells, denoted as LC1 to LC3, were compared to the magnitude of wall rocking deformations.
employed to measure the magnitude of forces applied on the No sliding took place at the wall-top block interfaces. There
test specimens. The lateral displacement of the test speci- was visible slipping of the spliced bars along the provided
mens was measured using potentiometer TP1 and the read- splice length, especially during testing of those specimens
ings were corrected to provide the horizontal displacement that were not subjected to axial load. Fracturing of all of the
of the top of the test specimens. Portal gauges PG1-PG6, continuous longitudinal bars was observed during testing,
PG7-PG14, and PG15-PG24 were used to measure rocking, while none of the spliced bars were fractured.
flexural, and shear deformations, respectively. Relative The test specimens that were subjected to double bending
sliding displacements that could have occurred during the responded as intended, with crack development being
tests at the foundation block-specimen, specimen-top block, anti-symmetric about the midheight of the walls at drift
and strong floor foundation block interfaces were also moni- cycles of less than 1%. When the testing progressed to drift
tored using portal gauges PG25, PG26, and PG27, respec- cycles of greater than 1%, the top sections of the test spec-
tively. Ten strain gauges per test specimen were attached to imens underwent significantly larger rotations than did the
the transverse and longitudinal reinforcement. Strain gauges bottom sections, as the top of the test specimens were not
were glued at the midheight of the starter bars to four pairs fully restrained against rotation. This support condition
of spliced bars (one on the starter bar and another one on the resulted in an upward shifting of the inflection point, which
main bar) to monitor the performance of the splices located in turn led to larger bending moments being developed at
within four of the test specimens (WPS5 to WPS8). the base of the walls, causing the cracks at the bottom of the
walls to become wider and the cracks at the top of the walls
Testing procedure to close up. During testing of WPS5 and WPS6, the cracks at
The test specimens were subjected to quasi-static cyclic the top of the walls became fully closed with the longitudinal
loading, with the loading regime based on the ACI-rec- reinforcement that had previously yielded in tension hidden
ommended22 loading sequence for assessing the perfor- in the cracks. Strain gauge readings indicated that the bars
mance of new RC structural components. Potentiometer at those locations had already yielded in tension during early
TP1 (refer to Fig. 3) was employed for the loading regime cycles of loading. At drifts of greater than 1%, damage was
displacement control. localized at the base of the walls and the walls were rocking
on their foundation blocks.
OBSERVED RESPONSE Significant spalling of concrete was observed at all wall
The inelastic response of the test specimens was domi- corners of the thinner test specimens (WPS3, WPS5, WPS7,
nated by rocking (refer to Fig. 4). All of the test specimens and WPS9) (refer to Fig. 5). The thicker test specimens
The boundary and distributed longitudinal reinforcement Flexural failure is the principal failure mode for existing
provided to the walls were below the limits that are specified RC walls constructed in New Zealand before the amend-
by both ACI 318 and NZS 3101 (refer to Table 2). ACI 318 ment of NZSS 9514 in 1955, mainly because in NZSS 95
stipulates the minimum longitudinal reinforcement ratio the contribution of concrete to the shear strength of RC
for earthquake force-resisting RC walls to be 0.25% if Vu structural components is underestimated.23 Consequently, in
exceeds 0.83Acv√fc′ (MPa) (10Acv√fc′ [psi]), and the tested the absence of boundary frame elements, walls of this era
walls satisfy this condition. In addition to the minimum are generally expected to have sufficient shear strength to
ratio, ACI 318 requires at least two 16 mm (5/8 in.) diameter develop flexural overstrength. However, due to the provision
bars to be provided around all openings. The requirement of a low quantity of reinforcement and a lack of transverse
of NZS 3101 is dependent on concrete strength and rein- confinement reinforcement, this type of wall has low flexural
forcement yield strength. For the walls tested, the minimum strength and exhibits a low ductility capacity.
required reinforcement ratio was, on average, 0.3%. The test specimens dissipated a significant amount of
NZS 3101 also requires additional reinforcement with yield energy through yielding of longitudinal reinforcing bars
strength equal to or greater than 600 N/mm (3426 lb/in.) of wall during cycles to drifts of less than 1%. However, the
thickness to be provided around all openings. This require- energy dissipation capacity of the test specimens reduced
ment is approximately equivalent to two 12 mm (1/2 in.) considerably as the drift demands increased, due to a lack
and three 12 mm (1/2 in.) diameter Grade 500 bars for the of any dissipative mechanism except sliding friction at the
150 and 230 mm (6 and 9 in.) thick walls, respectively. wall-foundation block interfaces. The bar slip that occurred
Due to the additional two 12 mm (1/2 in.) diameter over the splice lengths did not significantly alter the energy
boundary reinforcing bars, the wall pier specimens that were dissipation capacity for those test specimens that incorpo-
tested in double bending (WPS3 to WPS10) achieved more rated lap splices.
strength and energy dissipation when compared to the wall After 1% drift demand, the stiffness of the test speci-
pier specimens having no boundary reinforcement (WPS1 mens had typically degraded significantly to less than 10%
and WPS2). However, even with these additional bars, the of the initial stiffnesses, with continuing degradation until
quantity of longitudinal reinforcement provided resulted in reaching approximately 1% of the initial stiffnesses at drift
a level of applied shear force that was insufficient to induce demands in excess of 2.5%. The rapid and significant loss of
a shear mode of failure. Similar findings were previously stiffness observed during testing indicates that, after large
reported in studies12,13 conducted on the behavior of existing earthquakes, this type of wall becomes too soft to develop
RC walls detailed following pre-1970s’ detailing techniques, significant ongoing resistance and therefore will undergo
but having relatively more longitudinal reinforcement than larger displacements when subjected to small lateral forces
used in the test specimens discussed herein. associated with either a long-duration event or aftershocks
having significant intensity at the site.
The nominal shear-friction strength given in Eq. (2) is subjected to tension, which is required to be at least 300 mm
limited to the smaller of 0.2Ac fc′ (N) (0.2Ac fc′ [lb]) and 5.5Ac (12 in.), is
(N) (800Ac [lb]).
For the flexural strength of existing walls, ASCE/SEI 41-06
refers to the basic principles outlined in Chapter 10 of ACI
fy ψt ⋅ ψe ⋅ ψs ⋅ l
318-11, but requires the use of expected yield strengths of the ld = 1.3 db (3)
longitudinal reinforcing bars instead of specified minimum 1.1l fc′ cb + K tr
d
yield strengths. When determining flexural yield strengths of b
walls with no boundary members, ASCE SEI 41-06 requires
considering only the longitudinal reinforcing bars within the
The length of deformed reinforcing bar splices subjected
outer 25% of the wall cross section, but when determining
to compression can be determined from Section 12.16.1 of
the nominal flexural strengths, the contributions of all longi-
ACI 318-11 as
tudinal reinforcing bars within the wall component cross
section need to be considered.
As shown in Table 3, the lateral-force-carrying capacity of 0.071 f y db , f y ≤ 420
ld = (4)
the test specimens was limited by their flexural strength and, (0.13 f y − 24)db , f y > 420
thus, categorizing the response of RC walls by ASCE/SEI
41-06 based on aspect ratio only is found to be misleading.
The results also show that the “plane sections remain plane” This development length is required to be at least 300 mm
hypothesis, which was used during the calculation of the (12 in.) and is required to be increased by one-third for a
flexural strengths, provided strengths that agree well with concrete compressive strength of less than 21 MPa (3.0 ksi).
those determined experimentally, even for squat walls with When the splice length of reinforcing bars within an
an aspect ratio of 1.35. In addition, prior to the peak strength existing wall is found to be inadequate, ASCE/SEI 41-06
of the test specimens being attained, the strain gauge read- stipulates the maximum stress that can be developed within
ings from longitudinal reinforcement of most test specimens the spliced bars to be determined as follows
generally varied linearly across the section.
fs = (lb/ld)fy ≤ fy (5)
Required length of splices
Current provisions for the required length of splices are Ratios of the maximum stresses, which can be developed
based on studies conducted to determine bond-slip relation- by spliced plain round bars according to Eq. (5) to the corre-
ships between isolated reinforcing bars and the surrounding sponding yield strengths of the spliced bars, are presented in
concrete. Transfer of force between starter and main rein- Table 4. Although the provided splice lengths were signifi-
forcing bars over the provided splice length involves a cantly less than those required by Eq. (5) to develop the yield
different force transfer mechanism than that occurring strength of the spliced bars, the walls were able to develop
between an isolated reinforcing bar and the surrounding 97 to 102% of their computed flexural strength (refer to
concrete, but it is widely accepted that the required length Table 3), which was determined assuming that the lap splices
of splices is the same as the required development lengths would develop the yield strength of the spliced bars. Peak
of single embedded reinforcing bars.24 Accordingly, ASCE/ strengths reached by the test specimens with lap-spliced
SEI 41-06 refers to the provisions for required length of reinforcing bars were underestimated by an average of 41%
tension splices of ACI 318-11, which are based on require- (refer to Table 5) by predictions made using Eq. (5). Similar
ment for tension development length. ASCE/SEI 41-06 findings were previously reported in studies24,25 under-
specifies that the required splice length of plain round rein- taken to investigate the behavior of columns with short lap
forcing bars to be taken as twice that required for deformed splices. The lateral force capacity of columns investigated
reinforcing bars. According to ACI 318-11, Eq. (12-1), the by Cho and Pincheira24 was underestimated using Eq. (5)
required length of Class B deformed reinforcing bar splices by an average of 28%. Similarly, columns tested by Melek
and Wallace25 were reported to have achieved 97 to 103%
Fig. 7—Normalized maximum bond stresses that developed between spliced bars and surrounding concrete.
of their yield strengths, which were calculated assuming The maximum stresses that were measured during testing
that the lap splices would develop the yield strengths of the were converted to maximum bond stresses as follows
spliced bars, but the provided splice lengths were approxi-
mately 67% of that required by ASCE/SEI 41-06. f s db
u= (7)
Because Eq. (5) was found to be excessively conserva- 4ld
tive, the provided splice lengths used in the study reported
herein were also compared with those implied by a proposed
supplement26 to ASCE/SEI 41-06. The proposed equation, Using Eq. (3) and (7), the ASCE/SEI 41-06 implied
which is a modified version of Eq. (5) and based on the work maximum bond stress that was expected to develop between
of Cho and Pincheira,24 is a plain round bar subjected to tension and the surrounding
concrete was determined as
0.67
l
fs = 1.25 b fy ≤ fy (6) 1 1 1.1 fc′ cb + K tr
ld u= (8)
2 4 ψ t ψ e ψ s l db
In most cases, the provided splice lengths were shorter
than required by Eq. (6) (refer to Table 4) to develop the full Maximum bond stresses developed between the spliced
strength of the spliced bars. Predictions made using Eq. (6) bars and the surrounding concrete are compared in Fig. 7,
underestimated the peak strengths by an average of 21%. with maximum bond stress values implied by ASCE/SEI
As discussed previously, both Eq. (5) and Eq. (6) predict 41-06 and the proposed supplement to ASCE/SEI 41-06.
slip to occur at force levels less than the yield strength of the The ASCE/SEI 41-06 implied average maximum bond
spliced bars. However, during testing, all of the monitored stress of 0.29√fc′ (MPa) (3.49√fc′ [psi]) is significantly less
splices developed tensile stresses that were greater than the than the measured average bond stress of 0.57√fc′ (MPa)
experimentally determined yield strength of the spliced bars. (7.95√fc′ [psi]). The average maximum bond strength
implied by the proposed supplement to ASCE/SEI 41-06,
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
Epoxy injection is widely used for remediation of cracked
RC bridges and other structures, but the efficacy of the
method on shear performance has not been established. An
experimental program was conducted using realistic full-
scale bridge girders constructed with mid-twentieth century
design methods, details, and materials. Diagonal cracks were
produced under quasi-static loading. The girders were then
epoxy-injected and tested under different loading conditions
to determine the effects of epoxy injection on structural Fig. 1—Specimen reinforcing details and typical instrumen-
performance. Research results improve the understanding tation placement.
of the behavior of epoxy-injected diagonally cracked RC
girders and help engineers make better decisions regarding
rehabilitation alternatives.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Test specimens
Five laboratory specimens were constructed and tested
to characterize the behavior and capacity of 1950s vintage
reinforced concrete deck girders with diagonal cracks after
being injected with epoxy resin. Previous work by Higgins et Fig. 2—Specimen naming convention.
al. (2004) identified standard details, materials, and propor-
tions used in 1950s vintage bridge construction. Specimens specimen naming convention used in the study is illustrated
in the current study used an inverted-T (IT) configuration in Fig. 2.
to place the deck in flexural tension. This arrangement is Longitudinal reinforcing steel consisted of ASTM A615/
representative of negative moment in high-shear locations A615M-05a Grade 420 No. 36 (Grade 60, No. 11) bars,
near continuous supports such as piers and bent caps. Each while transverse reinforcement consisted of Grade 300 No.
specimen had the following geometry: 1219 mm (48 in.) 13 (Gr. 40, No. 4). Intermediate grade steel, with a yield
overall height, a stem width of 356 mm (14 in.), and a flange stress of 300 MPa (43.5 ksi), was typically used in 1950s
of 152 mm (6 in.) thick by 914 mm (36 in.) wide. Member construction. However, this grade is not readily available
proportions and reinforcing steel are illustrated in Fig. 1. The for large-diameter reinforcing bars. Therefore, Grade 240
(Grade 60) flexural bars were used but the area was reduced
to produce the same tension resultant as the original designs cally about the midspan. Load was applied in incremental
that used Grade 300 (Grade 40) steel. This results in a steps followed by unloading, and repeating cycles until
smaller area of dowel steel in the specimens compared to the failure. Load magnitudes increased each cycle by 222 kN
original designs. Tension tests were performed according to (50 kip). At each load peak, the load was reduced by 10%
ASTM E8-04 to determine the reinforcing steel properties, to minimize creep effects while visible cracks were marked
which are summarized in Table 1. and recorded.
Concrete was provided by a local ready-mixed concrete Three tests were performed on each specimen: precrack,
supplier. The concrete mixture design was based on 1950s baseline, and failure (with the exception of the control spec-
AASHO “Class A” concrete (Higgins et al. 2003). Speci- imen, 1-C, which was loaded to failure in a single test). An
fied compressive strength was 21 MPa (3000 psi), which is initial loading sequence, or precrack test, was performed
comparable to the specified design strength in the original to produce diagonal cracks similar to those observed from
1950s bridges. Actual concrete compressive strengths were field inspections of RCDG bridges and of sufficient size for
determined from 152 x 305 mm (6 x 12 in.) cylinders tested epoxy injection. A target diagonal crack range of 0.65 to
for 28-day and day-of-test strengths in accordance with 1.25 mm (0.025 to 0.05 in.) was selected based on the earlier
ASTM C39M/C 39M-05 and ASTM C617-05. Day-of-test work of Higgins et al. (2004). When diagonal cracks reached
concrete cylinder strengths for each specimen are shown in a suitable size, the precrack loading cycle was terminated
Table 1. Split cylinder tests in accordance with ASTM C496/ and a baseline test was performed to establish a reference
C496M-04e1 were conducted the same day each specimen for the specimens in the cracked condition for comparison to
was precracked, as reported in Table 1. the post-injection response. The baseline test of the cracked
specimens used the same loading sequence as the precrack
Instrumentation test described previously. In the failure test, specimens were
Internal and external sensors were positioned on the spec- loaded to failure using the same load steps as the previous
imens to record the local and global member responses. two tests.
Strain gauges were placed at midheight on the stirrups
located within the critical shear section near midspan. Addi- Injection and curing procedures
tional strain gauges were mounted to the flexural reinforce- The epoxy resin selected is a commercial, two-part, ultra-
ment at midspan in the flexural-tension region. Diagonal low-viscosity liquid epoxy. The specified material tensile
displacement sensors were placed at three locations along strength is 55.2 MPa (8000 psi). The surface sealant used
the shear span, as shown in Fig. 1. Midspan displacement is a commerical, two-part, 100% solids epoxy. These two
and support settlements were also measured with additional materials are commonly used, are preapproved for use by
displacement sensors. The actual centerline displacement transportation agencies in several states, and are representa-
presented in subsequent figures was calculated by removing tive of similar epoxy materials. All injection materials were
the support deformations from the overall centerline defor- provided by local suppliers. Additional installation guidance
mation during each load cycle. Typical instrumentation is was provided by qualified contractors to establish a repair
illustrated in Fig. 1. protocol that satisfied the installation recommendations of
the manufacturer. The procedure that was established is
Testing methodology summarized as follows.
A simply-supported four-point loading configuration The concrete surfaces around the diagonal cracks were
was used with a span length of 6604 mm (260 in.) from the cleaned with a wire brush and vacuumed to remove loose
centerline of supports. Force was applied from a hydraulic particles and dirt. The crack perimeter was sealed with the
actuator at a quasi-static rate of 8.9 kN/s (2.0 kip/s) and surface epoxy and injection ports were surface-mounted
was measured by a 2224 kN (500 kip) capacity load-cell. A every 356 mm (14 in.), or roughly equal to the width of the
spreader beam distributed the applied actuator force to 102 girder web. The surface epoxy cured for 24 hours before the
mm (4 in.) wide plates spaced 610 mm (24 in.) symmetri- injection process was initiated. To allow for the release of
entrapped air, diagonal cracks were injected starting from to determine the live load magnitude. Force was applied at
the lowest port working up the crack. “Window” ports were 0.3 Hz with an amplitude of 160 kN (36 kip) and a mean
placed on the backside of the beam to serve as a visual aid of 463 kN (104 kip). This loading amplitude represents the
for assurance of epoxy penetration through the beam web. maximum girder shear caused by the dead load of the bridge
A specialized injection machine, commonly used by local and the truck live load with impact, as well as a minimum
contractors, was needed to mix the two-part liquid epoxy force resulting from hogging due to live load moving onto
in the proportions recommended by the manufacturer and an adjacent span. The loading rate represents the truck trav-
to deliver the mixture into the beam under low pressure. eling over the prototype bridge at approximately 33.8 kph
Each port was injected to a maximum pressure of 690 kPa (21 mph), which was controlled by the hydraulic loading
(100 psi). As liquid epoxy began to seep from the next system in the laboratory.
higher injection port, the lower port was capped and the The fifth specimen, 5-EA, had simulated locked-in drying
injection nipple was moved to the next position. Near the and thermal shrinkage strains induced by applying a uniform
top of each diagonal crack, the injection pressure climbed tension load to the specimen. The axial load was applied
more quickly to 690 kPa (100 psi), and would take longer to to a level of approximately 890 kN (200 kip) before the
dissipate, signaling that there was little available void space initial precrack transverse loading cycles began. The axial
to pump additional resin. When the maximum pressure was load was held at a constant magnitude of 645 kN (145 kip)
maintained, the final port was capped. After injection, all during the injection and curing phases, and then returned to
specimens were allowed to cure for at least 7 days. A heated 890 kN (200 kip) for the post-injection failure loading. For
plastic enclosure was placed around the specimen to ensure additional detail on the axial force application and loading
that temperatures were maintained above 4.5°C (40°F), as protocol, refer to Smith (2007).
recommended by the epoxy manufacturers. Thermocouples
outfitted with data loggers were placed into a small void cast EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
into the end of the specimens and on the exterior to record The performance of the epoxy-injected specimens was
temperatures throughout the curing cycle. evaluated through the shear-midspan deflection and shear-
diagonal displacement responses, flexural and shear rein-
Specimen variables forcement strains, and crack deformations. The data
To simulate the effects of different in-service stress condi- collected from the three phases of testing were compared to
tions, each specimen was subjected to a distinct loading assess the local and global responses before and after epoxy
scenario during the injection and curing phases. Specimen injection. Results were also compared with an otherwise
2-EC was injected and cured with no applied loads other similar un-injected specimen. All of the specimens exhibited
than specimen self-weight. Simulated superstructure dead shear-compression failures and the applied shear at failure
load was applied to Specimen 3-ED before epoxy injec- for each specimen is summarized in Table 2.
tion. A total load of 356 kN (80 kip) was applied to induce a
service level dead load shear of 178 kN (40 kip). This shear Shear-midspan displacement response
magnitude is representative of an interior girder for a typical Applied shear-midspan displacement responses are shown
1950s vintage three-span continuous RCDG bridge having in Fig. 3 and demonstrate the overall specimen behavior of
15.2 m (50 ft) spans and a uniform dead load of 23.3 kN/m/ the initial, baseline, and post-injection tests. The post-injec-
girder (1.6 kip/ft/girder). tion response of each injected specimen showed decreased
Varying live load stress was applied to Specimen 4-EL in residual deformations and greater stiffness during the first
addition to the superstructure dead load. The live loading two or three load steps as compared to the baseline response.
was representative of average shear magnitudes produced by As the applied shear magnitudes increased, the specimens
ambient traffic and a fully loaded AASHTO Type 3-3 unit began to soften due to the development of new cracks, often
truck having five axles and a gross vehicular weight of 356 adjacent to the repaired diagonal cracks. Specimens 3-ED
kN (80 kip) moving across the bridge described for Spec- and 4-EL were similar, especially in the service load range
imen 3-ED. Realistic shear distribution factors developed indicated in Fig. 3, and both had greater stiffness than Spec-
by Potisuk and Higgins (2007) from field studies were used imen 2-EC.
DISCUSSION
The results of this study indicate that epoxy injec-
tion affected the structural behavior of the RC specimens
in several ways. Overall, the most dramatic effects were
observed for Specimens 3-ED, 4-EL, and 5-EA, as described
in the following discussion.
Fig. 8—Applied shear-stirrup strain behavior for Specimen 3-ED. Strain gauges located near: (a) injected diagonal cracks;
and (b) uninjected diagonal cracks.
denoted as S1 and S2 in Table 1, were built using the same Two different debonding schemes, shown in Fig. 1, were
HPFRC material, reinforced with a 1.5% volume fraction of devised to minimize damage localization at the section where
commercially available high-strength (2410 MPa [350 ksi]) the dowel reinforcement was terminated. In Specimen S1,
hooked steel fibers with a length of 30 mm (1.2 in.), and the upper portion of the dowels was debonded using plastic
an aspect ratio of 80. A fiber-volume fraction of 1.5% tubes to avoid premature damage localization that could
(120 kg/m3 [200 lb/yd3]) was selected such that a tensile occur because of the termination of the bars within the
strain-hardening behavior could be achieved. Ready mix plastic hinge zone. In Specimen S2, the dowels were termi-
concrete was used in both columns, and the fibers were added nated within the plastic hinge region, and the main longitu-
to the concrete truck on site. HPFRC casting was performed dinal bars were debonded over a length of 4 in. (10 cm) to
using a bucket and stick vibrator. The results from the test of prevent large strain concentration and premature reinforcing
a reference base column specimen (BC), designed according bar fracture at the section where the dowels were terminated.
to the Caltrans Seismic Design Criteria (SDC)8 and built
with regular concrete, were used for comparison purposes.6 Loading pattern
All three specimens were tested following the same prede- The HPFRC specimens were tested using a bidirectional
termined bidirectional cyclic displacement pattern. circular load pattern (Fig. 2). This pattern was similar to that
The transverse reinforcement of both HPFRC speci- used for the BC specimen.6 A cycle in this pattern comprised
mens was approximately half of that required by Caltrans circles, one clock-wise and the other counterclockwise,
Seismic Design Criteria (SDC),8 counting on the HPFRC while return paths were sequenced to minimize the bias in
material to contribute significantly to shear resistance and any particular loading direction; however, this resulted in
confinement. The longitudinal reinforcement of the columns a very demanding displacement pattern characterized by
in Specimens S1 and S2, shown in Fig. 1, was detailed to long specimen travel along circles with constant ductility
prevent concentration of inelastic deformation at the cold demand. The quasi-static cyclic tests were conducted by
joint between the HPFRC column and the base block, which incrementally increasing the radius of the circular pattern.
was constructed with regular concrete. Such cold joint is The target displacement ductility demand for each cycle in
typical for conventional reinforced concrete bridge columns the displacement history is presented in Table 2. The target
in California. Concentration of deformations at this joint is ductility demand, termed nominal ductility demand μ, was
not desirable because it can lead to a premature sliding shear computed with respect to the yield displacement of the BC
failure at the base of the column, fracture of column longi- column, estimated at 14.0 mm (0.55 in.) (0.86% drift), to
tudinal reinforcement, or both. The cold joint at the base of enable a direct comparison between the BC and HPFRC
HPFRC columns is more vulnerable to damage localiza- specimens. Each post-yield primary cycle (that is, cycle to a
tion than a similar joint in reinforced concrete construction new maximum drift level) was followed by a small displace-
because of the higher flexural strength of the immediately ment cycle with amplitude equal to 1/3 of that of the primary
adjacent HPFRC column sections and the excellent bond cycle to evaluate the column stiffness degradation throughout
between HPFRC and reinforcing bars.9 Thus, the HPFRC the loading history. Similar displacement rates among the
column-foundation interface of the test specimens was different test cycles were applied, not exceeding 25 mm/min
strengthened with dowel reinforcement to force most of the (1.0 in./min). A gravity load equivalent to 0.1fc′Ag of the
inelastic deformations to occur within the HPFRC column. BC column, where Ag is the column gross cross-sectional
area, was applied at the column top through a spreader beam
Fig. 1—Reinforcement detailing of HPFRC specimens. (Note: Dimensions in mm; 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)
and post-tensioned rods tensioned through hydraulic jacks.
This load is typically used to represent the average dead and
service live loads carried by typical column bents of over-
pass bridges in California.
tions, average curvatures, and shear deformations, as well acceptable workability. The column concrete had a slump
as average column axial deformations. Load cells were used of 140 mm (5.5 in.) following the addition of the high-range
to monitor the forces in the two horizontal actuators and the water reducing admixture and before the addition of fibers.
two post-tensioned rods used for simulation of gravity load. Fiber-reinforced concrete 150 x 300 mm (6 x 12 in.) cylin-
ders were cast during the construction of the specimens to
Reinforcing steel assess the development of concrete compressive strength
The mechanical properties of the longitudinal and spiral through ASTM C39/C39M14 tests. In addition, 150 x 150
reinforcement used for the HPFRC columns, obtained x 600 mm (6 x 6 x 24 in.) beams were tested under third-
through ASTM A37010 standard tension tests, are summa- point loading (457 mm [18 in.] span length) following
rized in Table 3. The fracture strain was not determined in ASTM C1609/C1609M15 to assess the flexural performance
these coupon tests because the bars were unloaded before (and indirectly tensile performance) of the HPFRC material
fracture due to laboratory safety regulations. Instead, frac- used. Failure occurred inside the middle third of the spans
ture strain values specified in Caltrans SDC8 were used in for all beam specimens tested. The elastic modulus for the
analytical models of the HPFRC cantilever columns. HPFRC material, Ec,FRC, corresponding to the secant modulus
up to 0.45fc,FRC′, determined from fiber-reinforced concrete
Fiber-reinforced concrete cylinder tests, was also verified through ASTM C1609/
The concrete mixture used for the construction of the C1609M15 beam tests. Average compressive strength test
fiber-reinforced concrete columns and plain concrete foun- results for plain and fiber-reinforced concrete at various days
dation had a specified 28-day strength of 34.5 MPa (5.0 ksi). after casting, obtained directly from ASTM C39/C39M14
This mixture proportion, with a proportion by weight of cylinder tests or from linear interpolation of results at other
0.45:1:2.3:1.86 (water:cement:fine aggregate:coarse aggre- days, are listed in Table 5. Measured cylinder compressive
gate), was adjusted from that used in previous tests6 to incor- strengths at test day are listed in Table 1. Despite having
porate the steel fibers with acceptable workability. Hooked the same specified strength, measured cylinder compres-
steel fibers were added to the concrete mixture at a 1.5% sive strength at test day for the HPFRCs was approximately
volume fraction (120 kg/m3 [200 lb/yd3]) by direct pouring 20% higher than that of the regular concrete used in the
into the truck mixer and mixing for 4 minutes. Mixture BC specimen (Table 1). The elastic modulus, and peak and
quantities for 0.765 m3 (1 yd3) of concrete are listed in residual flexural strength at various deflection levels for the
Table 4. A similar mixture was successfully used in HPFRC fiber-reinforced concrete material determined according to
slab-column connection tests.13 A high-range water reducing ASTM C39/C39M14 and ASTM C1609/C1609M,15 respec-
admixture was added during the mixing process to maintain tively, are also listed in Table 5.
Test terminated.
Test terminated.
Fig. 6—Curvature profiles from experiments for: (a) S1; (b) S2; and (c) BC.
height. Profiles of these curvatures for all three specimens HPFRC plastic hinges. It should be noted, however, that
are shown in Fig. 6. increased curvature demands were imposed on the HPRFC
The significant difference in the length of the plastic specimens for a given displacement level, compared with
deformation zones among these three specimens, discussed those imposed on the BC specimen, due to the upward shift
previously and evident in Fig. 6, shows that it is possible of the plastic deformation region.
to design and detail the longitudinal reinforcement of an
HPFRC column to achieve a highly desirable spreading of Bond stress
plastic deformation. In particular, the addition of dowel rein- In both HPFRC specimens, the bonded region of dowel
forcement elevated the center of the plastic hinge zone from reinforcement started at 250 mm (10 in.) above the founda-
the column base, thus providing more space for its spreading. tion. Strain gauge measurements along the dowel reinforce-
Debonding of the dowel reinforcement (thus avoiding termi- ment recorded peak strain values exceeding the steel yield
nation of dowels within the plastic hinge) in the column of strain at a height of 100 mm (4 in.) above the foundation or
Specimen S1 allowed for very effective spreading of bar 150 mm (6 in.) from the bar termination point, resulting in
yielding along the column height and formation of several a length Ld as small as 150 mm (6 in.) or 12 bar diameters
flexural cracks in the plastic hinge region. The less successful required to develop the yield strength of the No. 4 dowel
detail used in Specimen S2, on the other hand, shows that bars. The peak average bond stress up to first yielding of
there are significant unexplored opportunities to develop the reinforcement in the HPFRC specimens was determined
improved designs to ensure adequate spread of yielding in based on force equilibrium between the resultant force from
According to equation Q (T , t ) = Q∞ e
− ate−0 ,5
Heat of hydration*
Q∞ = kJ/kg (218.90 Btu/lb); a = 513.62te–0.17
Moisture fields
Coefficient of water-cement
K, m3/J (ft3/Btu) 0.3 × 10–9 (1.12 × 10–5)
proportionality
Coefficient of moisture diffusion αWW, m2/s (ft2/s) 0.6 × 10–9 (6.46 × 10–9)
Thermal coefficient of moisture diffusion αWT, m2/sK (ft2/s°F) 2 × 10–11 (1.20 × 10–10)
2.78 × 10–8 (91.21 × 10–9) surface without protection
0.18 × 10–8 (5.90 × 10–9) surface with plywood
Moisture transfer coefficient βp, m/s (ft/s)
0.10 × 10–8 (3.28 × 10–9) surface with foil
0.12 × 10–8 (3.93 × 10–9) bottom surface: soil
*
Approximation made on basis of experimental results of heat of hydration.
at the free edges of the wall and within the contact surface
between the wall and the foundation. A final geometry of the
wall with a mesh of finite elements for one exemplary wall
is presented in Fig. 4.
It was assumed that the analyzed wall was made of the
following concrete mixture: cement CEM I 42.5R 375 kg/m3
(23.41 lb/ft3), water 170 L/m3 (10.61 lb/ft3), and aggregate
(granite) 1868 kg/m3 (116.60 lb/ft3). Thermal and moisture
coefficients necessary for calculations were set in Table 1.
Fig. 4—Dimensions of analyzed walls with finite element
The development of mechanical properties in time was
mesh.
assumed according to CEB-FIP MC90.18 The final values
ANALYSIS OF STRESSES: RESULTS AND for 28-day concrete were assumed as follows: compres-
DISCUSSION sive strength fcm = 35 MPa (5.08 ksi), tensile strength fctm =
3.0 MPa (0.44 ksi), and modulus of elasticity Ecm = 32.0 GPa
Assumption of geometrical, material, and (4.64 Mpsi). It was also assumed that the foundation was
technological data erected earlier and had hardened, so the material properties
The wall of 4 m (13.12 ft) height was analyzed for the were taken as for 28-day concrete, with the same final values
length of 10, 15, or 20 m (32.81, 49.21, or 65.62 ft) and as the wall. Environmental and technological conditions
two thicknesses: 40 and 70 cm (15.75 and 27.56 in.). The were taken as: ambient temperature 20°C (68°F), initial
length-height ratios of these walls were, respectively, 2.5, temperature of fresh concrete mixture 20°C (68°F), wooden
3.75, and 5. Six examples of combinations of these cases formwork of 1.8 cm (0.71 in) plywood on the side surfaces,
were considered. The analyzed walls were supported on a and foil protection of the top surface. It was also assumed
4 m (13.12 ft) wide and 70 cm (27.56 in.) deep strip foun- that formwork was removed 28 days after concrete casting.
dation of the same length. The wall and the foundation were
assumed to be reinforced with a near-surface reinforcing Thermal and shrinkage stresses
net of ø16 bars (0.63 in.). The wall was reinforced at both First, the temperature and moisture development in
surfaces with horizontal spacing of 20 cm (7.87 in.) and time was determined. Figure 5 presents a juxtaposition of
vertical spacing of 15 cm (5.91 in.). The foundation was temperature and moisture content development diagrams for
reinforced with 20 x 20 cm (7.87 x 7.87 in.) spacing at the two areas in the walls (Fig. 4) with different dimensions.
top and bottom surface. Due to a double symmetry of the Although the character of both temperature and moisture
wall, the model for finite element analysis was created for content are independent of the dimensions of the wall, their
1/4 of the walls. A uniform mesh was prepared and densified magnitudes depend directly on these dimensions. Only the
proportion on bond strength was not within the scope of the would be governed by bond between the longitudinal rein-
current investigation. Rather, the change in mixture propor- forcement and the surrounding concrete.
tions resulted from a change in ready-mix suppliers. Bleed
water measurements were not conducted as part of this EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
investigation. Table 1 shows the observed maximum loads attained
Table 1 shows the concrete compressive strength of the by the specimens and those predicted assuming yielding
specimens at the time of testing as established from the of the reinforcement, both neglecting and including strain
results of companion concrete cylinders stored under the hardening, and predicted loads based on average bond
same conditions and tested on the same day as the corre- stress provisions for plain reinforcement included in the
sponding splice specimen. Specimens were moist cured CEB-FIP Model Code 199014 and the CEB-FIP draft Model
using wet burlap and plastic sheets for 7 days following Code 2010.15 The predicted loads have been reduced by the
casting, and were then stored in the laboratory until testing. weight of the spreader beam and the specimen self-weight to
allow for a direct comparison with the maximum loads that
Reinforcement were recorded during testing. All reported loads have been
All principal longitudinal reinforcement was hot-rolled normalized by the square root of the concrete compressive
CSA G40.21 300W steel. Figure 1(c) shows that the bars strength given that a previous work8 showed that it is valid
had 180-degree hooks at the ends adjacent to the beam for plain reinforcement and is consistent with familiar equa-
supports to ensure that the bond failure occurred within the tions for deformed bars.
lap splice length. The material properties were established The specimens are identified by mark numbers that include
from coupons obtained from surplus bar lengths and tested two numbers and associated symbols separated by a hyphen.
in accordance with ASTM A370.11 Table 2 shows the static The first number represents the nominal diameter for round
yield strength fys calculated in accordance with Rao et al.,12 bars or the nominal side face dimensions for square bars db,
dynamic yield strengths fyd, ultimate strength fu, and modulus in millimeters, used to longitudinally reinforce the speci-
of elasticity Es for all longitudinal bar sizes used. mens. A solid circle (l) or square (n) following this number
The longitudinal reinforcing bars were sandblasted using identifies the shape of the longitudinal reinforcement. The
220-grit aluminum oxide, a nozzle distance of 125 mm number following the hyphen denotes the lap splice length
(5 in.), and a blast pressure of 698 kPa (100 psi) to increase Ls in millimeters, with an up arrow (↑) showing that the
the surface roughness and make them more representative of longitudinal bars were cast in the top position (Fig. 1(b)),
historical bars.8 The surface roughness of each bar was char- or a down arrow (↓) showing that the bars were cast in the
acterized by the maximum height of profile Ry, established bottom position (Fig. 1(a)).
as the distance between the highest peak and the deepest Table 1 shows that the maximum normalized load reported
valley on the bar surface.13 Table 1 shows the average Ry for Specimen 25l-510↑ was only 72% that of Spec-
values for the longitudinal reinforcing bars in each specimen imen 25l-410↑, a specimen cast from the same batch of
based on a total of 30 roughness measurements on each concrete. This result was considered suspect because speci-
bar using a surface roughness tester and a single 0.25 mm mens with longer splice lengths should be able to resist higher
(0.01 in.) stroke. loads when all other variables are held constant. Removal
The shear reinforcement consisted of 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) of the concrete surrounding the longitudinal reinforcement
diameter hot-rolled CSA G40.21 300W plain steel bars was completed for Specimen 25l-510↑ following testing;
spaced at 200 mm (8 in.) on center within the shear spans, however, no voids were identified that would have impaired
and 250 mm (10 in.) on center within the constant moment the bond between the reinforcement and the surrounding
region outside of the lap splices (Fig. 1(d)). Two additional concrete. This specimen therefore could not be identified as
stirrups were placed in the splice region one-quarter of the a physical outlier, and is included in the regression analysis
splice length, but not exceeding 150 mm (6 in.), from the as will be presented in a subsequent section.
ends of the splice to prevent prying action of the longitudinal Table 1 shows that all but Specimen 19l-610↓ failed at
reinforcement. The specimens had considerably more shear loads well below those predicted using the flexural resis-
reinforcement than strictly necessary to ensure that failure tance procedures in ACI 318-1116 with resistance factors set
length for deformed bars cast in the top position (that is, where Ls is the lap splice length, in mm; db is the longitu-
when more than 300 mm [12 in.] of fresh concrete is placed dinal bar size, in mm, reported as the measured bar diam-
below the reinforcement), whereas the CEB-FIP Model eter for round bars or the measured side face dimension
Code 199014 provides a multiplier of 0.7 to the average bond for square bars; Ry is the surface roughness of the longitu-
stress in such cases. The modifiers in all three of these codes dinal reinforcement, in μm; kb is an indicator variable for
appear to be unconservative for plain bars in light of the the shape of the longitudinal bars, and is equal to zero for
results discussed in the previous paragraph. Furthermore, a round bars and 1 for square bars; and kc is an indicator vari-
previous investigation conducted by Chana21 also concludes able for the casting position of the longitudinal reinforce-
that the bond of plain bars is more affected by casting posi- ment, and is equal to 0 if the bars are cast in the bottom
tion than that of deformed bars. This conclusion appears position (Fig. 1(a)), and 1 if the bars were cast in the top
justified upon consideration of the mechanics of bond. The position (Fig. 1(b)). The root mean square error for Eq. (4) is
adhesion between the concrete and the reinforcement is a 2.91 kN/√MPa (54.3 lb/√psi).
more dominant factor in the transfer of bond forces for plain Using an equivalent round diameter db,EQ, as described
reinforcement, because they cannot transfer these forces by by Eq. (3), results in the following predictive equation that
mechanical interlock.22 allows for the elimination of the indicator variable kb
In contrast, the CEB-FIB draft Model Code 201015
provides a multiplier of 0.5 specifically for plain bars cast Pmax
in the top position, and appears to be more reasonable when = 3.36 × 10 −4 Ls Ry db, EQ 0.5 (2.12 − kc ) (5)
fc′
compared with the results in the current investigation. The
test results presented herein, however, also show that square
bars are less sensitive to casting position than round bars where db,EQ is the diameter for round bars and the equiva-
due to differences in the shape of voids that form beneath lent round diameter of square bars. The resulting root-mean-
these two bar shapes. For round bars, the concrete tends to square error of 3.01 kN/√MPa (56.2 lb/√psi) for Eq. (5)
settle such that a void forms under the bottom half of the is similar to that reported for Eq. (4), and suggests that
perimeter23; whereas for square bars, assuming construction using the equivalent round diameter for plain square bars
allows them to be placed perfectly square within the rein- is reasonable.
forcing cage as shown in Fig. 1(a) and (b), the void will form Results of a previous investigation8 have shown that the
average surface roughness, Ry = 9.26 μm, for the 25 speci-
mens included in the regression analysis is a lower bound for
Pmax
= 6.63 × 10 −3 Ls ψ t db, EQ 0.5 (6)
fc′
Notes: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.; 1 MPa = 0.145 ksi; 1 GPa = 145 ksi; °C = 5/9(°F – 32).
and dimensions of the slab prototypes were consistent with Table 2—Loading schemes of test prototypes
jointed slab prototypes tested elsewhere (Eddie et al. 2001). Phase Number and prototypes Loading scheme
The prototypes were fabricated with a MTQ Type III-A
One 34.9 mm (1.38 in.)
concrete with a target 28-day compressive strength of
GFRP
35 MPa (5.1 ksi), as specified in Standard 3101 for MTQ Monotonic to 200 kN (45 kip),
normal-density mass concrete (MTQ 2009a). The concrete I One 34.9 mm (1.50 in.)
unloading, monotonic reloading
Static GFRP
mixture contained 380 kg/m3 (23.7 lb/ft3) of GUb-SF to failure.
cement, and had a water-cement ratio (w/c) of 0.42, with One 28.6 mm (1.13 in.)
high-range water-reducing admixture to maintain a mixture epoxy-coated steel
slump of 120 ± 30 mm (4.7 ± 1.18 in.) (MTQ 2009a). The One 34.9 mm (1.38 in.)
pavement prototypes were cast at the structural laboratory GFRP
One million cycles between 10
using three concrete batches. The average concrete strength II One 34.9 mm (1.50 in.) and 50 kN (2.24 to 11.24 kip) at
of the concrete batches was 48.0 ± 3.5 MPa (7.0 ± 0.5 ksi) Cyclic GFRP 15 Hz. Thereafter, static testing
based on testing of three concrete cylinders (150 x 300 mm One 28.6 mm (1.13 in.)
until failure.
[5.9 x 11.8 in.]) from each batch. epoxy-coated steel
Subgrade base layer Table 2 summarizes the loading schemes, while Fig. 2
The granular base consisted of three 100 mm (4 in.) thick shows the test setup.
layers of limestone aggregate compacted using a 90 kg For static testing (Phase I), the monotonic load was applied
(198 lb) vibrating plate. The granular mixture was prepared with a stroke-controlled rate of 0.01 mm/sec (0.02 in./min)
according to AASHTO specifications (Class A). The gran- to allow for progressive contact and loading. The load was
ular subgrade mixture consisted of 50% sand (0 to 5 mm applied using a 1000 kN (225 kip) hydraulic actuator on one
[0 to 0.2 in.]), 20% 10 mm (0.4 in.) crushed rock (5 to 14 mm side of the joint over a loading plate of 306 mm (12 in.) in
[0.2 to 0.6 in.]), and 30% 20 mm (0.8 in.) crushed rock (14 to diameter. The prototypes were loaded up to 200 kN (45 kip),
28 mm [0.6 to 1.1 in.]). Aggregates were dampened before then the load was released. Thereafter, the prototypes were
placing to maximize the compaction efficiency. Once the loaded again at the same rate until failure. E and LTE were
base was completed, a thin layer of sand was applied to the calculated at an applied load of 40 kN (9 kip) (service load,
final surface to provide contact between the concrete surface which is equal to one half the equivalent axle load) from
and subgrade. The base was extended by 300 mm (12 in.) on the deflection measurements of two linear variable differ-
all sides to allow for load distribution and prevent failure of ential transducers (LVDTs) on both joint sides (loaded
the base-layer container. The overall dimensions of the base and unloaded).
layer were 1.52 m wide x 3.35 m long x 0.30 m deep (5 x 11 x For the fatigue testing (Phase II), the prototypes were
1 ft). Upon completing the base, the base modulus (stiffness) tested up to 1 million cycles. The load followed a sinusoidal
was measured using a Briaude Compacting Device (BCD), waveform that varied from 10 to 50 kN (2.25 to 11.24 kip).
and was 110 MPa/m (4.9 ksi/ft). The minimum load (10 kN [2.25 kip]) was required to main-
tain contact between the slab and loading plate and to mini-
Testing loads and procedures mize the impact on the subgrade. The maximum load (50 kN
The JPCP prototypes were tested under two different [11.24 kip]) was set to achieve the service load and keep
loading conditions: static (Phase I) and cyclic (Phase II). 40 kN (9 kip) as the cyclic test amplitude, which is equal to
During Phase I, the prototypes were monotonically loaded one-half the equivalent axle load (service load). It should
to 200 kN (45 kip) to induce cracks at the joints. Thereafter, be mentioned that this loading scheme closely represents
the load was released, and the prototypes were loaded again field conditions under which load is applied and removed as
up to failure. During Phase II, the prototypes were subjected a vehicle approaches the joint or moves away from it. The
to 1 million cycles ranging from 10 to 50 kN (2.25 and load was applied with the same hydraulic actuator (1000 kN
11.24 kip), followed by monotonic loading up to failure. [225 kip]) with a load-controlled scheme. The loading
I First loading 86 75 89 81 95
Static Reloading 65 45 64 47 74
II First loading 95 90 95 90 96
Cyclic After cycling 92 85 93 87 95
and unloading was applied at a frequency of 15 Hz. This Phase I: 28.6 mm (1.13 in.) steel dowels, 34.9 mm (1.38 in.)
frequency is equivalent to the time that a vehicle needs to GFRP dowels, and 38.1 mm (1.50 in.) GFRP dowels.
cross the joint, assuming a speed of 65 to 80 kph (37.3 to In the case of the 28.6 mm (1.13 in.) diameter steel dowels,
49.7 mph) (MTQ 2009b). Because the test prototypes did the first crack appeared in the loaded slab at 140.7 kN
not fail after 1 million cycles, the prototypes were retested (31.6 kip) on one side, and at 197.0 kN (44.3 kip) on the
under monotonic static load until failure. Before cycling, as other. The crack appeared at the level of dowel bars, and
well as after predetermined sets of cycles (1; 1000; 10,000; continued to the surface. The second crack appeared under a
100,000; 500,000; and 1,000,000), the load cycling was load of approximately 380 kN (85.4 kip). The slab prototype
interrupted, and a monotonic loading test up to 40 kN (9 kip) failed at 506.6 kN (113.9 kip) by shear failure of the loaded
(service load) was conducted to assess joint performance. slab beyond the dowel bars. The GFRP-doweled prototypes
showed crack patterns and failure modes similar to the
TEST RESULTS steel-doweled prototype. The cracking loads were 100 and
124.8 kN (22.4 and 28.1 kip) for both 34.9 and 38.1 mm
Static testing (Phase I) (1.38 and 1.50 in.) diameter GFRP dowels, respectively.
Cracking and failure—When the JPCP prototypes were These loads represent 71 and 89% of the cracking load of
submitted to 200 kN (45 kip), cracks appeared in the loaded the steel-doweled prototype. On the other hand, the failure
slabs. The unloaded slabs, however, did not evidence any loads for the 34.9 and 38.1 mm (1.38 and 1.50 in.) diameter
cracks during the test. Table 3 gives the cracking and failure GFRP dowels were 460 and 478 kN (103.4 and 107.4 kip),
loads of the test prototypes. Figure 3 shows the cracking respectively, which represent 91 and 94% of the failure load
patterns and failure modes of the three prototypes tested in of the steel-doweled prototype.
Fig. 4—Results of Phase I prototypes (static testing up to 200 kN): (a) joint effectiveness; (b) load-transfer efficiency; and
(c) relative deflection. (Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.; 1 kN = 0.225 kip.)
Joint effectiveness E and load-transfer efficiency LTE— ence between the two prototypes with 35.9 mm (1.38 in.)
E and LTE were calculated using the deflection measure- GFRP dowels and 28.6 mm (1.13 in.) steel dowels after
ments recorded by the two LVDTs placed on the unloaded 50 kN (11.24 kip). The differences between the two proto-
and loaded sides of the joint. Table 3 gives the calculated E types under 50 kN (11.24 kip) may be related to the better
and LTE at service load (40 kN [9 kip]) for the tested JPCP compaction of the subgrade base after testing the first proto-
prototypes with steel and GFRP dowels. All tested proto- type, which had 28.6 mm (1.13 in.) steel dowels. Further-
types showed E and LTE higher than 75 and 60%, respec- more, increasing the GFRP dowels to 38.1 mm (1.50 in.)
tively, which meets ACPA (1991) requirements. increased E and LTE. Figure 4(a) also shows that cracking
Both GFRP dowel diameters (34.9 and 38.1 mm [1.38 and during the first loading did not affect E, because the load was
1.50 in.]) displayed E and LTE higher than the 28.6 mm not released until it reached 200 kN (45 kip).
diameter (1.13 in.) steel dowels. The 34.9 mm (1.38 in.) Relative deflection—Figure 4(c) provides the relative
diameter GFRP dowels showed E of 89% and LTE of 81%, deflection of loaded and unloaded slabs of three prototypes
while the 38.1 mm (1.50 in.) diameter GFRP dowels showed with 28.6 mm (1.13 in.) epoxy-coated steel dowels, 34.9 mm
E of 95% and LTE of 92%. The values in Table 3 reveal that (1.38 in.) GFRP dowels, and 38.1 mm (1.50 in.) GFRP
using 34.9 mm (1.38 in.) diameter GFRP dowels instead of dowels. The relative deflection of the 28.6 mm (1.13 in.) steel
28.6 mm diameter (1.13 in.) steel dowels increased E and dowels was between those of the 34.9 and 38.1 mm (1.38 and
LTE by 9 and 8%, respectively. On the other hand, replacing 1.50 in.) GFRP dowels. Figure 4(c) shows immediate deflec-
28.6 mm diameter (1.13 in.) steel dowels with 38.1 mm tion at the beginning of the test ranging from 0.2 to 0.45 mm
diameter (1.50 in.) GFRP dowels increased E and LTE by (0.01 to 0.02 in.). This immediate deflection occurred because
10 and 23%, respectively. In addition, E and LTE values the specimens were not cast directly on the subgrade base
revealed that the behavior of the jointed pavement with and, when the load was applied to the pavement prototypes,
34.9 mm (1.38 in.) diameter GFRP dowels was almost the the immediate deflection occurred until complete contact
same as that with 28.6 mm (1.13 in.) diameter steel dowels. between the concrete surface and the subgrade base layer was
Furthermore, Table 3 shows that reloading the specimens achieved. The steel-doweled pavement prototype showed the
after cracking during the initial loading phase (200 kN highest immediate deflection (≈0.45 mm [0.02 in.]) because
[45 kip]) yielded very low E and LTE because of the cracks. it was the first tested, and may have been affected by the
The 38.1 mm (1.50 in.) diameter GFRP dowels evidenced compressibility of the subgrade layer. The immediate deflec-
joint effectiveness E of 74%, which is very close to 75%, as tion was less in the case of the GFRP-doweled pavement
provided for by ACPA (1991). Therefore, JPCP stability and prototypes (≈0.20 mm [0.01 in.]). This immediate deflection
performance is dependent on the slabs remaining uncracked increase might not occur in field applications in which the
to achieve efficient joints. pavement is cast directly on the subgrade.
E and LTE were plotted against applied load in Fig. 4(a) At service load (40 kN [9 kip]), the 28.6 mm (1.13 in.)
and (b). It should be mentioned that LTE corresponding to steel dowels showed a relative deflection of 0.58 mm
E = 75% was 60%. Figure 4(a) and (b) demonstrate that, (0.02 in.). The 34.9 and 38.1 mm (1.38 and 1.50 in.) GFRP
after an initial loading interval till about 50 kN (11.24 kip), E dowels evidenced relative deflections of 0.82 and 0.36 mm
and LTE stabilized. Besides, there was no significant differ- (0.03 and 0.01 in.), respectively. The relative deflections
( )
lr = 4 Ec h3 12 1 − µ 2 k (3)
*
Dowel shear modulus G, MPa 78,000 3300 3300 3300
Dowel length L, mm 457 457 457 457
Dowel spacing s, mm 305 305 305 305
Concrete strength fc′, MPa 48 48 48 48
Concrete’s modulus of elasticity Ec,
32,909 32,909 32,909 32,909
MPa
Concrete’s Poisson’s ratio μ 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Pavement thickness h, mm 254 254 254 254
Modulus of subgrade reaction k, MPa/m 110 110 110 110
3
Modulus of dowel support K, N/mm 407.17 407.17 407.17 407.17
Joint width z, mm 19 19 19 19
Ec h 3
lr = , mm
( ) 808 808 808 808
4
12 1 − µ 2 k
Kb
b= 4 , mm–1 0.026 0.033 0.031 0.029
4E I
Design
Pt
yo = (2 + b z ) , mm 0.053 0.065 0.055 0.046
4 b3 E I
l Pt z
δ= , mm 0.004 0.078 0.064 0.054
AG
fb =
(4 − b) fc′ , MPa 63.54 63.49 63.44 63.39
3
Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.; 1 kN = 0.225 kip; 1 MPa = 0.145 ksi; 1 mm2 = 0.00155 in.2; 1 N/mm3 = 0.2714 kip/in.3; 1 MPa/m = 0.0442 ksi/ft; 1 mm–1 = 25.4 in.–1
an average LTE of 87.9 ± 1.8% and 88.6 ± 2.6% for the the 75% specified by ACPA (1991). This indicates that the
steel- and GFRP-doweled slabs, respectively. The LTE of GFRP dowels tested performed efficiently in transferring
both the steel- and GFRP-doweled slabs were higher than loads in JPCP.
Fig. 9—In-place falling-weight deflectometer (FWD) test (Hwy 15, Mirabel, QC, Canada): (a) schematic; and (b) in-place test.
NUMERICAL MODEL
In the following, the description of the setup of the grid
model for the particular study case previously explained and
the comparison between test results and numerical outputs
will be presented. The grid model2 was developed using a
commercial finite element software7 to perform nonlinear
static analyses under displacement control. The slab is repre-
sented by a grid of linear beam finite elements, fixed at joints,
arranged in two orthogonal directions; the columns are
modeled with two beam elements, one above and one below
the slab level, fixed to the plate. The beam finite elements
have been defined as beam-column elements, thus including
the effects of flexural, torsional, and shear deformations.
Each joint has six degrees of freedom. The in-plane shear
due to the lateral loads is modeled by the flexural stiffness of
the elements around the axis perpendicular to the slab plane,
together with the in-plane shear and axial stiffness.
Grid geometry—To design the grid geometry, guidelines
given by CIRIA Report 1108 have been considered as a
reference point, resulting in the choices for the grid detailed
in the following. The grid spacing must be sufficiently close
near to the columns to obtain a good approximation of the
load effects in the slab, since concentration of internal forces
and moments exists in these zones; the elements can be more
widely spaced elsewhere. For the size of the grid spacing,
generally a width equal to c + d is adequate,2 where c is the
column dimension, and d is the effective height of the slab.
It should be noted that c + d is the width of the shear crit-
ical section of connection, as considered in the grid model2
according to the definition of ACI 3189; further details are Fig. 3—Grid model geometry: (a) overall view of grid and
given in the following section. columns; and (b) detail of model at connection of slab
Observing the layout of the test slab (Fig. 1), it is evident and column.
that the structure is asymmetrical in regards to the column
Columns sections are taken with the same dimensions of
sections; four different column sections were used by
those effectively used in the test slab.
authors of the experimental test.3 For beam elements placed
Loads—The structure is subjected to gravity and lateral
on the axes connecting the connections, a width equal
loads. From the total uniformly distributed gravity load per
to the major c + d along the axes themselves was chosen
unit of surface (comprising self-weight), the total load per
(Appendix B). The nearby elements have the same width,
unit length acting in the two principal directions is calculated
with some adjustments to have the sum of the widths of all
for each element of the grid. With regard to the imposed
cross sections equal to the slab dimensions in the plan. The
displacements, these have been applied in the same positions
depth of the beam elements modeling the slab is equal to the
of the experimental test compatibly to the refinement of the
slab thickness.
grid. A displacement control analysis is carried out.
The portions of grid corresponding to the column cross-
Nonlinear hinges—Each grid element is composed of
section dimensions are modeled by four beam elements
an elastic part and nonlinear hinges. The cracked stiffness,
positioned along the four column semi-axes. A high stiff-
depending on the quantity of reinforcement, is used for the
ness is specified to these elements, to model the support given
elastic part of all elements to consider the effect of shrinkage
to the slab by the column. In the analyses, the elements had
and construction stresses,3 causing cracking in the slab
the column width and a depth equal to three times the slab
previous to the action of lateral loads. The hinges are points
thickness.
in which the nonlinear properties of the elements them-
As already specified, columns are modeled with two beam
selves are lumped, and are characterized by relations that
elements: one below the slab grid with a length of 1.260 m
link bending moment, shear, and torsion with the inelastic
(4.13 ft), and one above with a length of 0.345 m (1.13 ft).
curvature, shear distortion, and twist angle, respectively.
The columns stubs below the slab are pinned at their bases.
Fig. 10—Comparison between numerical and experimental moment-rotation envelope of Connection D3 for: (a) N-S; and
(b) E-W direction. Positive drifts S and W. Experimental envelope up to connection strength. Experimental E-W 4% drift cycles,
including cycles beyond failure.
Summing up, the model provides a good approximation accumulation of damage with biaxial loading, and the model
of the experimental behavior for the N-S direction, where provides non-conservative results. The same results were
the biaxial loading effects were lower. In the E-W direction, reached for strength of the connections using ACI 318-83,
the strength and ultimate drift capacity were affected by the
CONCLUSIONS
A grid model has been set up to reproduce the nonlinear
response of a flat slab structure subjected to gravity and lateral
cyclic loading. Experimental tests carried out on a scaled
model were analyzed. The slab was tested under gravity and
lateral biaxial cyclic loading. Both principal directions were
loaded alternatively, with a sequence of cycles of increasing
amplitude. Nonlinear static analyses under gravity loads
have been performed, followed by pushover analyses under
horizontal loads in the two principal directions of the slab on
the numerical model.
The model is efficient in showing several aspects of the
response of the test slab considered:
1. The experimental global behavior is approximated
differently in the two orthogonal directions of biaxial
loading: the pushover curves in N-S directions are very close
to the experimental in terms of path, maximum load, and
maximum drift; for the E-W direction, a numerical overes-
timation of lateral load and drift is detected that is due to
the experimental degradation of the test slab due to biaxial
cyclic loading.
2. The model captures the ultimate drift capacity of the
test slab in both N and S directions, the first loaded up to 4%
drift. The drift capacity in the E and W direction is overes-
timated by the model, predicting a maximum drift close to
4% in both E and W directions against experimental values
close to 2%.
3. Experimental moment-rotation curves of internal
connection are well approximated by numerical curves for
the N-S loading direction; for the E-W direction, an overesti-
mation of load and drift capacity is detected. A similar result
is obtained for lateral connections loaded parallel to the free
edge. The difference is attributed to the slab degradation
Fig. 11—State of hinges around column of Connection D3 observed experimentally, due to the damage accumulation
for N-S (left) and E-W (right) loading at ultimate drift. with biaxial loading.
4. For lateral connections loaded perpendicular to the
free edge and corner connections, the numerical analysis is
less accurate for both the N-S and E-W directions. In the
Fig. 12—Comparison between the numerical and experimental moment-rotation envelope of joints A4 for: (a) N-S, and
(b) E-W direction. Positive drifts S and W. Experimental envelope up to connection strength. Experimental E-W 4% drift
cycles, including cycles beyond failure.
NOTATION
c = column side
d = slab average effective depth
J′ = polar moment of inertia at sides of connection
Mtu = reduced torsion capacity (with interaction effects)
Mtuo = torsion capacity without interaction effects
Mu = flexural capacity
Vc = punching shear capacity of flat slab-column connection
Vg = shear force transferred between slab and column under gravity
loads
Vu = shear force at capacity of critical sections
vc = concrete shear strength, ACI 318-059
vn = shear strength, ACI 318-059
vus = eccentric shear strength at the sides of connection
vus,red = reduced eccentric shear strength, by interaction with flexure and
shear
Φu = ultimate curvature
σn = maximum flexural stress in concrete, compression
γu = inelastic shear strain corresponding to shear capacity
ψu = reduced twist angle at maximum torque (with interaction effects)
ψuo = twist angle at maximum torque
REFERENCES
1. Joint ACI-ASCE Committee 421, “Seismic Design of Punching Shear
Reinforcement in Flat Plates (ACI 421.2R-07),” American Concrete Insti-
tute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2007, 24 pp.
2. Coronelli, D., “A Grid Model for Flat Slab Structures,” ACI Structural
Journal, V. 107, No. 6, Nov.-Dec. 2010, pp. 645-665.
3. Hwang, S. J., and Moehle, J. P., “An Experimental Study of Flat-
Plate Structures under Vertical and Lateral Loads,” Technical Report UCB/
EERC-93/03, Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of Cali-
Fig. 13—State of hinges around column of Connection A4 fornia at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, Feb. 1993, 278 pp.
4. Pan, A. D., and Moehle, J. P., “Lateral Displacement Ductility of
for N-S (left) and E-W (right) loading at ultimate drift. Reinforced Concrete Flat Plates,” ACI Structural Journal, V. 86, No. 3,
Experimental crack patterns (side and top). May-June 1989, pp. 250-258.
5. Tan, Y., and Teng, S., Interior Slab-Rectangular Column Connec-
latter case, the accumulation of damage with the biaxial tions under Biaxial Lateral Loadings, SP-232, M. A. Polak, ed., American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2005, pp. 147-174.
loading affects the results. Improvements are needed for the 6. Anggadjaja, E., and Teng, S., “Edge-Column Slab Connections
parameters in the model for the strength of these types of under Gravity and Lateral loading,” ACI Structural Journal, V. 105, No. 5,
connections. Sept.-Oct. 2008, pp. 541-551.
7. CSI, CSI Analysis Reference Manual—SAP 2000 Advanced Research
5. The model reproduces the experimental failure modes v.10, Computers and Structures Inc., Oct. 2005, 433 pp.
of connections. The tests considered herein showed the 8. Whittle, R. T., “Design of Reinforced Concrete Flat Slabs to BS
effects of biaxial loading as a reduction of ultimate drift 8110,” Report 110, CIRIA, 1994.
9. ACI Committee 318, “Building Code Requirements for Structural
and capacity at punching of the slab-column connections, Concrete (ACI 318-05) and Commentary (318R-05),” American Concrete
with respect to those for a one-directional loading. These Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2005, 430 pp.
punching failures are predicted by the model in correspon- 10. Bentz, E. C., Sectional Analysis of RC Members, University of
Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada, 2000, 198 pp.
dence of ultimate moment and drift values higher than the 11. Dilger, W. H., “Flat Slab-Column Connections,” Progress in Struc-
experimental. The developments of the research should tural Engineering and Materials, V. 2, 2000, pp. 386-399.
improve the model to consider the biaxial loading effect. 12. Park, H., and Choi, K., “Improved Strength Model for Interior Flat
Plate-Column Connections Subjected to Unbalanced Moment,” Journal of
These results show the performance of the model in a Structural Engineering, ASCE, V. 132, No. 5, May 2006, pp. 694-704.
rather demanding case study, including some structural 13. Kanoh, Y., and Yoshizaki, S., “Strength of Slab-Column Connec-
irregularity and the effects of cyclic loading in two orthog- tions Transferring Shear and Moment,” ACI Journal, V. 76, No. 3, Mar.
1979, pp. 461-468.
onal directions. The results for biaxial loading indicate the 14. Tian, Y.; Jirsa, J. O.; and Bayrak, O., “Nonlinear Modeling of Slab-
need for further research developments. Column Connections under Cyclic Loading,” ACI Structural Journal,
V. 106, No. 1, Jan.-Feb. 2009, pp. 30-38.
15. Collins, M. P., and Mitchell, D., “Shear and Torsion Design of
AUTHOR BIOS Prestresses and Non-Prestressed Concrete Beams,” PCI Journal, Sept.-Oct.
Dario Coronelli is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Civil and 1980, pp. 32-100.
Environmental Engineering at Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy, where 16. Park, R., and Paulay, T., Reinforced Concrete Structures, John
he received his PhD in 1998. His research interests include the structural Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1975, 769 pp.
effects of corrosion and seismic design of reinforced structures.
Fig. 1—Test setup configuration: (a) cross section of tested RC beams; and (b) side view of loading configuration. (Note: 1 mm =
0.0394 in.)
SH (for SHeet), and the specimens strengthened with FRP 25.2 mm [1 in.], area 500 mm2 [0.78 in.2]) laid in two layers
strips (strip width = 87.5 mm = 3-7/16 in.) were labeled ST at the bottom, and six 10M bars (diameter 10.3 mm [ 0.4 in.],
(for STrips). Specimens strengthened with narrowly spaced area 100 mm2 [0.16 in.2]) laid in one layer at the top. The
FRP strips (spacing equal to 125 mm [5 in.]) were labeled bottom bars were anchored at the support with 90-degree
HF (for Heavily strengthened with FRP), whereas the spec- hooks to prevent premature anchorage failure. The internal
imens strengthened with widely spaced strips (spacing steel stirrups (where applicable) were 8 mm (5/16 in.) in
equal to 175 mm [6 7/8 in.]) were labeled LF (for Lightly diameter (area 50 mm2 [0.08 in.2]).
strengthened with FRP). Series NR (Not Reinforced with To apply the EB FRP sheets and strips to the RC spec-
transverse steel) consisted of specimens with no internal imens, the following steps were implemented: 1) the area
transverse steel reinforcement (that is, no stirrups). Series of the specimens where the CFRP sheets and strips was to
HR (Heavily Reinforced with transverse steel) and MR be epoxy-bonded was sand-blasted to remove any surface
(Moderately Reinforced with transverse steel) contained cement paste and to round off the beam edges; 2) the spec-
specimens with internal transverse steel stirrups spaced imen corners were chamfered to provide a radius of 12.7 mm
at s = d/2 and s = 3d/4, respectively, where d = 350 mm (0.5 in.) to avoid stress concentration in the FRP sheets
(13-3/4 in.) represents the effective depth of the cross section during the tests; 3) residues were removed using compressed
of the beam. Therefore, for instance, Specimen NR-ST-HF air; and 4) layers of U-shaped CFRP sheets and strips were
featured a beam with no transverse steel retrofitted using glued to the bottom and lateral faces of the RC beam using a
CFRP strips spaced at 125 mm (5 in.). The specimen details two-component epoxy resin.
are provided in Table 1, together with the identification
codes used hereafter. Materials
A commercially available concrete delivered to the
Description of specimens structural laboratory by a local supplier was used in this
The T-beams were 4520 mm (14 ft, 10 in.) long, and their project. The average 28-day concrete compressive strength
T-sections had overall dimensions of 508 x 406 mm (20 x was 25 MPa (3626 psi), which is very close to the average
16 in.). The width of the web and the thickness of the flange compressive strength of 27 MPa (3916 psi) obtained
were 152 and 102 mm (6 and 4 in.), respectively (Fig. 1(a) during the tests. It should be noted that the specimens of
and (b)). It should be noted that the web of the strengthened the MR series were cast using a different concrete batch,
beams is chamfered at the outer corners. The longitudinal the compressive strength of which was 35 MPa (5076 psi).
steel reinforcement consisted of four 25M bars (diameter
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
All the specimens failed in shear. The control specimens
failed due to diagonal tension failure of the concrete cross
section. The specimens strengthened with CFRP failed by
premature FRP debonding followed by diagonal tension
failure (Fig. 4(a) through (d)). Local CFRP fracture was
observed in few specimens (NR-ST-LF and NR-ST-HF);
this local failure is attributed to stress concentration at the
web corners.
Fig. 2—Side view of strengthened specimen using FRP sheet Deflection response
U-jacket with crack gauges on CFRP strips. Figure 5 compares the deflection response for RC beams
without transverse steel reinforcement. It reveals that the
The scatter between the results of compression tests on the NR-SH and NR-ST-HF specimens exhibited slightly greater
cylinder specimens was insignificant. overall stiffness than the other beams. Specimen NR-ST-HF
The longitudinal steel reinforcement consisted of exhibited the highest deflection at the loading point and a
25M bars (modulus of elasticity 187 GPa [27,122,057 psi], higher maximum load at failure than the other specimens
and yield stress 500 MPa [72,519 psi]), and the transverse (Fig. 5). The beams strengthened with FRP strips exhibited
steel reinforcement consisted of deformed 8 mm (13/16 in.) more deformability than the beams strengthened with FRP
bars (modulus of elasticity 206 GPa [29,877,774 psi] and sheets. This occurred mainly because in RC beams strength-
yield stress 650 MPa [94,275 psi]). ened with FRP strips, local FRP debonding did not result
The composite material was a unidirectional carbon-fiber in a complete debonding failure. Each local strip-debonding
fabric epoxy-bonded over the test zone in a U-shape around event resulted in a drop in the load-carrying capacity of the
the web (Fig. 2). The dry CFRP sheet had an ultimate tensile beam (Fig. 5), but the load continued to increase as the cracks
strength of 3450 MPa (500,380 psi), an elastic modulus of propagated in the RC beams web, engaging the unloaded
230 GPa (33,358,697 psi), and an ultimate strain of 1.5%, CFRP strips in their path. In specimens strengthened with
as reported by the manufacturer. The thickness of the CFRP FRP strips, and unlike beams strengthened with FRP sheets,
fabric used was 0.11 mm. local debonding of FRP cannot propagate from one FRP
strip to the next. Therefore, using FRP strips results in a
Test setup more progressive type of failure, and a sudden and brittle
All 10 tests were conducted in three-point load flexure failure is prevented.
(Fig. 1(b)). This loading configuration was chosen because it Figure 6 shows the load versus maximum deflection
enabled two tests to be performed on each specimen. Specif- curves for RC beams with transverse steel reinforcement.
ically, while one end zone was being tested, the other end It reveals that each of the specimens in Series HR and MR
zone was overhung and unstressed. The load was applied at exhibited an overall stiffness relatively similar to that of the
a distance a = 3d from the nearest support, a configuration other beams. The maximum load at failure and the maximum
which was representative of a slender beam. deflection attained at the loading point for each specimen
are provided in Table 1. Specimen HR-ST-HF reached the
Instrumentation highest maximum load at failure. Meanwhile, the HR-ST-LF
The measuring equipment used in this research study was and HR-SH specimens exhibited a slightly higher deflec-
carefully designed to meet the objectives of this study. The tion at the loading point than the other strengthened and
vertical displacement was measured at the position under the unstrengthened specimens (Table 1). It should be mentioned
applied load and at midspan, using a linear variable differen- that in Table 1, the shear contributions of concrete and steel
tial transformer (LVDT) with a 150 mm (5-7/8 in.) stroke. were calculated based on the measured experimental results
Different types of strain gauges were installed on the longi- for the control beams.
tudinal reinforcement, on the steel stirrups, and embedded in
the concrete to measure the strains experienced by the various Strain analysis
materials as the loading increased and to monitor thereby This part of the study investigated the behavior of CFRP
the yielding of the steel. The strain gauges on the stirrups and transverse steel during loading of the specimens. As
were installed along the anticipated plane of the major shear mentioned previously, extensive instrumentation for strain
crack. Displacement sensors, also known as crack gauges, monitoring was carefully planned and implemented to
were used to measure the strains experienced by the CFRP provide the data needed to gain a better understanding of
strips and sheets (Fig. 2 and 3). These gauges were fixed the effect of transverse steel on the contribution of FRP to
vertically onto the lateral faces of the specimens at the same
Fig. 5—Load versus deflection at load point: Series NR. Fig. 6—Load versus deflection at load point: Series HR and
(Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.; 1 kN = 0.225 kip.) MR. (Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.; 1 kN = 0.225 kip.)
transverse steel contribution to shear resistance started after verse steel yields at ultimate strain for RC beams strength-
the formation of diagonal cracking initiated. ened in shear with EB FRP.
2. All monitored stirrups were significantly strained. This Figure 8 shows that addition of EB FRP did not result in a
is also reflected by the cracking pattern observed in the decrease of transverse steel strain. For all the specimens with
beams with transverse steel (Fig. 4(a) through (d)). transverse steel, the steel yielded well before the RC beam
3. Yielding of transverse steel was observed in all cases. reached ultimate failure. Therefore, it can be concluded that
This observation is in good agreement with existing code at the ultimate state the contribution of internal steel stir-
specifications and guidelines, which assume that the trans- rups to shear resistance was not affected by the addition of
0.225 kip.)
RC beams. This result confirms that increasing the amount
of transverse steel leads to a reduction in the contribution of
the FRP during loading and at the ultimate state.
w fe 0.6
kc = = for U-jackets (6)
df ρ f ⋅ E f + ρs ⋅ E s
w fe 0.43
kc = = for side bonded (7)
df ρ f ⋅ E f + ρs ⋅ E s
INTRODUCTION
There is no generally accepted theoretical treatment of
punching, and design is based on empirical methods given in
codes of practice. While there is similarity between them in
terms of general approach, there are considerable differences
in their assumptions and the resulting equations, which leads
to uncertainties about their reliability.
A further cause of uncertainty is the wide variety of types
of shear reinforcement, such as stirrups of various forms,
bent-up bars, welded fabric, and stud systems. Comparisons
of design equations with the results of tests using different
types of shear reinforcement can result in a wide scatter,
while comparisons of slabs with only one type are often
limited by the restricted data available.
This paper presents the results of tests1 of slabs with Fig. 1—Test arrangements. (Note: Dimensions in mm;
double-headed studs as shear reinforcement, followed by 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)
a short review of the design methods of ACI 318,2 Euro-
code 2 (EC2),3 and the critical shear crack theory (CSCT) of experimental and calculated strengths for the present tests
Muttoni et al.,4,5 which is the basis of the punching clauses and others are presented to evaluate the accuracies of
of the fib Model Code 2010 draft.6 The results of the present the methods.
tests and of others on slabs with double-headed shear rein-
forcement are then compared with the three design methods. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Twelve tests were made at the University of Brasilia. The
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE specimens were square slabs 2.5 x 2.5 m (8.2 x 8.2 ft) on plan
There are considerable differences between the design and 180 mm (7.1 in.) thick supported centrally by circular or
methods for punching in ACI 318, EC2, and the CSCT. square columns (Type C and S slabs, respectively). Equal
The primary objective of the experimental study described downward loads were applied at eight points close to the
in this paper was to assess the realism of the assumptions slab edges, as shown in Fig.1.
underlying these design methods. The principal variables in
the test series were the sizes and spacings of the studs, and ACI Structural Journal, V. 111, No. 2, March-April 2014.
MS No. S-2012-119, doi:10.14359.51686535, was received April 4, 2012, and
the size and shape of the columns. Extensive measurements reviewed under Institute publication policies. Copyright © 2014, American Concrete
were made of slab rotations and strains in the concrete, and Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is
obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including author’s
flexural and shear reinforcement. Comparisons between closure, if any, will be published ten months from this journal’s date if the discussion
is received within four months of the paper’s print publication.
METHODS OF CALCULATION
All three approaches considered herein take the punching
strength of a slab with shear reinforcement as the least of
VR,cs, VR,out, and VR,max, but not less that VR,c, where VR,c is the
resistance of an otherwise similar slab without shear rein-
forcement; VR,cs is the combined resistance of the concrete
and shear reinforcement; VR,out is the resistance from the
concrete alone just outside the shear reinforcement; and
VR,max is the maximum resistance possible for a given column
size, slab effective depth and concrete strength.
These resistances correspond to failures of the types
shown in Fig. 9. The calculations are made for perimeters at
specified distances from supports: uo is the perimeter at the
outline of the support; u1 is the perimeter used in the calcu-
lation of VR,c and VR,cs; and uout is the perimeter used in the
Fig. 9—Types of punching failure. calculation of VR,out.
measured on centerlines.
†
ry is radius in which tangential strain > εy.
‡
Averages of Esεs ≤ fyw in Perimeters 1, 2, and 3.
§
Ultimate shear force including self-weights of slabs and loading system.
||
Measured at 0.85Vu.
Fig. 10—Detailing and control perimeters: ACI 318. VR,cs = 0.75VR,c + VR,s (2)
d
VR,s = ⋅ Asw f yw with fyw ≤ 414 MPa (60,000 psi) (3)
sr
0.75uout dv fc
VR,out = (18)
1 + 15ψd / (16 + dg )
C6 360 C 143 1.48 540 49 10 f10.0 x 6 535 70 100 464 1078 In 0.86 1.36 Max 1.19 Out 1.24 In
C7 360 C 144 1.47 540 49 10 f10.0 x 7 535 55 80 442 1110 In 0.88 1.39 Max 1.21 Out 1.09 Out
C8 360 C 144 1.47 540 48 12 f10.0 x 6 535 70 100 388 1059 In 0.84 1.34 Max 1.03 Out 1.14 In
S1 300 S 145 1.46 540 48 12 f10.0 x 2 535 70 100 177 1022 Out 0.80 1.71 In 1.36 Out 1.37 Out
S2 300 S 143 1.48 540 49 12 f10.0 x 4 535 70 100 280 1128 In 0.89 1.77 Out 1.12 Out 1.24 Out
S5 300 S 143 1.48 540 50 — — — — — 779 P 0.61 1.30 P 1.20 P 1.24 P
S7 300 S 143 1.48 540 49 12 f12.5 x 4 518 70 100 280 1197 Out 0.94 1.88 Out 1.19 Out 1.32 Out
1 300 S 150 1.45 550 33 10 f10.0 x 4 550 80 120 390 881 — 0.79 1.45 Out 1.02 Out 1.06 In
2 300 S 150 1.76 550 30 12 f10.0 x 6 550 60 100 390 1141 — 0.88 1.71 Out 1.13 Out 1.11 Out
Regan7
3 300 S 150 1.76 550 26 10 f12.0 x 5 550 60 120 455 1038 — 0.83 1.73 Out 1.22 Out 1.09 Out
5 240 C 160 1.65 550 62 12 f12.0 x 5 550 80 120 352 1268 — 0.88 1.61 Max 0.88 Out 1.12 In
6 240 C 150 1.75 550 42 12 f10.0 x 5 550 75 120 349 1074 — 0.83 1.81 Max 1.04 In 1.24 In
R3 200 S 160 1.26 670 33 8 f12.0 x 4 442 80 120 413 850 Out 0.63 1.44 Out 1.04 Out 0.90 Out
Samadian8
Regan and
R4 200 S 160 1.26 670 39 8 f12.0 x 6 442 80 80 444 950 Out 0.69 1.39 Out 1.10 Out 0.93 Out
A1 200 S 160 1.64 570 37 8 f10.0 x 6 519 80 80 444 1000 Out 0.67 1.50 Out 1.08 Out 0.98 Out
A2 200 S 160 1.64 570 43 8 f10.0 x 4 519 80 120 413 950 In 0.62 1.42 Out 1.03 In 1.00 In
Z1 200 C 250 0.80 890 25 12 f14.0 x 5 580 100 200 518 1323 Max 0.41 1.50 Max 1.26 Max 0.96 In
Z2 200 C 250 0.80 890 26 12 f14.0 x 5 580 88 200 511 1442 Max 0.44 1.59 Max 1.30 Max 1.08 In
Beutel9
Z3 200 C 250 0.80 890 24 12 f14.0 x 5 580 95 188 487 1616 Max 0.50 1.86 Max 1.57 Max 1.20 In
Z4 200 C 250 0.80 890 32 12 f14.0 x 5 580 88 175 459 1646 Max 0.49 1.66 Max 1.27 Max 1.18 In
Z5 263 C 250 1.25 562 28 12 f16.0 x 5 544 94 188 505 2024 Max 0.41 1.90 Max 1.31 Max 1.28 In
Z6 200 C 250 1.25 562 37 12 f16.0 x 5 544 94 188 489 1954 Max 0.39 1.81 Max 1.31 Max 1.23 In
1 200 S 159 1.27 680 40 — — — — — 560 P 0.40 1.16 P 0.94 P 1.00 P
1a 200 S 159 1.27 680 41 — — — — — 587 P 0.41 1.20 P 0.98 P 1.03 P
2* 200 S 153 1.32 680 34 8 f6.0 x 2 430 80 80 255 693 In 0.53 1.64 In 1.26 In 1.12 Out
3* 200 S 158 1.27 670 39 8 f6.9 x 2 430 80 80 255 773 In 0.57 1.64 In 1.21 In 1.20 Out
Gomes and Regan11
4* 200 S 159 1.27 670 32 8 f8.0 x 3 430 80 80 368 853 Out 0.64 1.98 In 1.27 Out 1.26 Out
5* 200 S 159 1.27 670 35 8 f10.0 x 4 430 80 80 481 853 Out 0.63 1.77 Out 1.24 Out 1.13 Out
6 200 S 159 1.27 670 37 8 f10.0 x 4 430 80 80 323 1040 Out 0.76 2.07 Out 1.23 Out 1.34 Out
7 200 S 159 1.27 670 34 8 f12.0 x 5 430 80 80 385 1120 Out 0.83 2.02 Out 1.38 Out 1.38 Out
8 200 S 159 1.27 670 34 8 f12.0 x 6 430 80 80 447 1200 Out 0.89 1.90 Out 1.48 Out 1.38 Out
9 200 S 159 1.27 670 40 8 f12.2 x 9 430 80 80 425 1227 — 0.89 1.31 Out 1.09 Out 1.26 Max
10 200 S 154 1.31 670 35 8 f6.0 x 5 430 80 80 385 800 In 0.61 1.58 In 1.28 In 1.33 In
11 200 S 154 1.31 670 35 8 f6.9 x 5 430 80 80 385 907 In 0.70 1.68 Out 1.31 In 1.42 In
1 250 S 124 1.53 488 36 — — — — — 483 P 0.56 1.30 P 1.11 P 1.10 P
2* 250 S 124 1.53 488 29 8 f9.5 x 6 393 45 90 721 574 In 0.68 1.24 Out 1.19 Out 1.08 Out
3 250 S 124 1.53 488 32 8 φ9.5 x 6 393 45 90 495 572 In 0.67 1.10 Out 1.12 Out 1.02 In
4* 250 S 124 1.53 488 38 8 φ9.5 x 5 465 30 60 403 636 Out 0.73 1.67 In 1.21 Out 1.09 Out
5* 250 S 124 1.53 488 36 8 φ9.5 x 5 465 30 60 403 624 Out 0.72 1.67 In 1.21 Out 1.09 Out
Birkle10
6 250 S 124 1.53 488 33 8 φ9.5 x 5 465 30 60 330 615 Out 0.72 1.67 Out 1.18 Out 1.04 Out
7 300 S 190 1.29 531 35 — — — — — 825 P 0.49 1.12 P 0.94 P 1.02 P
8* 300 S 190 1.29 531 35 8 φ9.5 x 5 460 50 100 658 1050 In 0.62 1.29 Out 0.98 Out 0.97 In
9* 300 S 190 1.29 531 35 8 φ9.5 x 6 460 75 150 1188 1091 In 0.64 1.28 In 1.06 In 1.15 In
10* 350 S 260 1.10 524 31 — — — — — 1046 P 0.40 0.88 P 0.78 P 0.86 P
11* 350 S 260 1.10 524 30 8 φ12.7 x 5 409 65 130 856 1620 In 0.63 1.24 Out 1.00 Out 1.02 In
12* 350 S 260 1.10 524 34 8 φ12.7 x 6 409 95 195 1541 1520 In 0.58 1.03 In 0.90 Out 1.08 In
*
ACI stud layout.
Notes: Vu includes self-weight; Vflex is approximate yield-line capacity from Eq. (14).
Shear reinforcement: In References 1 and 7: deformed studs, 3φ heads, so as given for all lines; in Reference 8, slabs R, plain studs, 2.5φ heads, Slabs A deformed studs, 2.5φ
heads, so as given for orthogonal lines, so = 40 mm for diagonal lines; in Reference 9, deformed studs, 3φ heads, so as given for all lines; in Reference 11, I-beam slices, flange
breath 102 mm, web breath 4.7 mm. φ values in the table are equivalent diameters giving the same areas as the actual web sections. so as given for orthogonal lines, so = 40 mm for
diagonal lines; in Reference 10, plain studs with 3.2φ heads, so as given for all lines. Birkle’s Slabs 5 and 6 had 7 perimeters of studs. The outer two, with sr = d, have been ignored.
Aggregate (maximum size and type): In Reference 1, 9.5 mm crushed limestone. In References, 7, 8, 9, and 11, 20 mm gravel. In Reference 10, Slabs 1-6—14 mm; Slabs
7-12—20 mm, type unknown.
Failure modes: P is punching of slabs without shear reinforcement, In = failure inside shear reinforced zone (VR,cs), Out = failure outside shear reinforced zone (VR,out); Max =
inclined compression failure of concrete close to column (VR,max); in Reference 7 and Slab 9 of Reference 10, the concrete soffit around the column crushed and spalled due to
tangential compression, the spalling extended and at failure there was inclined cracking starting at the end of the spalled area.
1 mm = 0.03937 in.; 1 kN = 0.225 kip; 1 MPa = 145 psi.
33 (4.8)
G-3c-120-1.9 12 No. 5 (15.9 mm) 3 120 (4.7) 1.28
G-3c-80-1.9 12 No. 5 (15.9 mm) 3 80 (3.2) 1.92
G-1-120-1.9 8 No. 6 (19 mm) 1 120 (4.7) 1.18
FRP bars
Materials
Table 2—Tensile properties of FRP and steel
The columns were cast vertically using normalweight
longitudinal reinforcement
ready mixed concrete with a target 28-day concrete compres-
sive strength of 30 MPa (4.4 ksi). The columns were cured Af, mm2 Ef, GPa ffu, MPa
for 7 days, after which the specimens were left in the labo- Bar type db, mm (in.) (in.2) (ksi) (ksi) εf, %
ratory at ambient temperature for at least three more weeks No. 4 127 46.3 1040
12.7 (0.5) 2.25
before testing. The concrete compressive strength used for GFRP (0.19) (6715) (151)
analysis was based on the average values of tests performed No. 5 199 48.2 751
on at least five 150 x 300 mm (6 x 12 in.) cylinders for each 15.9 (0.62) 1.56
GFRP (0.31) (6990) (109)
concrete batch under displacement control standard rate of
No. 6 284 47.6 728
0.01 mm/s (3.9 × 10–4 in./s) (Table 1). Grade 60 steel rein- GFRP
19.1 (0.75)
(0.44) (6904) (106)
1.53
forcing bars were used as longitudinal reinforcement for
No. 4 127 137 1902
specific specimens. Table 2 provided the tensile properties CFRP
12.7 (0.5)
(0.19) (19,870) (276)
1.38
of Grade 60 steel bars.
The longitudinal reinforcement for the exclusively FRP- 100 200 fy = 450
Steel M10 11.3 (0.44) εy = 0.2
(0.15) (29,000) (65)
reinforced columns was (1) No. 12.7 mm (No. 4) straight
CFRP bars, and (2) No. 15.9 mm (No. 5) and 19.1 mm (No. 6) Steel M15 16.0 (0.62)
200 200 fy = 460
εy = 0.2
GFRP straight bars. The tensile properties of longitudinal FRP (0.31) (29,000) (66)
and steel bars were determined by performing the B.2 test Notes: db is bar diameter; Af is cross-sectional area of bar; Ef is modulus of elasticity
method according to ACI 440.3R (ACI Committee 440 2004) of bar; ffu is ultimate tensile strength of bar; εf is ultimate strain of bar.
as reported in Table 2. Bent bars of 12.7 mm (No. 4) GFRP
to the ACI 440.3R B.2 test method (ACI Committee 440
and 9.5 mm (No. 3) and 12.7 mm (No. 4) CFRP were used
2004). The ultimate bent strength ffu,bend, however, was deter-
as transverse reinforcements. The ultimate tensile strength
mined using the B.5 test method according to ACI 440.3R
ffu and modulus of elasticity Ef for the straight portions of
(ACI Committee 440 2004). Table 3 provides the measured
the transverse reinforcements were determined according
Fig. 9—Failure mode of columns reinforced longitudinally with steel and transversely with FRP.
tudinal steel bars consistently buckled (Fig. 9(a) and (b)).
In addition, cross-tie rupture was observed for columns
with Configuration 3, (Fig. 9(c)), while failure was due to
excessive bars buckling and substantial decrease in bearing
capacity in columns with Configuration 1 transverse rein-
forcements. Moreover, excessive buckling of the longitu-
dinal bars in columns induced openings in the GFRP trans-
verse reinforcements, as shown in Fig. 9(b). Opening (albeit
minor) was also observed with transverse CFRP reinforce-
ment at 80 and 60 mm (3.2 and 2.4 in.) spacing.
Failure due to transverse reinforcement rupture was
experienced in columns transversely reinforced with CFRP
No. 9.5 mm (No. 3) with both Configurations 1 and 3
(Fig. 10). Even Column No. 3C-1-67-1.6 experienced trans- Fig. 10—Transverse reinforcement rupture for No. 3 CFRP
verse reinforcement rupture after the longitudinal CFRP laterally reinforced columns.
bars experienced crushing.
strength fc′. Columns were cast in three different groups.
Parametric investigation While the targeted concrete strength was 30 MPa (4.4 ksi),
Parametric investigation was carried out to study the the actual concrete strength for the three groups was 33,
strength mechanism and performance based on stress-strain 35, and 27 MPa (4.8, 5.1, and 3.9 ksi). Before testing the
relationship for the tested columns. The investigated param- columns, actual cross-sectional area was measured to calcu-
eters included transverse reinforcement shape, material, late the precise stress values.
spacing and diameter (No. 9.5 and 12.7 mm [No. 3 and
No. 4]), longitudinal reinforcement ratio, longitudinal rein- Effect of transverse reinforcement shape
forcement material and confining volumetric stiffness. (C-shaped versus closed)
To compare the strength behavior of columns cast from Four columns were studied to investigate the effect
different concrete batches, the stress values σc were normal- of transverse reinforcement shape. Two columns, G-1c-
ized to the cylinder compressive strength fc′ of the batch. 120-1.9 and G-3c-120-1.9, were transversely reinforced
Therefore, the stress response σc along the test for each with C-shaped GFRP No.12.7 mm (No. 4). The other two
column was divided by the concrete compressive cylinder columns, G-1-120-1.9 and G-3-120-1.9, were transversely
Research implementing unibody clamp anchors and a simple Despite its historic use, however, exposed steel is susceptible
mechanical stressing device to post-tension external, unbonded to corrosion, limiting its useful lifespan and requiring exten-
carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) rods is presented. The sive protection from deicing salt and moisture.
experiments described in the paper concern three prestressed The limitations of steel tendons can be overcome in
concrete beams: one was used as the control beam and the other
external post-tensioning applications by the use of fiber-rein-
two were damaged. Damage consisted of cracked concrete that
forced polymer (FRP) materials. FRP materials are advanta-
was removed and internal steel tendons that were cut to simulate
vehicle collision, corrosion, or both. The repair system was then geous because of their corrosion resistance and high specific
applied to the two damaged concrete beams. The CFRP repair strength. Additionally, the use of FRP materials is becoming
system performed well, increasing the ultimate strength and flex- increasingly attractive as the price of FRP composites
ural capacity of the damaged beams to meet or exceed the strength decreases. Several studies have shown that post-tensioned
capacity of the control. An analytical model considering the tendon FRP tendons can contribute to flexural strength in new
stress at ultimate and the distribution of internal forces was devel- construction or for strengthening (Abdel Aziz et al. 2005;
oped to explore design recommendations for the use of the unibody El-Hacha and Elbadry 2006; Täljsten and Nordin 2007);
clamp anchors and stressing device for post-tensioning CFRP rods. however, few studies have shown the usefulness of post-ten-
sioned FRP tendons in flexural repair and retrofit applica-
Keywords: beams; carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP); post-ten-
sioning; prestressed concrete; repair; retrofit. tions (Elrefai et al. 2007). As a result, additional research is
required to investigate the suitability of post-tensioned FRP
INTRODUCTION tendons for the repair of severe flexural damage.
Many bridges in the Unites States are approaching the Widespread use of FRP tendons in post-tensioning appli-
end of their design life, and some bridges are showing signs cations has been slow because of the difficulty in devel-
of aging and damage such as corrosion of steel reinforce- oping an effective tendon anchor. Research has produced
ment, large cracks, and missing concrete cover. Damage to a unibody clamp anchor and mechanical stressing device
concrete cover and internal steel prestressing tendons can for use in post-tensioning carbon FRP (CFRP) rods (Burn-
occur when large vehicles attempt to pass under a bridge ingham 2011). The clamp anchors are machined from a
without adequate clearance. Vehicular impact can fracture single piece of steel, and the clamping force is provided by
the concrete cover, expose the internal steel prestressing high-strength bolts. Further research is needed to analyze
tendons, and/or sever all or part of the outer steel prestressing the effectiveness of the complete post-tensioning system
tendons. Even if the tendons are not severed, removal of the consisting of the CFRP rods, unibody clamp anchors, and
protective concrete cover accelerates the corrosion process. mechanical stressing device when applied to prestressed
Additionally, cracking from overloading or fatigue could concrete members.
facilitate corrosion of internal steel prestressing tendons. The research in this paper is concerned with applying
Damage to internal steel prestressing tendons decreases flex- CFRP rods, unibody clamp anchors, and the aforementioned
ural capacity, and bridges exhibiting these symptoms could mechanical stressing device as a complete FRP strength-
be in critical need of replacement, repair, or strengthening. ening system for the repair of damaged prestressed concrete
Typically, girder replacement is expensive, time beams. In the present research, the unibody clamp anchors
consuming, and disruptive; therefore, repair or retrofit is often were fabricated using mild steel. In actual implementation,
the preferred option. One system used for repair applications the anchor and stressing device might need to be manufac-
is external post-tensioning. This repair method not only tured using stainless steel or other corrosion-resistant steel.
restores flexural capacity, but can also mitigate the demands The specific damage considered during this research was
of an increase in service load and help with serviceability damage resulting from impact with vehicles passing under-
considerations such as deflection. Thus, external post-ten- neath a bridge without adequate clearance. Such impact
sioning is an excellent option for repairing concrete bridge could result in severed internal steel prestressing tendons
girders with damage to internal steel prestressing tendons. ACI Structural Journal, V. 111, No. 2, March-April 2014.
Traditionally, external post-tensioning has been imple- MS No. S-2012-135.R2, doi:10.14359.51686529, was received October 18, 2012,
and reviewed under Institute publication policies. Copyright © 2014, American
mented with high-strength steel tendons because of low Concrete Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless
permission is obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including
material cost, material availability, and ease of installation. author’s closure, if any, will be published ten months from this journal’s date if the
discussion is received within four months of the paper’s print publication.
Material properties
The materials used in this research are typical of construc-
tion in the United States. All steel reinforcing bars used in the
Fig. 1—Girder damage from vehicle impact. fabrication of the specimens had a nominal tensile strength
Fig. 2—Reinforcement layout for Specimens P2, RP1, and RP3. (Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 ft = 0.305 m.)
design is conservative. To determine the theoretical capacity steel prestressing strands; As is the area of tensile mild steel
of Specimens RP1 and RP3, the stress in the CFRP rods at reinforcement, 0.62 in.2 (400 mm2); b is the beam width,
ultimate should first be determined. Previous research for 12 in. (305 mm); fc′ is the compressive strength of concrete,
unbonded steel tendons has shown that strain compatibility 10.0 ksi (69 MPa); fps is the prestressing force in the internal
can be used to analyze the tendons as if they were bonded, steel strands, 243 ksi (1.68 GPa); fy is the yield stress of
and then apply a strain reduction factor to account for the mild steel reinforcement, 60 ksi (414 MPa); and β1 is 0.65.
tendons being unbonded (Naaman and Alkhairi 1991). It has The use of Eq. (4) produces cu values of 2.51 and 2.22 in.
been suggested that this method of using a strain reduction (63.8 and 56.4 mm) for Specimens RP1 and RP3, respec-
factor could also be applied to FRP tendons (Naaman et al. tively. The resulting CFRP rod ultimate stresses predicted
2002; ACI Committee 440 2004); the stress at ultimate in by Eq. (2) are 155 ksi (1069 MPa) for Specimen RP1, and
unbonded FRP tendons is given as 162 ksi (1120 MPa) for Specimen RP3, which are conserva-
tive compared with the actual values of measured ultimate
d CFRP rod stress (from strain gauges on the rods) of 169 and
f p _ CFRP = f pe _ CFRP + Ωu ECFRP e cu CFRP − 1 (2) 183 ksi (1163 and 1263 MPa), respectively. The analytical
cu
results for ultimate stress are summarized in Table 1.
An alternative strain reduction factor for external,
where cu is the depth to the neutral axis at ultimate; dCFRP is unbonded steel tendons has also been developed, and it had
the depth to the CFRP rods, 15 in. (381 mm); ECFRP is the been recommended for FRP tendons (Aravinthan et al. 1997;
modulus of elasticity of the CFRP rods, 22,500 ksi (155 GPa); ACI Committee 440 2004). This alternative strain reduction
fp_CFRP is the stress in the CFRP rods at ultimate; fpe_CFRP is the factor is given as
effective prestress in the CFRP rods, 109 ksi (752 MPa); Ωu
is the strain reduction factor; and εcu is the failure strain of 0.21 A
concrete in compression, 0.003 in./in. (mm/mm). Ωu = + 0.04 CFRP int + 0.04 (5)
L / dCFRP ACFRP tot
Suggested values for the strain reduction factor depend on
the type of loading. The research presented in this paper is
best described as center point loading because the distance where ACFRP int is the area of internal CFRP tendons; and
between loading points was only 30 in. (762 mm) compared ACFRP tot is the total area of CFRP tendons. Additionally, to
with an unbraced length of 13ft, 8 in. (4.17 m). The strain account for the change in an external tendon’s eccentricity,
reduction factor—standardized to likely produce a conser- the effective CFRP tendon depth can be found using
vative predicted value—for center point loading is given as
de _ CFRP = dCFRP Rd (6)
1.5
Ωu = (3)
L / dCFRP where Rd is the depth reduction factor given as
conservative ultimate stress predictions, the strain reduction Table 3—Experimental and theoretical
factor from Eq. (3) results in the smallest error, indicating ultimate loads
that it works best for specimens in this research.
Theoretical Ratio of
Conventional beam theory leads to the following equation ultimate load experimental
for ultimate moment capacity Experimental ulti- from Eq. (3), to theoretical
Specimen mate load, kip (kN) kip (kN) ultimate load
a a P2 (control) 104 (463) 73 (325) 1.42
Mu = Aps f ps d ps − + As f y d −
2 2 RP1 (repaired) 112 (498) 79 (351) 1.42
a (8)
+ ACFRP f p _ CFRP dCFRP − PR3 (repaired) 102 (454) 70 (311) 1.46
2
and RP3 showed an effective increase in ultimate strength of
where Mu is the ultimate moment capacity; a is the depth of 20.6 and 31.1%, respectively, with respect to the damaged
the equivalent compression stress block equal to β1cu; and d condition. This increase in ultimate strength of Specimens
is the depth to the mild steel reinforcement, 15 in. (381 mm). RP1 (repaired) and RP3 (repaired) compared with Specimen
Next, from the ultimate moment capacity, the ultimate load P2 (control) demonstrate that external post-tensioned CFRP
Pu can be found from the following equation rods are able to compensate for partial or complete removal
of a prestressing strand.
4 Mu Although the repaired Specimen RP1 failed as a result
Pu = (9) of rupture of the external post-tensioned CFRP rods, this
(L − s) rupture occurred at deflections much greater than those
expected from service loads. Additionally, residual capacity
where s is the spacing between load points, 30 in. (762 mm), was present after CFRP rod rupture. This is significant in
as shown in Fig. 3. that catastrophic beam failure did not occur even though the
From Eq. (9), the theoretical ultimate capacity is 79 kip CFRP rods failed in tension. The repaired beams were essen-
(351 kN) for Specimen RP1 and 70 kip (311 kN) for Spec- tially as ductile as the control beam, because the mild steel
imen RP3 when implementing the predicted CFRP tendon and the remaining prestressing steel dominated the ductility
stresses at ultimate from the use of Eq. (3). Consequently, of the damaged beams.
the corresponding ratios of actual to theoretical ultimate load It was found that theoretical expressions from the litera-
are 1.42 and 1.46 for Specimens RP1 and RP3, respectively. ture may be used to predict the stress at ultimate in the CFRP
Similar to the ratio of 1.42 found for control Specimen P2, tendons used in this research as well as the ultimate capacity
these ratios show that theoretical ultimate loads are in good of the beams, with Eq. (3) being the preferred strain reduc-
agreement with actual measured ultimate loads, and that tion factor even though it was originally developed for steel
the design is conservative. A summary of the experimental tendons. Post-tensioning CFRP rods using unibody clamp
and theoretical ultimate loads is given in Table 3. Further- anchors and a mechanical stressing device is a viable tech-
more, the ratios of actual to theoretical ultimate load and the nique for the repair of concrete beams with severe damage
percentage of error between the actual and theoretical stress to internal steel prestressing tendons. It is recommended that
in the CFRP rods at ultimate indicate that Eq. (2) and (3) further studies be carried out to assess the system and its
are appropriate for predicting the stress in the CFRP rods at feasibility for general use.
ultimate when calculating the theoretical ultimate capacity It is also recommended that further studies be carried out
of prestressed concrete members repaired with the system to test unibody clamp anchors made of stainless steel and to
of unibody clamp anchors, mechanical stressing device, and determine the suitability of unibody clamp anchors for use
CFRP rods used in the current research. as a coupling device for CFRP rods. The successful imple-
mentation of the anchors and CFRP rods in this research
CONCLUSIONS suggests that the anchors could potentially be used to join
Based on the experiments carried out in this research, two sections of CFRP rod, facilitating post-tensioning of
it can be concluded that Specimens RP1 and RP3 were longer spans that are typical of actual bridges. Although the
successfully repaired using an external post-tensioning repair system investigated in this paper was successful, it
system consisting of CFRP rods, unibody clamp anchors, requires access to the end of the beam, which is not always
and a mechanical stressing device. Repaired Specimens RP1 available in field applications. For use of the CFRP repair
width for any specimen with a value of c/f of 2.5 will lie on a
straight line joining the point for c/f = 2.5 to the origin. This
applies for any other value of c/f. Thus, all results for any
specimens with c/f in the range 1 to 2.5 will lie between the
two dashed lines drawn in Fig. 9. If a relatively random set
of tension specimens are analyzed, the result, when plotted
on a graph such as Fig. 9 will, to the engineering eye, be
accepted as giving a linear relationship between cover and
crack width with some relatively small level of scatter.
Figure 10 aims to make an approximate quantitative
comparison between calculated and experimental crack
widths. The test specimens, from Farra and Jacccoud,7 were
3.94 in. (100 mm) square and reinforced with a single axial
Fig. 10—Maximum crack widths from Farra and Jaccoud
0.79 in. (20 mm) bar. The cover was thus 1.57 in. (40 mm),
Specimens N-20-207 compared with finite element analysis.
and results from an analysis for 1.57 in. (40 mm) cover have
(Note: 1 MPa = 145 psi; 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)
been used in the comparison. It should be remembered,
however, that the experimental specimens had a square but will undergo some plastic deformation before rupture.
cross section, whereas this analysis considered a circular This will result in the actual deformation of the concrete
cross section. It can be seen that the analysis underestimates being greater than that calculated on the assumption of elas-
the maximum crack width by approximately 30%. This is to ticity. Additionally, a short-term value has been used for Ec.
be expected, as no account has been taken in this analysis There is likely to be some creep during the test that would
of internal failure (slip or internal cracking) which, as has result in further deformation of the concrete and steel, and
been discussed previously, occurs and reduces the stiffness hence higher calculated crack widths. Depending on the
of the concrete in tension. This will be considered further in effect of these two factors, the calculated width could be
a following section. closer to the experimental values.
It seems likely that this initial simple analysis gives a Overall, the analysis seems to have been very successful
lower-bound indication of the deformation of the tensile in predicting the general qualitative behavior of axially rein-
concrete, and hence, the estimate of the crack width. In forced specimens.
reality, concrete in tension is not absolutely elastic-brittle,
Notes: B, a, and b, are in mm; 1 mm = 0.0394 in.; w/e is average crack width/average w = kffcte/tr (2)
surface strain.
a longitudinal rib. The result of this is that, in reality, where w is crack width (variously defined); k is a constant;
the pattern of internal cracks may be considerably more fct is the tensile strength of the concrete; e is strain (variously
complicated than is modeled in this analysis. defined); f is the bar diameter; r is reinforcement ratio (vari-
• The spacing of the internal cracks, which would be ously defined); and t is bond strength.
expected to follow the spacing of the ribs, is too large Many design provisions have been based directly on
in the model. this equation, including those in the CEB-FIP Model
Code 1990.18
Issues requiring further study In 1965, Broms19 and Broms and Lutz20 published a radi-
What is measured when crack widths are being investi- cally different theory which assumed that the crack width
gated is the crack width on the surface. It is found that the arose entirely from the shear deformation of the cover
surface crack width is strongly dependent on where the concrete. The following formula was developed
cracks are measured relative to the position of the reinforce-
ment. If the cracks are measured at points on the surface wav = 2tes (3)
directly over the bar, they are found to be substantially
smaller than if they were measured, for example, close to or
the corner of an axially reinforced prism. The variation is
less in situations where there are multiple bars and the crack
width over the bars is compared with that at mid-spacing. wmax = 4tes
This behavior is illustrated in Table 1, containing data from
Reference 12. where wav is the average crack width; wmax is the maximum
This effect seems perfectly rational for crack widths crack width; t is distance from the center of the bar to the
resulting from shear deformation of the concrete; the shear point on the surface where the crack width is considered; and
displacement will increase with increasing distance from the es is average strain of the steel.
bar in any direction. Because the corner of the specimens For multiple bars, t was modified to te, an effective distance,
used in Table 1 are further from the bar than a point directly which is defined, for bottom cracks, as 3 (tb A), where tb is the
over the bar, the deformation will be greater, and the crack distance from the bottom of the beam to the center of the
width larger. This effect was recognized by Broms10 and in lowest layer of bars, and A is the area of concrete immedi-
the work carried out at the Cement and Concrete Associa- ately surrounding the tension reinforcement. This formula,
tion.12,13 It is implicitly included in the ACI code14 formula along with many others, was tested against the available
and taken into account directly in the UK code.15 crack width data by Gergely and Lutz21 and shown to be the
The analyses performed herein have been exclusively best available at the time. The formula has formed the basis
concerned with members subjected to pure tension. There of the ACI code14 crack width control provisions ever since.
is evidence that flexural members behave rather differently. At the same time as the work being carried out at by
Studies by Beeby16 showed that, in shallow members, such Broms, Lutz and Gergely,19-21 a major series of tests were
as slabs, the depth of the tension zone has a significant effect carried out at the Cement and Concrete Association in the
on the crack width. This is explicitly taken into account in UK.13 The first series of tests consisted of 105 beams, and
the UK code,15 and is also recognized in Eurocode 2.17 the results were with the publishers at the time that Broms’19
These effects have not been investigated in this study paper appeared. The paper13 concluded that crack width
because the finite element package used did not permit the could be predicted by the formula
c
f = 0.65 + 0.25 2.73 − 4.55 for
f ps N p E ps e cu d p de
(20c)
B = Aps fse +
La + As f y − A f E f (e cu + e bi ) (19b)
0.38 ≤ c / de ≤ 0.6
UB2-H Horizontal 2 (3/8 in.) 200 778 2 (8 mm) 220 2 (8 mm) φ8 at 150 560 — 42
UB2-H-F1 Horizontal 2 (3/8 in.) 200 924 2 (8 mm) 220 2 (8 mm) φ8 at 150 612 150 (1) 36
UB2-H-F2 Horizontal 2 (3/8 in.) 200 896 2 (8 mm) 220 2 (8 mm) φ8 at 150 612 300 (2) 37
UB2-P Parabolic 2 (3/8 in.) 200 836 2 (8 mm) 220 2 (8 mm) φ8 at 150 560 — 42
Unbonded post-tensioned
UB2-P-F1 Parabolic 2 (3/8 in.) 200 936 2 (8 mm) 220 2 (8 mm) φ8 at 150 612 150 (1) 36
UB2-P-F2 Parabolic 2 (3/8 in.) 200 923 2 (8 mm) 220 2 (8 mm) φ8 at 150 612 300 (2) 37
US1-H Horizontal 2 (5/16 in.) 85 927 2 (8 mm) 92.5 — — 560 — 42
US1-H-F1 Horizontal 2 (5/16 in.) 85 917 2 (8 mm) 92.5 — — 612 150 (1) 36
US1-H-F2 Horizontal 2 (5/16 in.) 85 964 2 (8 mm) 92.5 — — 612 300 (1) 36
US1-P Parabolic 2 (5/16 in.) 85 886 2 (8 mm) 98.5 — — 560 — 42
US1-P-F1 Parabolic 2 (5/16 in.) 85 949 2 (8 mm) 98.5 — — 612 150 (1) 36
US1-P-F2 Parabolic 2 (5/16 in.) 85 971 2 (8 mm) 98.5 — — 612 300 (1) 37
Slab
Beam
BB2-P-F1 Parabolic 2 (3/8 in.) 200 894 2 (6 mm) 220 2 (6 mm) φ8 at 150 0 150 (1) 37
BB2-P-F2 Parabolic 2 (3/8 in.) 200 885 2 (6 mm) 220 2 (6 mm) φ8 at 150 0 300 (2) 37
BS2-P Parabolic 3 (3/8 in.) 85 970 2 (8 mm) 98.5 — — 0 — 37
Slab
Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 MPa = 0.145 ksi; 1 mm2 = 0.0016 in.2.
with the ACI Building Code1 with a water-cement ratio of the manufacturer’s recommendations and in compliance
0.40. with the ACI Committee 4402 recommendation for securing
The CFRP sheets were attached to the bottom tension proper development length. No particular measures were
face of the beam and slab specimens in accordance with taken to improve bond strength between the FRP and the
Caracterizar la Adherencia mediante Destesado y Arran- strengths at the time of testing (fci′), ranging from 24 to 55
camiento; in English: Test to Characterize the Bond by MPa (3.5 to 8.4 ksi), were tested. For all the concretes, the
Release and Pull-Out) test method,17 the research herein components were: cement CEM I 52.5 R,31 crushed lime-
analyzes the specimen cross section size-effect on strand stone aggregate 7 to 12 mm (0.275 to 0.472 in.), washed
bond and concrete strains at prestress transfer. Three rolled limestone sand 0 to 4 mm (0 to 0.157 in.), and a high-
different concrete mixture designs applicable to the precast range water-reducing admixture additive. The mixtures of
prestressed concrete members industry, in combination with the tested concretes are shown in Table 1.
three different specimen cross sections, have been tested. The prestressing strand was a low-relaxation seven-wire
steel strand specificied as UNE 36094:97 Y 1860 S7 13.010
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE with a guaranteed ultimate strength of 1860 MPa (270 ksi).
This research provides information on how specimen The main characteristics were those according to the manu-
cross section size-effect influences strand bond behavior and facturer: diameter, 13 mm (0.5 in.); cross-sectional area,
concrete strains at prestress transfer. This paper analyzes 100 mm2 (0.154 in.2); ultimate strength, 200.3 kN (45.1 kip);
series of tests conducted on pretensioned prestressed yield stress at 0.2%; 189.9 kN (42.8 kip); and the modulus
concrete prismatic specimens using a testing technique of elasticity, 203,350 MPa (29,500 ksi). The prestressing
based on bond behavior analysis by measuring prestressing strand was used under the as-received condition (rust-free
strand force. The tests provide data on concrete strains, and lubricant-free). The strand was not treated in any special
transfer length, effective prestressing force, bond stress, way. The strand was stored indoors and care was taken to not
and concrete modulus of elasticity. A coefficient to account drag the strand along the floor.
for the specimen cross section size-effect on the concrete
modulus of elasticity is proposed. The experimental results Testing program
have been compared with predictions from ACI 318-112 and The variables considered in the test program were
fib Model Code 2010.9 concrete mixture, specimen cross section, and concrete age
at prestress transfer. A series of specimens with different
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH embedment lengths were tested for each combination of
An experimental program was conducted and the ECADA variables selected. Embedment lengths followed increments
test method17 was used. The method allows for the analysis of 50 mm (2 in.) in the nearness of the transfer length for
of bond behavior by the sequential reproduction of the its determination and specimens with 1350 mm (53.15 in.)
prestress transfer and the anchorage of prestressing strands were included to determine profiles of longitudinal concrete
on the same specimen. A series of specimens with different surface strains.
embedment lengths is required to determine both transfer Specimens were designed as M-D-T-L, where M is the
and development lengths25,26 by means of the ECADA concrete mixture type (A, B, or C); D is the specimen cross
test method. Its feasibility has been verified for both short- section size in mm (100, 80, or 60, for a 100 x 100 mm2
time27,28 and long-term analyses.29,30 In this work, only [3.94 x 3.94 in.2], 80 x 80 mm2 [3.15 x 3.15 in.2], and a 60
the transfer length test results and analyses at prestress x 60 mm2 [2.36 x 2.36 in.2] cross section, respectively); T is
transfer were included. Complementarily, several speci- the concrete age at prestress transfer (12, 24, or 48 hours);
mens were also instrumented to obtain longitudinal concrete and L is the specimen embedment length (in mm).
surface strains. The designation for a complete series included only
the parameters detailing M-D-T. In two cases (A-60-48,
Materials A-80‑12), only specimens with an embedment length of
Three concrete mixtures applicable for the precast 1350 mm (53.15 in.) were made.
prestressed concrete industry with different compressive
A-80-24 (300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, B-80-24 (550, 600, 650, 700, 750, 800, —
24 600, 650, 700, 750, 1350) 1350)
A-100-24 (300, 400, 450, 500, 550, 600, B-100-24 (300, 550, 600, 650, 700, 750, C-100-24 (600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 1350)
650, 700, 750, 900, 1350) 800, 850, 1350)
A-60-48 (1350) B-60-48 (300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, —
600, 650, 950, 1000, 1350)
— B-80-48 (300, 450, 500, 550, 600, 650, C-80-48 (550, 600, 650, 800, 850, 900,
48
700, 950, 1350) 950, 1350)
— B-100-48 (300, 400, 450, 500, 550, 600, C-100-48 (550, 600, 650, 700, 750, 1350)
650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 1350)
Note: 1 mm = 0.04 in.
Fig. 8—Concrete strain versus concrete stress level. Fig. 10—Measured and predicted transfer length.
Transfer length 100 mm2 (3.94 x 3.94 in.2) and the 80 x 80 mm2 (3.15 x
Figure 9 provides the transferred prestressing forces 3.15 in.2) specimen cross sections. However, A-60-48 and
versus the embedment lengths for the complete B-100-48 B-60-48 show the shortest transfer lengths, while A-60-24
series. All the test specimens with embedment lengths presents a high value.
equal to or longer than 650 mm (25.6 in.) present similar Pi The transfer lengths predicted according to ACI 318-112
values and are, therefore, equal to the effective prestressing and fib Model Code 20109 from the measured parameters are
force Pe. In contrast, all the test specimens with embed- included in Fig. 10. As observed, the predictions from ACI
ment lengths shorter than 650 mm (25.6 in.) present lower 318-112 have similar values, as only strand parameters are
Pi values. Therefore, the transfer length determined by the considered. However, the predictions from fib Model Code
ECADA test method can be affirmed as 650 mm (25.6 in.) 20109 vary vastly as concrete properties are also consid-
in this case. ered. ACI 318-112 overestimates transfer length, except for
Figure 10 shows the transfer length obtained from Concrete Mixture C, while fib Model Code 20109 generally
concrete strains (directly [two values are depicted when overestimates it (only case A-60-24 is underestimated).
the ascendent branch length is unclear] and by 95% AMS)
and from prestressing strand forces. Specimens have been Effective prestressing force
ordered by concrete mixture by increasing cross section size Figure 11 shows the measured prestressing strand forces
and concrete age at prestress transfer. in the AMA system (P0, Pe), and the effective prestressing
As observed in Fig. 10, the transfer lengths in the speci- forces (Pes) obtained according to Eq. (1). For each complete
mens made with Concrete C are longer than those in the spec- series, P0 and Pe are obtained by averaging the corresponding
imens made with Concrete B which, in turn, are longer than prestressing strand forces P0 and Pi from those specimens
the transfer lengths in the specimens made with Concrete with an embedment length equal to or longer than the
A: C-100-48/B-100-48, C-100-24/B-100-24/A-100-24, transfer length. Due to the end-discontinuity effect, overesti-
C-80-48/B-80-48, B-80-24/A-80-24, and B-60-48/A-60-48. mation of the effective prestressing strand force is observed;
Generally, transfer length values also reduce when concrete Pe is always greater than Pes for all the specimens. Effec-
age at prestress transfer increases: A-60-24/A-60-48, tive prestressing force increases within the same concrete
A-80-12/A-80-24, A-100-12/A-100-24, B-80-24/B-80-48, mixture when the specimen cross section and the concrete
and C-100-24/C-100-48, except for B-100-24/B-100-48. age at prestress transfer increase. These tendencies are seen
Besides, similar transfer lengths are obtained for the 100 x more clearly by the specimen strains.
Concrete modulus of elasticity: elastic shortening for those specimens with a smaller cross section. This fact
prestress loss can be explained by the different concrete stress levels and
Finally, to verify the applicability of the obtained λ coef- the deformability behavior relating to cross sections of spec-
ficients to account for the cross section size-effect, predicted imens. Therefore, a clear effect of specimen cross section
prestress losses due to the elastic shortening of concrete size on prestress loss cannot be ruled out.
from the measured and theoretical parameters are estimated Moreover, Fig. 18 shows that the tendencies of the
using preexisting equations. According to the ACI 318-11 measured prestress losses according to the variable’s
Commentary,2 prestress losses can be calculated in accor- concrete mixture, specimen cross section size, and concrete
dance with several procedures.38,39 Figure 18 shows the age at prestress transfer are followed by the prestress losses
measured and predicted prestress losses due to the elastic predicted by all the methods: prestress losses disminish in
shortening of concrete for all the specimens with an embed- the same concrete mixture when the specimen cross section
ment length of 1350 mm (53.15 in.). The λ coefficient has increases and when the concrete age at prestress transfer
been applied in all cases. increases, and prestress losses in the specimens made with
As observed in Fig. 18, the predicted prestress losses Concrete C are greater than those in the specimens made
follow the tendencies of measured prestress losses. The with Concrete B, which are also greater than the prestress
prestress loss ranges with values of 10% for those specimens losses in the specimens made with Concrete A. The PCI
with a larger cross section, with values of 15 to 20% for CPL39 predictions made with experimental Eci (Eq. (3)) and
those with an intermediate cross section, and of 25 to 30% fib Model Code 20109 practically coincide with the measured
where b′ is the width of web in I- or T-beam sections, and d where Mcr is the cracking moment
is the depth from the compression face to the center of the
longitudinal tensile reinforcement. Mr ≥ 1.33Mu (4)
In 1954, the Bureau of Public Roads issued design
requirements for prestressed concrete bridges (Bureau of where Mu is the factored moment of the applicable load
Public Roads 1954) and, in 1958, general recommenda- combination.
tions were published for the design of prestressed concrete The cracking moment is determined using Eq. (5)
(ACI-ASCE Committee 323 2004). Neither of these docu-
ments, however, contained minimum reinforcement require- S
ments for prestressed concrete. M cr = Sc ( fr + fcpe ) − M dnc c − 1 ≥ Sc fr (5)
nc
S
In 1963, prestressed concrete was incorporated within
the scope of ACI 318-63 (ACI Committee 318 1963);
the committee reasoned that combined discussion of the where fr is the modulus of rupture of the concrete; fcpe is the
nonprestressed and prestressed reinforced concrete was less compressive stress in the concrete due to effective prestress
confusing than their separate consideration. To this end, ACI forces (after allowance for all prestress losses) at the extreme
318-63 combined nonprestressed reinforced and prestressed fiber of the section where tensile stress is caused by exter-
concrete under the generic term “reinforced concrete”; it nally applied loads; Sc is the section modulus with respect
included, however, two separate requirements for minimum to the extreme tensile fiber of the composite section; Snc is
tensile reinforcement. the section modulus with respect to the extreme tensile fiber
During this code cycle, the minimum reinforcement provi- of the monolithic or noncomposite section; and Mdnc is the
sion for nonprestressed concrete was rewritten in terms of p, total unfactored dead load moment acting on the monolithic
the ratio of the area of the tension reinforcement to the effec- or noncomposite section. When monolithic or noncomposite
tive area of the concrete. As a lower limit, an area of steel sections are designed to resist all loads, the designer is
satisfying 200bd/fy was required; this absolute minimum directed to substitute Snc for Sc in Eq. (5) for the calculation
was derived by equating the ultimate strength of the section of Mcr.
without reinforcement to the ultimate strength of the section The modulus of rupture fr used depends on the limit state
with reinforcement and solving for p (ACI Committee 318 being checked and the specified concrete strength. Litera-
1963). In cases where the provided area of reinforcement ture is cited in which the modulus of rupture values typically
was one-third greater than that required by analysis, the range between 7.5√fc′ psi (0.62√fc′ MPa) and 11.7√fc′ psi
minimum reinforcement requirement was considered satis- (0.97√fc′ MPa) (ACI Committee 318 1992; Walker and
fied—an exception included to ensure that the minimum Bloem 1960; Khan et al. 1996). For determining minimum
reinforcement required for large members was not excessive. steel requirements using the AASHTO LRFD provisions, the
The separate prestressed concrete design chapter added cracking moment is calculated using an estimated modulus
to the ACI code during this cycle introduced minimum of rupture equal to 11.7√fc′ psi (0.97√fc′ MPa). The AASHTO
reinforcement requirements for prestressed concrete: the LRFD rationale for using a higher modulus of rupture value
provided area of steel was required to be adequate to develop for minimum steel requirements is that it is a strength limit
an ultimate load capacity greater than 1.2 times the cracking state, so the use of the upper bound value is justified; the
load. The cracking load was based on a modulus of rupture 20% margin provided by Eq. (3) could be lost by using a
of 7.5√fc′ psi (0.62√fc′ MPa). lower modulus-of-rupture value. These provisions are valid
In 1995, the minimum reinforcement requirements for for specified concrete strengths up to 15,000 psi (100 MPa).
nonprestressed concrete were revised to explicitly account
for concrete and reinforcement tensile strengths (ACI ACI PROVISIONS
Committee 318 1995). ACI 318-11, Section 18.8.2, specifies the following for
Equation (2) gives the typical requirement minimum reinforcement:
“Total amount of prestressed and nonprestressed rein-
3 fc′ forcement in members with bonded prestressed reinforce-
As,min = bw d ≥ 200bw d / f y (2) ment shall be adequate to develop a factored load at least
fy
1.2 times the cracking load computed on the basis of the
modulus of rupture fr specified in 9.5.2.3.”
I
M ncr = 7.5 fc′ (8)
yt
Fig. 5—Stress states under decompression moment.
The force coupled on the right side of the figure represents
the internal forces immediately after cracking, in which the 7.5 fc′I I 1 yt
reinforcement resists the tensile force carried by the concrete fAps f ps jd p + fjdAs f y ≥ 1.2 + Aps fse + e I (12)
yt Ayt final A transfer
before cracking. If the reinforcement volume is sufficiently
low, then the section will reach its nominal moment capacity
immediately after cracking; low volumes of reinforcement As tension failure is the intended failure mode φ = 0.9.
will ensure the section is tension-controlled. Defining the Assuming that j = 0.9
internal moment arms of the nonprestressed and prestressed
steel reinforcement for this condition as jd and jdp, respec- I 1 yt 9 fc′I
Aps 0.8 f ps d p − fse + e I + 0.8dAs f y ≥ (13)
tively, the moment capacity can then be defined as Ayt final A
transfer
yt
APPENDIX B
f = 0.9 Area, in.2 Mn, kip-ft Mcr, kip-ft fMn/Mcr
1.2Mcr 1.310 281.1 210.8 1.20
MS 10ST48 prop min 1.838 393.3 210.8 1.68
ACI Sect 10-5 min 1.358 291.4 210.8 1.24
1.2Mcr 2.895 763.2 570.7 1.20
MS 28IT60 prop min 3.932 1024.4 570.7 1.62
ACI Sect 10-5 min 4.619 1194.4 570.7 1.88
1.2Mcr 0.310 15.2 11.4 1.20
MS 12X12 prop min 0.416 20.7 11.4 1.63
ACI Sect 10-5 min 0.389 18.8 11.4 1.48
1.2Mcr 0.820 138.0 102.4 1.21
MS 12X36 prop min 1.122 187.6 102.4 1.65
ACI Sect 10-5 min 1.300 215.6 102.4 1.89
1.2Mcr 1.580 544.4 409.8 1.20
MS 12X72 prop min 2.188 750.9 409.8 1.65
ACI Sect 10-5 min 2.666 911.7 409.8 2.00
Notes: 1 in. = 2.54 cm; 1 in.2 = 6.45 cm2; 1 kip-ft = 1.36 kN-m.
Fig. 4—Comparison of Smith15 test results with: (a) Binici13; and (b) Lokuge et al.4 models. (Note: 1 MPa = 145 psi; 1 mm =
0.0394 in.)
levels and concrete strengths, and to incorporate size effect
issues.
Post-peak plastic lateral strain Using Eq. (9), the previous equation becomes
Vonk19 observed that in the first stage of loading, the
average lateral deformation versus average axial defor- f f
mation is governed by Poisson’s ratio, which results in a e ′ + µ e ⋅ − µ 0 e 0 + µ e ⋅ 0
decrease of the volume of the specimen. In the second stage, Ec Ec
(12)
macrocracks are formed, causing dilatant behavior. After a f f
gradual change, a more-or-less constant dilatant behavior = b e − − e0 − 0
was observed, which indicated that the process of macroc- Ec Ec
rack formation had stopped, and the final crack pattern had
been developed. The behavior of concrete after the peak In the previous equation, f is the stress level at a strain of ε;
stress can be quantified by looking at the plastic or inelastic f0 is the peak stress, and Ec is the elastic modulus of concrete.
deformations after the peak. Figure 7 plots the plastic lateral The axial strain versus axial stress model for confined
strain minus the plastic lateral strain at the peak stress against concrete proposed by Samani and Attard20 will be used for
the plastic axial strain minus the plastic axial strain at the the relationship between the axial strain and axial stress.
peak stress based on the test results of Candappa et al.1 The Experimental estimates for the parameter β as a function
results show an almost linear relationship. For relatively low of the confinement ratio, obtained from the tests of Candappa
levels of confinement associated with the results in Fig. 7, et al.,5 Hurlbut,6 Jamet et al.,8 Lu and Hsu,10 Newman,11 and
a shear band has probably formed with the deformations in Smith15 are shown in Fig. 8. The experimental data used in
the axial and lateral directions concentrated on the deforma- Fig. 8 are for specimens with a height-diameter or height-
tions within the shear band. The slope of the linear trends in width ratio of h/D or h/w = 2. The experimental results in
Fig. 7 are associated with differing levels of confinement. Fig. 8 show a large scatter, particularly for the uniaxial
As the confinement level increases, the lateral deformation compression state. The β parameter varies from approxi-
rate decreases. An equation for this approximate linear trend mately –2.5 (for h/D or w/h = 2) at the uniaxial state, to an
is therefore upper limit of –0.5 for high confinement.
To gain an understanding of the numerical range for the
εp′ – εp′(at peak) = β[εp – εp(at peak)] (10) parameter β, consider a simple Mohr Coulomb nonassoci-
e ′p
b≈ = −1 (16)
e p
e ′po o
(
e − e pr − 2 (20) ) Using Eq. (24), Eq. (25) can be rewritten to give the lateral
strain for the post-peak region as:
f h ( f − f ) hr h h
where hr is the reference cylinder height. To adjust the stress e ′ = −µ e + b (e − e0 ) r + 0 − ed r − d
Ec h Ec h h h
strain model to incorporate size effects, Samani and Attard20
divided the total axial strain ε into its inelastic and elastic f0
components, such that +µ0 e0 + µe h > hd and e > e 0
Ec
(26)
f hr ( f0 − f ) hr hr
f w pc + e d hd f e ′ = −µ e + b (e − e0 ) + − e d − 1
e = e0 − 0 + + E h > hd Ec h Ec h h
Ec h c
(21) f0
f w pc f +µ0 e0 + µe h ≤ hd and e > e 0
e = e0 − 0 + + ed + h ≤ hd Ec
Ec h Ec
Herein, wpc is the localized inelastic axial displacement Figures 12 to 15 show a comparison of the proposed model
due to shear band fracture; hd is the damage zone height; with test results presented in Candappa et al.,5 Hurlbut,6 Imran
and εd is the additional inelastic axial strain in the damaged and Pantazopoulou,7 Jamet et al.,8 and Smith.15 Generally,
zone associated with longitudinal tensile cracking given in the proposed model makes very good predictions giving the
Samani and Attard20 by correct trends, and, in most cases, reasonable estimates of
0.8
the lateral strain. These comparisons demonstrate the capa-
2 kG ft f0 − f bility of the proposed model in modelling a wide range of
ed = fresidual ≤ f ≤ f0 (22)
r (1 + k ) f0 f0 − fresidual compressive strengths and confining pressures. Figures 16
and 17 show comparisons of the new analytical model with
uniaxial compression tests involving specimens of different
where Gft is the tensile fracture energy; r is a parameter with dimensional aspect ratios. The tests of Lee and Willam,9
the dimension of length proportional to the average distance who tested cylindrical specimens in uniaxial condition with
between successive longitudinal cracks; k is a material different heights of 137.2, 91.44, and 45.72 mm (5.4, 3.6,
constant; and fresidual is the residual axial stress level. The and 1.8 in.) and a diameter of 76.2 mm (3 in.), have already
value of r was estimated by Markeset and Hillerborg24 to be been mentioned. Figure 16 shows the comparison with Lee
approximately 1.25 mm (0.05 in.) for a maximum aggregate and Willam9 results. Although the match is only fair, the new
size of 16 mm (0.6 in.), with r increasing with increasing model has the correct trend that shows larger lateral strains
maximum aggregate size. The value of k suggested by for the specimens with the smallest height. Van Mier,27 a
Markeset and Hillerborg24 was approximately 3 for normal pioneer in the work of strain softening and size effect issues,
density concrete and 1 for lightweight aggregate concrete. also presented experimental lateral strain versus axial strain
An expression for the tensile fracture energy as a function results for prisms with a square cross section of 100 x
of the uniaxial compressive proposed by Van Mier25 can 100 mm (4 x 4 in.) and heights of 50, 100, and 200 mm (2, 4,
be used
e ′p0 o
(
e − e pr − 2 (A6) )
lateral strains at the transition points between the elastic phase
and the nonlinear hardening phase, and the nonlinear hard-
ening phase and at the peak stress, need to be equal, hence:
f µ e ⋅ f pr
e ′ = r −
Ec Ec
e = e pr ⇒ → A1 (e pr ) = 0
f µ e ⋅ f pr
e ′ = E − E + A1 (e pr )
r
c c
(A1)
Cyclic Loading Test for Beam-Column Connection with Prefabricated Reinforcing Bar Details. Paper by
Tae-Sung Eom, Jin-Aha Song, Hong-Gun Park, Hyoung-Seop Kim, and Chang-Nam Lee
Discussion by Yun Liu and Dun Wang
Lecturer, College of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Zinjiang University, Urumqi, China; ACI member, PhD candidate, Research Institute of Structural Engineering and Disaster
Reduction, School of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China.
The subject of precast concrete systems has been a 374.2R-13,18 gravity loads should be simulated during
promising research field since the PRESSS (Precast Seismic testing, whether their effects are deemed important
Structural System Program) was initiated by the U.S. and or not, because there is an important aspect of the
Japan in the 1990s.16 Numerous research activities have application of gravity loads on a column, resulting in a
been conducted and many novel structural systems, such as fast rate of lateral force strength degradation. Therefore,
hybrid frame systems, rocking frame systems, and rocking it is best to include the axial load’s effect into the test of
wall systems, have been developed and applied to practical columns to get a more realistic behavior.
projects. The major features of precast concrete systems are • In the “Test Program” section of the paper, it can be
the fast speed of construction, the high quality of precast seen in Table 1 that there are more bottom reinforcing
and prestressed concrete units, durability improvements, bars than top reinforcing bars in the beam, which may
and superior performance during earthquakes.17 To not be the case in practice. What is the consideration
improve the speed of construction and ensure the seismic of such an arrangement by the authors? A second
performance of precast systems, various techniques and question regards the setup of the test. It is indicated
construction methods have been developed, such as the that the ends of the beam cannot move upward and
welded reinforcement grid (WRG) and the SEN Steel downward; instead, it allows the beam end to move
Concrete Construction method, as mentioned in the paper. horizontally. Does such a test setup conform to the
The discussed paper presents a prefabricated reinforcing true situation? What is the consideration for such a
bar connection method for the earthquake design of beam- test setup? Please clarify. Moreover, it is mentioned in
column connections using the techniques of reinforcing the paper that D25 bars used for the beam bottom bars
bar welding, coupler splicing, and headed-bar anchorage. had a relatively small fracture strain—5.36%—which
Test results of four test specimens under cyclic loading are was less than the minimum requirement specified in
given to elaborate on the effectiveness of this construction the Korean Industrial Standard. Strictly speaking, it is
method, which could be an alternative for the application forbidden to use unqualified material in tests and in the
of precast concrete frame systems. Some topics in the paper practical project. However, such steel bars are still in
are interesting and the discussers would like to comment on use for the test specimens, which may be caused by the
them as follows: sequence of the test specimens’ construction—that is,
• Welding stress, cracks, pores, and slags in the weld zone the test specimens were constructed before the material
are complex phenomena for steel bars with welding properties test finished. Although there are requirements
during loading, which have an adverse effect on the for steel bars before entering into the laboratory, it is a
behavior of reinforcement. Therefore, as mentioned in good choice to do material properties tests early, before
the paper, according to Saatcioglu and Grira1, to secure the test specimens are constructed.
the ductile behavior of a column under lateral loading, • As seen in Fig. 2 of the paper, diagonal bars are used
the grid bar with a welded joint should have at least 4% along the entire length of the beam and in the transverse
elongation capacity in tension. However, as observed hoops in the beam, which is more than the conventional
in Table 2 of the paper, no such information is present. cast-in-place specimen. Undoubtedly, such an
Moreover, mechanical properties of coupler splices and arrangement of shear reinforcement would change the
headed bars should be also included in the paper. behavior of the column—that is, the diagonal bars along
• It is indicated in the paper that axial load was not applied the length of the beam strengthen the fixing of bottom
to columns and that the performance of such reinforcing reinforcing bars, resulting in minimizing the slip at the
bar details is not affected by the axial load of columns. joint, as described in Fig. 2. Maybe it would be better to
The discussers do not agree with the authors on this point. use a specimen with only diagonal bars in the beam to
As is well known, the behavior of the beam-column make comparisons between behaviors of test specimens.
connection is more complicated with the existence of • In the paper, techniques of reinforcing bar welding,
axial load than with no axial load, and the steel band coupler splicing, and headed-bar anchorage are used
plates would expand around the column, which may for the beam-column connection; however, not much
have an unexpectedly adverse effect on the reinforcing more information is presented on the headed-bar
bar couplers. In addition, with the slenderness ratio of anchorage and reinforcing bar welding. In addition,
the column not exceeding 3 (2100/700 equates to 3), it when constructing the specimens, how are the couplers
can be defined as a short column; the existence of axial constructed to connect the reinforcing bars from the
load can cause compression failure to the column and beam and from the connection? It can be seen in Fig. 8(b)
make the behavior of the connection more complex. that reinforcing-bar slip occurred due to the loosened
Moreover, as mentioned in the recently pubished thread of the couplers, which indicated that there is a
REFERENCES
16. Priestley, M. J. N., “Overview of PRESSS Research Program,” PCI
Journal, July-Aug. 1991, pp. 50-57.
17. fib Bulletin 27, “Seismic Design of Precast Concrete Building
Structures, ” fib, Lausanne, Switzerland, 2003, pp. 1-2.
18. ACI Committee 374, “Guide for Testing Reinforced Concrete
Structural Elements under Slowly Applied Simulated Seismic Loads (ACI
374.2R-13),” American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2013,
18 pp.
AUTHORS’ CLOSURE
The authors would like to thank the discussers for their Fig. 16—Simplified models for beam-column connections
interest in the paper and the informative discussion. The subjected to seismic loading.
authors’ response to the five comments is presented as
follows.
1. In the proposed prefabricated reinforcing bar construc- 2. As the discusser commented, when columns are
tion method (PRC method), tag welding is used for the subjected to high axial load, the axial load effect on the
connection between the transverse D13 bars and longitu- connection behavior may be undesirable and even critical.
dinal D25 and D22 bars. However, as shown in Fig. 5, the Thus, the overall behaviors of the beam-column connec-
amount of tag welding is relatively small, when compared tion specimens would be more realistic if axial load was
to the area of the longitudinal bars. Thus, the adverse effect applied to the columns. However, this test was performed
of tag welding on the longitudinal bars was expected to be to investigate the effect of the reinforcing bar details (such
minimal. As presented in the conclusion No. 5 of the paper, as the couplers, headed bars, band plates, and bar welding)
in this test, the bar tag welding did not have detrimental rather than the behavior of beam-column connections itself.
effects on the structural performance of the specimens. In the test specimens, the reinforcing bar details, except
The authors performed direct tension tests on the D25 bars the proposed details, are the same as the conventional
that had a tag welding joint to a transverse D13 bar at the ones. Thus, if the proposed details do not affect the overall
center (refer to Fig. 15). The results showed that two behavior of the specimens, the axial load effect on the overall
D25 bars were fractured away from the weld joints, but the behavior of the specimens should be the same as the effect
third specimen failed near the weld joint. Note that the elon- on beam-column connections with conventional reinforcing
gation capacities at rupture were much greater than 4%. bar details.
A material test for the steel used in the bar couplers The steel band plates are used to connect the beam rein-
was not performed. The yield and tensile strengths provided forcing bars to the column reinforcing bars for reinforcing
by the manufacturer were fy = 751 MPa (109 ksi) and fu = bar fabrication and erection, and to provide additional
760 MPa (110 ksi), which were much greater than those of bearing resistance for bar anchorage. Furthermore, as shown
the D22 and D25 bars. The couplers used in this test are in Fig. 3, conventional ties or hoops specified in current
commercial products, and the mechanical properties were design codes are used in the beam-column joints. Thus,
proved elsewhere. However, in this test, reinforcing bar slip the use of the steel band plates in addition to the conven-
occurred due to the loosened threads of the coupler in Speci- tional ties is not likely to affect the overall behavior of the
mens PRC1. Thus, attention should be paid to the coupler beam-column connections. Thus, the axial load effect on the
splice. proposed connection method is expected to be the same as
The headed bars used in the test were different from the the effect on conventional beam-column connections.
conventional one specified in the design code. As shown 3. There is a misunderstanding. As shown in Table 1 and
in Fig. 4, the beam flexural bars in the exterior joint were Fig. 3, the number of the top flexural bars was greater than
anchored to the steel band plate by nuts and washers. Because the number of the bottom bars.
the steel band plate provides additional bearing capacity for The test setup was planned to simulate the lateral move-
bar anchorage, the headed bars were expected to be safe. In ments of the interior and exterior beam-column connections
this test, failure did not occur in the headed bars. under seismic loading, as presented in Fig. 16. The test
Shear Strength of Reinforced Concrete Walls for Seismic Design of Low-Rise Housing. Paper by Julian
Carrillo and Sergio M. Alcocer
Discussion by Dun Wang and Xilin Lu
ACI member, PhD candidate, Research Institute of Structural Engineering and Disaster Reduction, School of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghi China; Professor,
Research Institute of Structural Engineering and Disaster Reduction, School of Civil Engineering, Tongji University.
It is known that various models have been proposed to • As noted by the authors, several existing proposed
estimate the shear strength of shear walls, such as those based models for estimating the shear strength of concrete
on the softened truss model initially developed by Mau and walls have limitations, which are described in the
Hsu (1987) and later modified by Guta (1996), the softened paper. Special attention should be paid to the fact that
strut-and-tie model proposed by Hwang et al. (2001), and the most of these proposed shear models are based on
UCSD shear model by Kowasky and Priestley (2000), which their individual experimental research and have their
was later modified by Krolicki (2011). The discussed paper own limitations to particular scopes, with different
presents a set of semi-empirical design equations that are influencing factors, loading protocols, and data-
capable of estimating the shear strength of walls for low-rise processing methods. Therefore, there is a need for a
housing, based on an experimental program of 39 isolated unified experimental research activity on shear strength
walls in cantilever, and discussion of previous experimental of walls to be launched worldwide due to the complex
studies by other researchers. As seen in the conclusions of mechanism of shear phenomena. In addition, research
this paper, the proposed equations qualify the efficiency on the shear strength of walls should also focus on a
factor of horizontal reinforcements by their contributions model based on theoretic analysis and then be verified
to the shear strength of walls in one- to two-story concrete by experimental results, such as the softened truss model
buildings in Latin America. The discussers would like to theory proposed by Mau and Hsu (1987) and modified
raise the following significant issues and suggestions: by Guta (1996), or the softened strut-and-tie model by
• As seen in Eq. (2), the concrete contribution to the shear Hwang et al. (2001); it should not be based merely on
strength of walls is associated to a1 and fc′, and a1 is experimental results.
related to the shear span ratio from Eq. (7), all of which • The paper includes wall specimens with web
are constant because the wall specimen is cast. However, reinforcement made of welded-wire mesh. As
with the increase of displacement, the cracks appear and mentioned by the authors, displacement ductility of
widen in concrete, resulting in reducing the effectiveness such a wall type may be limited by the small elongation
of the aggregate interlock shear resistance along the capacity of cold-drawn wire reinforcement; it can be
crack surface. Moreover, vertical reinforcements in the seen from Table 2 that the elongation is only 1.4% to
web wall may also contribute to the shear resistance, 1.9%. The discussers wonder whether it is allowed by
but none of these are included in the proposed model design codes to use such cold-drawn wire reinforcement
by the authors. The UCSD shear model seems to give with low elongation for web reinforcement of walls,
a relatively reasonable mechanism for the concrete especially for seismic design. In addition, Saatcioglu
contribution, which takes into account the effective shear and Grira (1999) recommended that, to secure the
area, the degradation of the shear resistance of concrete, ductile behavior of a column under lateral loading, the
the volumetric ratio of longitudinal reinforcement, and grid bar with a welded joint should have at least a 4%
the effect of the shear-span ratio. elongation capacity in tension. Moreover, it can be seen
The discussed paper presents an interesting experimental the 12,141 mm (39 ft 10 in.) span length are considered,
study on the design philosophy, construction techniques the beam is related to the AASHTO Type VI I-beam, which
employed, and flexural performance of both an AASHTO is 1830 mm (72 in.) depth and is often used for span lengths
I-beam and a bridge model reinforced and prestressed with ranging from 36 to 45 m (118 ft 1.32 in. to 147 ft 7.65 in.)
carbon fiber composite cable (CFCC) strands. from the corresponding width and span length obtained as
The authors should be complimented for producing a 3.6 × 502 mm = 1807 mm (71.14 in.) and 3.6 × 12.141 m
detailed paper with comprehensive information. This is = 43.7 m (143 ft 4.77 in.), respectively. On the other hand,
acknowledged by the discusser, who would like to offer the the 95 mm (3.75 in.) width of the beam web results in 3.6 ×
following comments and questions for their consideration 95 mm = 342 mm (13.5 in.), which seems to be a broad width
and response: to be related to the 205 mm (8.1 in.) width of the AASHTO
1. A scale factor of 1:3.6 was used for both the AASHTO- Type V and Type VI I-beams. What were the criteria applied
Type control I-beam with a span of 12,141 mm (39 ft 10 in.) to choose the scale factor of 1:3.6 and the width of the beam
and 502 mm (19.75 in.) deep and the 2500 mm (98.75 in.) web? It is worth noting that different effects on length, cross
width bridge model made up of five such beams. Regarding section, and second area moment can result in an identical
the cross section of the beam, it seems that the scale factor scale factor.
was taken in relation to the AASHTO Type V or Type VI 2. Beam spacing in a bridge depends on several factors such
I-beam when based on the 203 mm (8 in.) width of the bottom as span length, concrete strength, loads, and environment,
flange; –3.6 × 203 = 731 mm (28.77 in.) is next to 712 mm among others. What was the criterion used to establish a
(28 in.), which is the actual bottom flange of AASHTO beam spacing of 502 mm (19.75 in.) in the bridge model?
Type V and Type VI I-beam. In addition, and according to Regarding the average 28-day concrete compressive strength
Gerges and Gergess,14 if the 502 mm (19.75 in.) depth or in the six AASHTO I-beams of 44.82 MPa (6500 psi),
111-M11—Practical Approach for Assessing Lightweight factor. In general, a Vf of 0.5% is found to be an upper limit for the produc-
Aggregate Potential for Concrete Performance tion of SCC. A greater Vf can hinder the self-consolidating characteristics.
by Daniel Moreno, Patricia Martinez, and Mauricio Lopez For the assessment of the passing ability of FR-SCC, a modified J-ring
The properties and amount of lightweight aggregates used in a concrete setup containing six or eight bars instead of 16 bars is proposed. The
mixture can significantly influence its mechanical properties and density. passing ability of FR-SCC can be expressed as the ratio of diameter:height
at the center of the J-ring test. The passing ability can also be evaluated
Nevertheless, such influence cannot be accurately described and used in
using the L-box with a single bar instead of three bars.
practical application without an extensive experimental work. A practical
A superworkable concrete (SWC) requiring low consolidation energy
evaluation method for assessing the influence of lightweight aggregate on
can still be produced with a Vf of 0.75% when a viscosity-modifying
concrete properties is required to anticipate the performance of concrete in
admixture is incorporated to prevent segregation and blockage. For the
advance and choose the most suitable lightweight aggregate for a certain
tested fiber types, the average residual strength (ARS) in flexure is shown
structural application.
to increase with Vf. Steel fibers exhibited the highest ARS value.
In this paper, existing models are reviewed, generalized, and validated
to obtain a methodology for assessing the potential of the lightweight 111-M14—Effect of Misalignment on Pulloff Test Results:
aggregates to provide a specified concrete density, modulus of elasticity, Numerical and Experimental Assessments
and compressive strength. A practical evaluation methodology is proposed by Luc Courard, Benoît Bissonnette, Andrzej Garbacz, Alexander
and validated with four different lightweight aggregates, obtaining correla- Vaysburd, Kurt von Fay, Grzegorj Moczulski, and Maxim Morency
tions between measured and estimated density; modulus of elasticity; and
The successful application of a concrete repair system is often evalu-
compressive strengths of 93.4, 84.8, and 91.7%, respectively. Therefore,
ated through pulloff testing. For such in-place quality control (QC) testing,
this methodology allows practical and reliable comparison and selection of
the inherent risk of misalignment might affect the recorded value and
lightweight aggregates based on only one trial mixture.
eventually make a difference in the acceptance of the work. The issue of
eccentricity in pulloff testing has been ignored in field practice because it
111-M12—Axisymmetric Fiber Orientation Distribution of Short
is seen as an academic issue. This paper presents the results of a project
Straight Fiber in Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
intended to quantify the effect of misalignment on pulloff tensile strength
by Jun Xia and Kevin Mackie
evaluation and provide a basis for improving QC specifications if neces-
The anisotropic orientation distribution of short fibers in fiber-reinforced sary. The test program consisted first of an analytical evaluation of the
concrete and the impact on mechanical properties have been established in problem through two-dimensional finite element modeling simulations and,
past research. In this paper, the cast-flow induced anisotropic fiber distri- in a second phase, in laboratory experiments in which the test variables
bution was categorized as axisymmetric with respect to the cement paste were the misalignment angle (0, 2, and 4 degrees) and the coring depth
flow direction. The probabilistic spatial orientation for fibers is introduced (15 and 30 mm [0.6 and 1.2 in.]). It was found that calculations provide
using the beta distribution and uniformity parameters. Either theoretical or a conservative but realistic lower bound limit for evaluating the influence
approximate equations for the orientation factor and the probability density of misalignment upon pulloff test results: a 2-degree misalignment can
function of the crossing angle were derived for any arbitrary cut plane. The be expected to yield a pulloff strength reduction of 7 to 9%, respectively,
derived orientation factor equation can be used to quantify the degree of for 15 and 30 mm (0.6 and 1.2 in.) coring depths, and the corresponding
anisotropy via image analysis. This process is easier and more accurate decrease resulting from a 4-degree misalignment reaches between 13 and
because instead of detailed orientation information for every single fiber, 16%. From a practical standpoint, the results generated in this study indicate
only total fiber counts on the cut sections are needed. The probabilistic that when specifying a pulloff strength limit in the field, the value should
macromechanical properties, such as ultimate tensile strength, are estimated be increased (probable order of magnitude: 15%) to take into account the
based on the selected micromechanical model that defines the single fiber- potential reduction due to testing misalignment.
matrix interactions.
111-M15—Strength and Microstructure of Mortar Containing
111-M13—Mixture Design and Testing of Fiber-Reinforced Nanosilica at High Temperature
Self‑Consolidating Concrete by Rahel Kh. Ibrahim, R. Hamid, and M. R. Taha
by Kamal H. Khayat, Fodhil Kassimi, and Parviz Ghoddousi The effect of high temperature on the mechanical properties and micro-
An extensive testing program was undertaken to evaluate the applica- structure of nanosilica-incorporated mortars has been studied. Results show
that the incorporation of nanosilica increases both compressive and flex-
bility of a mixture-proportioning method proposed for shrinkage control
ural strengths significantly at both ambient and after a 2-hour exposure to
in fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) in proportioning fiber-reinforced self-
752°F (400°C) temperatures; the strengths increase with the increase of
consolidating concrete (FR-SCC). The study also proposed test methods
nanosilica content. A significant decrease in strength was recorded for all
to evaluate workability of FR-SCC. The investigated fibers included
control and nanosilica-incorporated mortar specimens after a 2-hour expo-
polypropylene, steel, and hybrid fibers of different properties with fiber
sure to 1292°F (700°C) heat; however, nanosilica-incorporated specimens
lengths of 5 to 50 mm (0.20 to 1.97 in.). Fiber volume Vf ranged between
show higher residual strength than those without nanosilica. Microstruc-
0.25 and 0.75%. The study also aimed to determine the impact of fiber
tural analysis shows that nanosilica reduces the calcium hydroxide crystals
type and addition on key properties of the fresh and hardened concrete.
to produce more calcium silicate hydrate, the process that contributes to
Hardened properties included compressive, splitting tensile, and average
the strength and the residual strength of the material. In addition, the mate-
residual strengths. rial exhibits a stable structure state up to 842°F (450°C), while exposure to
Test results indicate that the proposed methodology to maintain constant higher temperatures results in a decomposition of hydration products.
mortar thickness over coarse aggregate and fibers can reduce any signifi-
cant drop in workability of FR-SCC, resulting from an increase in fiber
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