02 Whole

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PREDICT ION OF FR EE Z I NG AND THAW I NG
TIMES FOR FOODS
A thes i s prese nted in par t i a l fulf i lment of the

requ ir ements for the degree of. Doctor o f
Phi losophy in B iotechno logy a t
Mas sey Un i ver s i ty
DONALD JOHN C LELAND
1 985
ii
ABSTRACT
A study of methods to predi ct the free z i ng and thawing times of both

regu l ar and i rregu l ar shaped foods was made .
Experi ment al thawing data for foods found in the l i t eratur e , w ere
l imi ted in val ue because the e xper i mental cond i t i ons wer e no t
suff i c i ently acc ur atel y meas ured , des cr i bed and controll ed to all ow
m ean i ngful tes t i ng of thaw i ng t i me pred i ct i on methods to be made . A
compr ehens i ve set of 1 82 e xper iment al measur ements of thawi ng time were
made over a w i de range of cond i ti ons usi ng r egul ar shapes made of
Tyl ose , a food anal ogue , and of minced l ean beef . Free z i ng and thawing
exper i ments for irr egu l ar shapes wer e also carr i ed out because of the
pauc i t y of publ i shed experimental data . U s i ng twelve d i f f er ent two
and thr ee- dimens i onal irregu l ar shaped obj ects 115 e xper i mental
free z i ng and thawi ng r uns were conducted . C omb i n i ng experimental
res ul ts wi th rel i abl e publ i shed e xper im ental dat a f or free z i ng , a dat a
set compri s i ng 5 93 e xperi ments was establ i she d aga i nst whi ch pr edi c t i on
methods wer e t es t ed .
The par t i al d i f f er ent i al equat i ons that mode l the actua l physi cal
process of heat conduct ion dur i ng free z i ng and thawi ng can be sol ved by
the f i ni te d i ff er ence and f i ni te e l ement methods . Tes t i ng of the
f i ni t e el ement method has not been extens i ve , par t i c ul arly f or
thr ee- d imens i onal shapes . Ther efor e a general formul at i on of the
f i ni te el ement method for one- , two- and thr ee-d i mens i onal shapes was
made and impl emen t ed . Both numer i ca l methods accur at el y pr edi ct e d
free z i ng and thawi ng t im es for regular shapes . Suff i c i ently small
spat i al and t i me step i nt er vals cou l d be used so that errors ar i s i ng
f r om the i mpl ement ation of the methods w er e negl i g i bl e compared wi th
exper i men tal and thermal property data uncer t a i nt i es . Gui de l i nes wer e
es tabl i shed to choose s pace and time gri ds i n appl i cation of the f i ni te
el ement method for i rr egu l ar shapes . Adher ence to thes e gu i de l ines
ens ured that pr edi c t i on method error was i nsi gn i f i cant . A s i mpl i f i e d
f i n i t e el ement method was formulat ed and impl emen t ed . ·rt had l ow er
comput ation cos ts but was l ess accurat e than the general formul ation .
Abstract iii
No accur ate , general , but s impl e method for pred i c t i ng thawi ng times
was found i n the l i teratur e . Four poss i bl e appr oaches f or a generally
appl i cabl e , emp i r i cal pr edi ction f o rmul a w er e i nv es ti gated . Each coul d
be used to pred i ct e xper i m ental dat a f or s i mpl e shapes to w i th i n ± 1 1 . 0%
at the 95% l evel of conf i dence . This acc urac y was e qui val ent to that
d i s played by s i m i l ar f ormul ae f or free z i ng t i me pred i ct i on , and was
onl y sl i ghtly i nf e r i or to the accuracy of the best numeri cal metho ds.
A l l four methods ar e recommende d as accurat e pred i ctors .
For mul t i- d imensional shapes ther e w er e two e x i s ti ng geometri c factors

used to mod i fy slab pred i ct i on met ho ds - the e qu i va l ent heat transfer
d imensi onal i ty ( EHTD ) and the mean cond uc t i ng path l ength (MCP) . N ew
emp i r i cal express i ons to ca l culate these f actors for regular shapes
w er e developed that wer e both more accur ate and mor e wi dely appl i cabl e
than the previ ous vers i ons . Pri nc i pl es by wh i ch EHT D and MC P coul d be
determined accur ately for any two- or thr ee-d imensional shapes were
es tabl i she d . The e ff ect of the f i rs t an d second d imens i on wer e
acc ur ately predi cted but lack of s uf f i c i ent data ( due to h i gh dat a
col l ect i on costs ) prevented accur at e mode ll i ng of the e ffect o f the
third d imension for some i rregul ar shapes .
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I woul d l ik e to thank the fol l ow i ng :
- Pr ofessor R . L . Earle , Dr A . C . Cl eland , Dr S . J . Byrne for the ir

superv i s ion and ass i s t ance.
- Andy for his ex tra gu i dance and encourag ement .
- Mr J . T . Alger , Mr P . Shaw, Mr D . W . Coul i ng for the ir sub t l e sk i l l s ,

pat i en t help and exp er i enc e i n bu i l d ing and ma inta in ing equipme n t .
- Mr M . P . F . Loef f en for h i s t i me and ass i s t anc e in compu t i ng mat ters .
- Mr R . Trott for h i s t i me and the P . N . H . B . for the u se of the ir vac uum

mou ld i ng fac i l i t i e s .
- Mr N . B oy d for h i s help i n supply ing tuna for exper imental work .
- M . I . R . I . N . Z . for the resear ch grant that made th i s work poss i b l e and

for u se of the ir compu t i ng fac il i t i es .
- The Un i v ersi ty Grants Commi t tee and New Z eal and Meat Pr oduc ers ' Board
wh ich p rov i ded fi nanc i a l support in the form of scholarsh ips .
- The Mas sey Un i v ers i ty PRIME 750 compu ters for many m i l l ion seconds of
the ir t i me .
- F ami l y and fr i end s for the ir con t i nual support and he lpfulness .
- J oanne for p roof- read i ng , encouragement and h eap s of TLC .

V
TAB LE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1v
TABLE OF CONTENTS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • v
LIST OF TABLES . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • xi
L I ST OF F I GURES • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • xvi
INTRODUCTI ON • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1
2 L I TE RATURE REV IEW • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 3

2. 1 PHASE CHANGE IN FOODS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 3
2 .2 P HASE CHANGE FORMULATI ON • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 6
2.2. 1 Govern i ng Part i al D if f erent i al Equat i ons • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 6
2.2.2 I ni t i al and Surface Boundar y Condi tions • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 8
2.2.3 C ompl et i on o f Phase Change • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 10
2.2.4 Symmetry Cond i tions • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 11
2.3 SOLUTIONS USING THE ASSUMPTION OF A UNI QUE PHASE
CHAN GE TEMPERATURE • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 12
2. 3 . 1 Exact Sol uti ons • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 13
2.3.2 Approximat e Sol utions for Slabs • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 13
2.3.3 Approximat e Sol uti ons for R ad i al Geomet r y • • • • • • • • • • • • • 15
2.3.4 Approximat e Sol utions for Mul t i-D i mensional Shapes • • • • 15
2.3.5 Emp i r i cal Approaches • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 16
2.3.6 U s e of Anal ogues and Graphi cal M ethods • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 17
2.3.7 Numer i ca l Sol ut i ons • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 17
2.4 SOLUTI ONS FOR PHASE CHANGE OVE R A RAN GE OF TEMPE RATURES • • • • • • 20
2. 4. 1 Approximat e Anal yti ca l Soluti ons for Alloy
Sol i d i f i cation • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 21
2.4.2 Sem i -Anal yt i cal Solut i ons • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 21
Tabl e of Cont ents vi
2.�.3 Empi r i cal Solut i ons • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 23

2.�.� N umeri cal Metho ds • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 2�
2.§ THE EFFECT OF GEOMETRY ON FREEZ IN G AND THAWING
TIME PREDICTI ONS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 27
2.6 PHYS ICAL P ARAMETE RS REQU I RED FOR CALCU LATION OF P HASE
CHANGE I N FOODS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 29
2. 6. 1 Thermal Proper t y Data • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 29
2 . 6. 2 Sur f ace Heat Transf er C oeff i ci ents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 30
2 .7 SUMMARY • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 31
3 RESEARCH OBJECTI VES • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 33
� NUMERI CAL METHOD FORMULAT I ONS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 37

4.1 INT RODUCT I ON • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 37
�. 2 THE F IN ITE ELEMENT METHOD • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 38
�. 2 . 1 F i n i te E l ement Method Formulat i on • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 39
�. 2. 2 C omput er I mpl ement ation • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • �2
�. 2. 3 F ini te E l ement M ethod Tes t i ng • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • �5
�.3 T HE F IN I TE DIFFE RENCE METHOD • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 51
�. 3. 1 F i ni t e C yl i nder F i ni te D if f er ence Scheme Formul at i on • • 52
�. 3 . 2 C omput er I mpl ement ation and T es t i ng • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 5�
5 EXPERI MENTAL P ROCEDUR E AND DATA COLLECTION • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 57

5.1 E XPERI MENTAL ERROR • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 57
5.2 CHOI CE OF P HASE CHANGE MATERI A LS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 58
5.3 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 60
5.4 THAWIN G OF SLA BS . • . . . • . . • • • • . • . • . . . • • • • . • . • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 65
5. 4 . 1 The Equ i pment . • . . . . . • • . . . • • • . . . . . • . • . . . . . • • . • . • • • • • • • • 65
5 . �. 2 Thi ckness Control and M eas ur ement • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 66
5 . �. 3 Measur ement and Control of Surface Heat
Transf er C oeff i c i ents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 66
5.�.� Anal y s i s o f Heat Transfer i n Slabs • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 72
5.5 THAWING OF INFIN ITE CYLINDERS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 78
5.5. 1 The Equi pment • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 78
5.5.2 D i amet er Control and Meas ur emen t • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 79
Tabl e of Contents v1 1
5.5.3 Meas ur ement and Control of Sur f ace H eat

Transf er Co eff i ci ents • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 82
5.5.4 Anal ysi s of H eat T ransf er i n I nf i ni te C yl i nder s • • • • •• • 85
5.6 THAWIN G OF SPHERES• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 87
5 . 6• 1 The Eq u i pm en t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5. 6.2 D i amet er Control and Measur ement • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 8 9
5.6.3 Measur ement an d C ontrol of Sur f ace H eat
Transfer Coeff i c i ents• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 8 9
5.6.4 Anal ysi s of H eat Transf er i n Spher es • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 90
5.7 THAWING OF RECTAN GULAR BRI C KS• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 91
The Equ i pment ••• •••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 91
D imensional Meas ur ement and Control • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 92
M easur ement and C ontrol of Sur f ace H eat
Transf er Coeff i c i ents• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 93
5.7.4 Analys i s of H eat Transf er i n R ectangu l ar Bri cks • •• • • • • 94
5.8 HEAT TRANSFER IN TWO-DI MENSI ONAL I R RE GULAR SHAPES • • • • • • • • • • • • 98
5. 8 . 1 The Equ i pment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . • • • • 98
5.8.2 D imensional Meas ur ement and Control • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 04
5. 8.3 Meas ur ement and C ontrol of Sur f ace Heat
Tr ansfer Coeff i ci ents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 0 4
5 . 8. 4 Analysi s of H eat Transf er i n Two-D imens i onal
Irre gular Shapes • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••• ••• • ••••••••••• • 1 0 6
5.9 HEAT TRANSFE R IN THREE-DI MENSIONA L IRREGU LA R S HA P ES• • • • ••••• 1 0 8
5. 9. 1 The Equ i pment • • •• • • • • • •• • •• • ••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 0 8
5. 9.2 D imens i onal C ont rol and M easur emen t •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 09
5. 9 . 3 Measurement and Control of Surfa ce Heat
Transf er C oeff i c i en t s•••• •••••• • ••••• • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 1 1 0
5.9.4 Analysi s of H e at Tr ansf er for Thr ee-D imens ion al
Irregu l ar Sha pes . . . . . . . . • . • • • • . . . . . . . . . . . • • . • . . . . • • . . 1 1 1
6 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND RESULTS• • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •••• • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • 1 21

6. 1 INTRODUCTION••••• • • • ••• • ••• • • • •• • • • • • • • ••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 2 1
6.2 THAWING OF SLABS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 2 4
6.3 THAWING OF INFINITE CYLINDERS ••• • • •••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 25
6.4 THAWING OF SPHERES•••• • • • • • • •••• • •••• • • • •••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • 1 25
Tabl e of C onten t s vi i i
6.5 T HAWIN G OF RECTAN GULAR BRICKS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 2 6

6. 6 TWO-DI MENS IONAL IRREGU LAR SHA P ES • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 2 6
6.7 THREE- DI MENSI ONAL I R RE GULAR SHAPES • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 27
7 PREDI CTION OF THAWIN G T IMES FOR SLABS , INF IN ITE CYLINDERS

AND SPHERES • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 4 8
1. 1 VERIFI CATION OF A UN IFIED APP ROACH FOR S IMPLE SHA P ES • • • • • • • • 1 4 8
7.2 PREDI CTION BY NUME RI CAL METHODS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 51
7.3 P REDICTI ON B Y SIMPLE FORMU LAE • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 54
7.3.1 Ex i st i ng Pred i ct i on Formul ae • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 54
7.3.2 Impr oved Pre d i c tion M ethods • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 5 8
1. 3 . 3 Compar i son W i th Free z i ng T ime Pred i ct i on Formul ae • • • • 1 62
1. 4 SUMMARY • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 63
8 PREDI CTION OF FREEZING AND THAWIN G TIMES FOR MULT I -DI MENSIONAL
S HAPES BY NUMERI CAL METHODS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 68 ·
8. 1 INT RODUCTION • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 68
8.2 PREDI CTI ONS FOR REGU LAR SHAPES • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 68
8.3 PREDI CT IONS FOR TWO-DIMENS IONAL I RREGU LAR SHA P ES • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 70
8.4 PREDICTI ONS FOR THREE- DIMENSI ONAL I R REGULAR S HAP ES • • • • • • • • • • 1 71
8.5 FIN ITE ELEMENT METHOD USER GUI DELINES • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 76
8.6 SUMMARY • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 7 7
9 PREDI CTION OF FREE ZING AND THAWING TIMES FOR MU LTI-DI MENSIONAL
REGULAR SHAPES BY SIMPLE METHODS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 80
9.1 ANALYTICAL TREATMENT OF THE EFFECT OF GEOMETRY • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 80
9.2 FEAS IBLE GEOMETRI C FACTORS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 81
9.3 VERI FICATION OF THE EFFECT OF ENVI ROMENTAL CONDITIONS
ON GEOMETRIC FACTORS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 83
9.4 DEVELOPMENT OF IMPROVED GEOMETRI C FACTOR S FOR
MULTI- DIMENSI ONAL REGU LAR SHAP ES • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 84
9.5 TESTING OF IMPROVED GEOMETRI C FACTOR S AGA INST EXPERI MENTAL
DATA FOR MULT-DI MENSI ONAL REGULAR SHAP ES • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 89
9.6 TESTING OF IMPROVED GEOMETRIC FACTORS IN COMBINATION WITH
SIMPLE PREDICTION FORMU LAE • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 91
/
Tabl e of C ont ents ix
9.7 SUMMARY • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 92
1 0 PRE DI CTION OF FREE Z ING AND THAWIN G T I MES FOR MU LT I -DI MENSIONAL
I R RE GU LA R SHAP ES BY SIMPLE METHODS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 98
1 0 . 1 INTRODUCT ION • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 98
1 0 . 2 GEOMETRY PARAMETERS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 9 9
1 0 . 3 DEVELOPMENT OF GEOMETRI C FACTOR S FOR MULT I-D I MENS IONAL
I RREGU LAR SHAPES • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 200
1 0 . � TESTING OF GEOMETR I C FACTORS AGAINST E XP ERI MENTA L DATA
FOR MULT I - DI MENSI ONAL SHAPES • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 2 03
1 0 . � . 1 Rectangu l ar Bri ck F reezi ng and Thaw i ng • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 203
1 0 . � . 2 Free zing and Thawing of Two-D imensi onal
I rr egul ar Shapes • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 203
1 0 . � . 3 Free zing and Thawi ng of T hree-D imension al
I rr egu l ar Sha pes . • . • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 204
1 0 . � . � C ompari son of Slab Predi ction M ethods • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 206
1 0 . � . 5 Anal y s i s of Geomet r i c F actor s • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 206
1 0. 5 SUMMARY • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 207
1 1 TESTIN G OF P REDI CTION METHODS FOR OTHER MATE RI A LS AND DATA SETS • • 2 1 5
1 1 . 1 I NTRODU CT I ON • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 2 1 5
1 1 . 2 NUMERI CAL P REDI CTION METHODS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 21 5
1 1 . 3 SIMPLE P REDICT I ON METHODS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 2 1 7
1 1 • 4 SUMMAR Y • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 2 1 9
1 2 OVE RALL EVALUATI ON OF FREEZING AND THAWIN G T I ME

PREDI CT ION METHODS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 225
1 2 . 1 I NTRODUCT I ON • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 225
1 2 . 2 NUMERI CAL PREDI CTION METHODS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 226
1 2 . 3 SIMPLE P RE DI CT I ON METHODS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 227
1 2 . � OTHER ATTRI BUTES OF S IMP LE P RE DI CTION METHODS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 229
1 2 . 5 COMPARISON OF NUMERICAL AND SIMPLE P RE DI CT I ON METHODS • • • • • • • 230
1 2 . 6 NON -CONSTANT ENVIRONMENTAL CONDIT IONS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 230
1 2. 7 SUMMARY • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 2 31
Tabl e of C ont ent s X
13 CONCLUSIONS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 23-4
NOMENCLATURE • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 236
REFE RENCES • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 240
APP ENDI X A . SUMMARY OF PUBLISHE D SOL UTIONS TO PHASE

CHANGE PROBLEMS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 2 60
A. 1 ABBREV IATIONS USED IN TABLES A . 1 TO A . 8 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 260
A.2 ANALYT I CA L SOLUTI ONS TO P HASE CHANGE USING THE ASSU MPTI ON
OF A UNI QU E PHASE CHANGE TEMPERATUR E • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 261
A.3 SOLUTI ONS FOR P HASE CHANGE OVER A RAN GE OF TEMPERATURES • • • • • 268
APP ENDI X B . ESTIMATION O F E DGE HEAT TRANSFE R IN SLAB

THAWIN G EXPERIMENTS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 272
APP ENDI X C . GEOMETRI C FACTOR DATA FOR MU LT I -DI MENS IONA L S HA P ES • • 276
APPENDIX D . F IN ITE E LEMENT METHOD COMPUTE R PROGRAM L IST INGS

AND DATA P REPARATION NOTES • • • • • • • • • • • • ( M i cr of i che ) • • 282
D.1 F IN ITE E LEME NT METHOD COMPUTER PROGRAM DESCRI PTI ONS • • • • • • • • • 2 82
D.2 FIN ITE ELEMENT METHOD COMPUTE R P ROGRAM DATA P RE PARATION • • • • • 283
D.3 SYMBOLS USED IN T HE F IN ITE E LEMENT METHOD COMPUTE R PROGRAMS . 2 91
D.� FINITE ELEMENT METHOD COMPUTE R P ROGRAM LISTIN GS • • • • • • • • • • • • • 29�
D . �. 1 The Full Formul ation • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 2 9�
D.�. 2 The S impl if i ed Formul at i on • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 308
D.5 SAMPLE PROBLEM W ITH COMPUTE R PROGRAM DATA AND OUTPUT F ILES • • 31 5
APP ENDI X E . SAMPLE CALCULATIONS FOR S IMPLE FREEZING AND THAWING

T I ME PREDICT I ON FORMULAE • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ( M i cr of i che ) • • 331
E. 1 THAWING T I ME P REDI CT ION • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 331
E. 2 F REEZING TIME P RE DI CT I ON • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 33�
APP ENDI CES D and E are i nc l uded on mi cr of i che at the end of APP ENDI X c.
xi
L IST OF TABLES
3.1 D esirable A t t r i but es of Free z i ng and Thawing T ime Predi c tion

M et hods 35
3.2 Cond i t i ons R equ i red For D er i vat i on of S impl e Freezi ng and
Thawi ng T ime Pred i c t i on Formul ae 3 6.
3.3 Factors Aff ec t i ng Freezi ng and Thaw i ng T i mes 36
4.1 C ompari son of R es ul t s Fr om the F i n i t e El ement Method Progr ams

W i th N eumann ' s Sol ut i on For Thaw i ng of a S lab Subj ect to the
F i rs t K ind of Boundar y Condi t i on 47
4.2 Compar i son of R es ul ts F rom the F i ni te E l ement Method Programs

W i th a Know n Anal y t i cal Sol ution F or Cool i ng of a Slab
Subj ect to the Second K i nd of Boundar y C ond i t i on 48
4.3 Compari son of R es ul t s Fr om the F i n i t e El ement Method Progr ams

W i th a N umer i ca l Soluti on For C ool i ng of a Sl ab Subj ect to
the Third K i nd of Boundar y Condi tion Including Rad i at ion 49
4. 4 Compar i son o f R es ul ts F rom the F i ni te E l ement Method Progr ams

W i th a Known Anal y t i c a l Sol u t i on For Cool ing of a Cube
Subj ect to the Third K i nd of Boundar y C ond i t i on
4.5 C ompari son of R es ul t s Fr om the F i ni t e C yl i nder F i n i te

D if f er ence Met hod Program W i th a K nown Anal yti ca l Sol ut i on
For C ool ing of a F i n i t e Cyl i nder Su bj e c t t o the Thi r d
K i nd of Boundar y Cond i t i on 56
5.1 Thermal Pro per t y D at a Used I n C al c ul ati ons By N umeri cal M ethods 61
5.2 Thermal Proper t y Dat a U sed In Calcul at i ons By Simpl e Formul ae 62
6.1 Typi cal Condi t i ons i n Food Fr ee z i ng and Thawing Processes 1 28

L i st of T ab l es xii
6.2 Experiment al Data For Thawing of Slabs o f Tyl ose 1 29
6.3 Exper i mental D at a For Thaw i ng o f Inf i ni te Cyl i nders of Tyl os e 1 30
6.4 Experimental Data For Thawi ng of Spher es of Tyl ose 1 31
6.5 Exper i ment a l Data For Thaw i ng of R ec t angu l ar Bri cks of Tyl os e 1 32
6.6 Experimental D at a For Free z i ng and Thawi ng o f Two-D i mensional

Irr egul ar Shapes of Tyl os e 1 34
6. 7 Exper imental Data For Freezing and Thawi ng of Thr e e-D i mensional
Irregu l ar Sha pes of Tyl ose 1 36
6.8 Exper iment al D at a For Free z i ng and Thawi ng of Slabs and

Mul t i -D imensi onal Shapes of M i nced Lean Bee f 1 37
7.1 Summar y of Per c entage D i f f er ences Between Experimental Free z i ng

and Thawi ng T imes For S i mpl e Tyl ose Shapes and Free z i ng and
Thawi ng T im es C al c ul ated By Slab , Inf i ni t e C yl inder and
Spher e Versi ons of the F i ni te D if f er ence Method 1 64
7.2 Summary of Per cent a ge D i f f erences Between Experiment al Thawi ng

T imes For Tyl ose Sl abs , Inf i ni t e C yl i nders and Spheres and
Thawi ng T imes C al c ul ated By S imple Pr edi ction Formul ae 1 65
7.3 Summar y of Per centage D if f er ences Between Exper i ment a l Thawi ng

T i m es For Tylose Slabs , Inf i n i t e C yl i nders and Spher es and
Thawi ng T imes Calculat ed By The Bes t Present Methods 1 67
8. 1 Summar y of P er centa ge D i fferences Between Experiment al Free z i ng

and Thaw i ng T ime For Tyl os e Mul t i -D imen s i onal Shapes and
Free z i ng and Thawing T im es Calcul ated By Numeri cal Methods 1 78
8.2 Summar y of Per cent age D if f er ences Bet ween Exper i mental Free z i ng
and Thawing T imes For T yl ose Thr ee-D imensional Irr egul ar
Shapes and Freezi ng and Thawi ng T imes Calcul at ed By the
F i ni t e El emen t Method 179
L i s t of Tabl es x1 1 i
9.1 The Effect of B i , Ste and Pk on the R a t i o of Freezi ng and Thawi ng

Times For Inf i n i t e R ods to the T imes For the Equ i val ent Slab 1 93
9.2 Constants For Pred i c tion of EHTD and MCP 1 94
9.3 Summar y of Percent age D i f f er ences Bet ween N umer i ca l l y Calcul at ed

Free zing T i m es For F i ni t e Cyl i n ders , Inf i ni t e Rods and
R ectangular Bri cks and Free zi ng T imes Cal cul at ed By
S imple Predi ction Formul ae 1 95
9.4 Summar y of Percent age D if f er ences Between Exper i mental Freezi ng

and Thawing T imes For Tylose Rectangul ar Bri c ks and Free zing
and Thawi ng T imes Cal cul at ed U si ng S i mpl e Geometr i c Factors 1 96
9.5 Summar y o f P er c entage D i f f er en c es Between Experi ment al Free z i ng

and Thawi ng T imes For Tyl ose R ec t angul ar Bri cks and Free z i ng
an d Thawing T imes C al c ul ated By S imple Predi c tion Formulae 1 97
1 0 . 1 Par ameters For Cal cul at i on of The E ffect of Geomet r y

F or Irr egul ar Shap es 20 9
1 0 . 2 Summar y of Per centage D if f erences Between Numer i cally Cal cul at ed

Free z i ng T im es For F i ni t e Cyl inders , Inf i ni t e Rods and
Rectangular Bri cks and Free z i ng T i mes Cal cul ated By
Simple Predi c t ion Formul ae 21 0
1 0 . 3 Summar y of Percentage D if f er en ces Between Exper i mental Freezi ng

and Thawing T i m es For Tyl ose Mul t i-D imensional Shapes and
Free z i ng and Thawi ng T imes Cal cul at ed By S impl e
Predi c tion Formul ae 21 1
1 1 . 1 C om pos i te Dat a Set For Tes t i ng o f Free z i ng and Thawi ng

T ime Pred i c t i on Methods 220
1 1 . 2 Summar y of Per centage D if f er ences Between Exper i mental Thawi ng

T im es and Predi cted Thawi ng T i m es For M i nced Lean Beef 222
L i s t of Tabl es xiv
1 1 . 3 Summar y o f P er cent a ge D i ffer ences Between Experimental Fr eezing

T i mes and Pred i ct ed Free z i ng T imes C al cul at ed By Eq . ( 7 . 7 ) 223
1 1 . 4 Summar y of P er centage D i ffer ences Between Experiment al Free z i ng

T imes For Mul t i -D imen s i onal Sha pes and Freez i ng T imes
Calcul ated By S i mpl e Pred i c t ion Metho ds 224
1 2 . 1 Summar y of the Percentage D if f er ences Between Exper i m en t al

Free z i ng and Thawing T imes Fr om a C omposi t e D at a Set and
F ree z i ng and Thawi ng T imes Calcul at ed By N umer i ca l and
S i mpl e Pred i c t i on Methods 232
1 2 . 2 C om par i son of the Esti mat ed Exper imen t al U ncer t a i nt y Bounds and
the Means and 95% Conf i dence Bounds For the Numeri cal and
S impl e F ree z i ng and Thaw i ng T ime Pred i ct i on Methods 233
A. 1 Exact Anal y ti cal Sol u t i o ns Assuming a Uni que Phase

Change Temper at ur e 261
A.2 Appro x imat e Anal y t i cal Sol u t i ons For Slabs Assuming a U n i que
Phase C hange Temper a t ur e 262
A.3 Appro x imat e Anal y ti cal Sol u t i o ns For Radi al Geometry Assum i ng
a U n i que Phase Change T emperatur e 265
A.4 Appro x imate Anal y t i cal Sol utions For Mul t i-D imensional Shap es
Assumi ng a U n i que Phase Change Tempera t ur e 266
A.5 Emp i ri cal Sol u t i o ns Assumi ng a U ni que Phase Change T emper at ur e 267
A.6 Approxi mat e Anal y t i cal Solut i ons For Alloy Sol i d if i ca t i on 268
A.7 Empi r i cal Sol u t i o ns For Phase Chan ge Over a R ange

of Temperatur es 26 9
A.8 Sol u t i ons U si ng Equi v al ent D i amet ers t o Account F or

Irr egu l ar Shapes 271
L i s t of Tabl es XV
B. 1 R esul ts of the F i ni t e El ement Method S imul at ion o f Ed ge H eat

Transf er D ur i ng Thaw i ng of Slabs 27 4
C.1 R esul ts of F i n i t e D i f f er ence Method C al c ul at ions To Det ermi ne

Geometri c Factors For Mul ti -D imens i onal R egul ar Shapes 276
C.2 R esul ts of F i ni t e E l ement Method Calcul a tions To D et ermi ne

Geomet r i c F actors For Mul t i -D imens i onal Irregul ar Shapes 281
D.1 Par ameter s For The F i ni t e El ement Method Progr ams 2 84
E.1 Res ul ts of the Sampl e C al cu l at i on For S impl e Free zi ng and

Thawi ng T ime Pre di c tion Formulae 3 36
xv i
L IST OF F I GU R ES
2. 1 Ice Fra c t i on of Free zabl e Wat er D at a For a Ty pi cal Foodstuff 4
2.2 Thermal Conduc t i vi ty D at a For a Typ i ca l Foods t uff 4
2.3 Appar ent Volumet ric Spec i f i c Heat C a pa c i t y D at a F or a Typi cal

Foodstuff 5
2.4 Enthal py D ata F or a Ty p i cal Foo dst uff 5
5.1 Thermal C onduc t i vi ty D at a For Tylose ( A ) and M i nced L ean

Beef ( B ) 63
5.2 Apparent Volumetri c Spec i f i c H eat Capac i t y D ata For

Tyl ose ( A , C ) and Mi nced Lean Beef ( B ) 63
5.3 Schemat i c D i agram of the Exper i mental Slab Thaw i ng Equ i pmen t 69
5. 4 Construction o f T es t Slabs 70
5.5 Pred i ct i on o f Sur f ace H eat Transf er Coef f i c i ents For Slab
Thawi ng Exper iments 71
5.6 Typi cal T emperatur e Prof i l es For Thermocoupl es Pos i t i oned A t

O r N e ar the Surface o f a Thawing Slab 77
5.7 Breakp o i nt Anal ysi s to E s t i mat e Thawi ng T imes From Thermocoupl es

Not Posi tioned Exactly at the Thermodynami c Centre 77
5.8 Schemat i c D i agram o f the L i qu i d I mmer s i on T ank
5.9 Schematic D iagr am of the Syst em U sed To Hol d and Osc i l l ate
the I n f i n i t e C yl i nders and Two- D imens i onal I rregu l ar Shapes
i n the L i qu i d I mmer sion Tank 80
5 . 1 0 The Sampl e Osc i l l at or and I nf i ni te Cyl i nder Thawi ng Equ i pment

U sed i n the L i qu i d Immersion Tank 81
,
L i st of F i gur es xv i i
5 . 1 1 Schemati c D i a gr am Showi ng the Arr angement of the Pol yst yr ene Foam
Caps and Thermocoupl es L eads For Inf i ni t e Cyl i nder Exper i ments 81
5 . 1 2 The Sampl e Osc i l l ator an d Sphere Shapes Used i n the L i quid

Immer s i on Tan k 88
5 . 1 3 Ty p i cal R ectangul ar Brick Shapes 96
5 . 1 4 Schemat i c D i agrams of Box C or ner Types 97
5 . 1 5 Cross-sections and F i n i t e E l ement Method Gri ds For the

Two- D imens i onal Irregu l ar Sha pes N umber s One and F i ve 99
5 . 1 6 Cross- section and F i ni t e El ement M ethod Gri d For the

Two-D imens i onal Irregu l ar Shape N umber Two 1 00
5 . 1 7 Cross- sec tion and F i n i t e El ement M ethod G r i d For t he

Two-D imens i onal Irregu l ar Shape N umber Three 1 00
5 . 1 8 Cross-sec t i on and F i n i t e El ement M ethod Gr i d For t he

Two-D imens i onal Irregu l ar Shape N umber Four 101
5 . 1 9 Cr oss-sect ion and F i n i t e El ement Method G r i d For the

Two- D imens i onal Irregu l ar Sha pe N umber S i x 1 01
5 . 20 Cr oss-section and F i n i t e El ement M ethod Gri d For t he

Two-D imens i onal Irregu l ar Shape N umber Seven 1 02
5 . 2 1 Cross- sec tion and F i n i t e E l ement M et hod Gri d For t he

Two- D imensional Irregu l ar Sha pe N umber E i ght 1 02
5 . 2 2 Schemati c D iagr am Showi ng t he Method o f Thermocoupl e Insertion

and Pos i t i on i ng W i th i n the Mul t i - D imens i onal Irregul ar Shapes 1 03
5 . 23 The Sampl e Oscill ator and Two-Dimensional Irregul ar Shape

Free z i ng an d Thaw i ng Equ i pment U sed in t he L i qu i d
Immer sion T ank 1 03
L i st of F i gur es xv1 1 i
5 . 2 4 The Pyr ami d Thr e e-D imens i onal Irregul ar Shape F i n i t e El ement
Method Gri d 114
5 . 2 5 The Spher e Thr ee-D imens ional Irregular Shape F i n i t e El ement

Method Gri ds 115
5 . 26 The Egg Thr ee-D imens i onal Irregul ar Shape F i ni te El ement

Method Gri ds 117
5 . 27 The F i sh Thr e e-D imens ional Irr egul ar Shape F i n i t e E l ement

Method Gri d 118
5 . 28 The Sampl e Osc i l l ator and Thr ee-D imensional Irr egul ar Shapes
Used i n the L i qu i d Immer s i on T an k 119
6. 1 A Ty pi cal Temper atur e/T ime Prof i l e For Thaw i ng of Slabs

of Tyl ose 1 38
6.2 A Ty p i cal Temper at ur e/T ime Prof i l e For Thawing of Inf i n i te

Cyl i nders of Tyl ose 1 38
6.3 A Ty pi cal Temper atur e/Time Prof i l e For Thawing o f Spher es

of Tyl ose 1 39
6.4 A Ty p i cal T emper atur e/Time Prof i l e For Thawing of R ect angul ar
Bri cks of Tyl os e 1 39
6.5 A Typi cal Temperatur e/Time Prof i l e For Free z i ng or Thawing of

t he Tyl ose Two-D imen s i onal Irr egu l ar Shape N umber One 1 40
6.6 A Typi cal Temper atur e/T ime Prof i l e For Free z i ng or Thawing of
t he Tyl ose Two-D imens i onal Irregu l ar Sha pe N umber Two 1 40
6.7 A Ty p i cal Temper atur e/T ime Prof i l e For Free z i ng or Thawing of
the Tyl ose Two-D i mensi onal I rregu l ar Shape N umber Thr e e 1 41
6.8 A Ty p i cal Temper at ur e/T ime Pr of i l e For Free z i ng or Thawing of

t he Tyl ose Two-D imensi onal Irr egu l ar Shape N umber Four 1 41
L i s t of F i gur es xi x
6.9 A Ty p i cal Temper atur e/T ime Prof i l e For Free z i ng or Thawi ng of
the Tyl ose Two-D imen s i onal I rregu l ar Shape N umber F i ve 1 42
6 . 1 0 A Ty p i cal Temper at ur e / T i me Prof i l e For Free z i ng or Thawing of

the Tyl ose Two- D imens i onal I rregu l ar Shape Num ber S i x 1 42
6 . 1 1 A Ty p i cal Temper atur e/T ime Prof il e For Free z i ng o r Thawi ng of

the Tyl ose Two-D imen s i onal I rr egu l ar Shape N umber Seven 1 43
6 . 1 2 A Ty pi cal Temper atur e/T i me Prof i l e For Free z i ng or Thawing of

the Tyl ose Two-D imens i onal I rr egul ar Shape N umber E ight 1 43
6 . 1 3 A Typi cal Temper at ur e/Time Prof i l e For Free z i ng or Thawi ng of

the Tyl os e Three-D imen s i onal I rr egul ar Pyrami d Shape 1 44
6 . 1 4 A Ty p i cal Temper ature/Time Prof i l e For Free z i ng or Thawi ng of

the Tyl ose Thr ee-D imens i onal I rr egul ar Spher e Shape 1 44
6 . 1 5 A Ty p i cal Temper atur e/T ime Prof i l e For Free z i ng or Thawi ng of

the Tyl ose Thr ee-D imens i onal I rregu l ar F i sh Shape 1 45
6 . 1 6 A Typi cal Temper ature/T ime Prof i l e For Free z i ng or Thawing of

the Tyl ose Three-D i men s i onal I rr egul ar Egg Shape 1 46
6 . 1 7 A Ty p i cal Temper at ur e/T ime Prof i l e For Thawi n g of Slabs of

M i nced Lean Beef 1 46
6 . 1 8 A Ty p i cal Temper atur e/T ime Pr of il e F or Thawing of Rectangul ar

Br i cks of M i nced Lean Bee f 1 47
6 . 1 9 A Ty p i cal Temper at ur e/T ime Prof i l e For Free z i ng or Thawi ng of

a M inced Lean Bee f Two-D imensi onal I rr egul ar Sha pe 1 47
B. 1 The F i n i t e El ement Method Gri ds Used To I n v es t i gat e the Effect

of Edge H eat Transfer D ur i ng Thaw i ng of Slabs of Tyl ose 27 5
D. 1 The F i ni t e El ement Gri d F or the Sampl e Probl em Showing Node

Pos i t i on i ng and Number i ng 31 8
INTRODUCT I ON
Low temperatur e i s one of the mos t important and common means of f ood
p reserv a t i on . For New Zealand , whose economy is b ased on p rimary
i ndus tr i es and export of peri shable products to d i s t an t mark e t s , th i s
is espec ially tru e . Freez i ng , co ld storag e and sub se quent thaw i ng are
all op erati ons on the froz en food cha i n in wh i ch los ses of food qual i ty
can b e s i g n i f i can t . I mportant roles for the food eng i ne er are
therefore to des i g n , op erate and control equ i pment that ma i nta i ns
p rodu c t qual i ty wh ilst k eep ing p rocess i ng costs low .
Low temp erature preservat i on can , a t b es t , only ma i nta i n food qual i ty

l ev e ls so there has b een ex tens ive research i nto factors affec t i ng food
qual i ty dur i ng freez i ng , cold s torage and thawi ng . The phys i cal ,
chemical and b iolog i cal chang es that occur dur i ng these p rocesses have
b een re lated to the temperature h istory of the f ood and the p rocess
cond i t i ons u sed . For some food s , data sugges t i ng op t imal se ts of
cond i t i ons and equ i pmen t to m i n im i se damag e to the f ood p roduc t have
b een found . To des ign and op t i m i se equ i p ment f or l ow temperature
p reser v a t i on o f food the f ood eng ineer must b e ab le to p red i c t free z i ng
and thaw i ng rates for these cond i t ions . Both op erat i ng and c ap i tal
cos t s can be reduced i f simple and accurat e methods to do th is are
ava i l ab l e .
I n the p ast , freez i ng has b een more impor tant commerc ially than thaw i ng
as tha w i ng has been p r edom i nately a domes t ic p r ac t i c e . Ex tens i v e
research i nt o the phy si cal aspec ts o f freez i ng has p roduced methods to
pred i c t freez i ng t i mes that are sat i sfac tory f or many p r ac t i cal
s i tua t i ons . However , in general , the se methods ar e e i ther spec if i c to
i nd iv i dual f ood p roducts or app l y only to . s i mp l e r egul ar g eome tr i es .
Many fro z en foodstuffs are irregular i n shap e s o further research i s
warranted t o deve l op , tes t and val i date a gen eral me thod that pred i c ts
freez ing t imes for a wide var i et y of shap es .
R ecently , wi th greater quant i t ies of goods b e i ng fr oz en and gr eater

emphasis on further p rocess i ng of froz en p roducts , thawing has b ecome
an i mportant industr ial process . A s i mpl i s t i c approach is to tre at
I ntroduct i on 2
thawi ng as the reverse of freez i ng, but the val idi ty of th i s app roach
is ques t i onab l e as it has not b een p rov en that accurate thawi ng
p red i c t i ons w i l l be ob ta ined . As for freez ing, much of the research
i nto thaw i ng rate and t i me pred i c t ion has been for ind i v i dual p r oduc ts .
There remains the need for research to f i nd a general method f or
pred i c t ion of thawi ng t i mes . I deal l y , the me thod would b e simi l ar to
those used to p red i c t freez i ng t imes . It may i ncorporate the same
t echn i ques to account for p r oduct g eomet ry . Th i s would al l ow the
ent i r e area of p red i c t i on of phase chang e in f oods to b e consi dered as
a whol e .
I f accurate p red i c t i on o f f reez i ng and thaw i ng under a wi de rang e of

cond i t i ons and geometr i es c an be ach i ev ed th i s w ould en ab l e more
eff i c i ent p roc ess equ ipment des i gn w i t h i n the cold cha in and hence
wou l d reduce cos ts . Therefore the p r esen t research into pred i c t i on of
thawi ng t imes and i nto the effect of p roduct shap e on b oth freez i ng and
thawi ng rates i s c l ear l y neede d .
3
2 LIT ERATUR E REVIEW
Phase change i n foods i s a comp l ex process . Mos t research into me thods

for p re d i c t i on of rates of phase chang e has used simp l i f i ed mod e l
sys tems for analys i s . It is therefore convenient to cons i de r the
l i terature sub-d iv i ded accor d i ng to the type of simpl i f i ca t i on made .
I n i t ial ly the proc ess of phase change in foods is examined and
desc r i b ed and the phase chang e p rob lem formul ated .
2.1 PHASE CHANGE I N FOODS
Food stuffs are a comp lex system of wa ter , so lutes and macromo l ecules
but are of ten cons i dered for eng i neer i ng pu rpo ses as two frac t ions ; an
aqueou s so lu t i on and a so l i d comp onen t . Phase chang e i n food s inv olves
i ntr i cate int erac tions b etween the aqueou s and so l i d frac tions . In
many so- cal l ed ''h igh mo is ture" sol i d foods ( for examp l e mea t ,
veg e tab l es and f i sh ) the wa ter i s bound i n a so li d matr ix and there i s
a l mos t n eg l ig ible migra t ion o f wa ter dur i ng freez i ng or thawi ng . Phase
chang e inv ol v es ma inly the aqueou s part chang i ng from i ce to water or
v i c e v er s a , wi th the sol id b e i ng relat ively iner t . The interac t ions i n
the food cause con t i nuou s freez ing point dep ress i on a s i ce sep arates
from the aqu e ous phase , so l a tent heat i s released or absorb ed ov er a
rang e of temp era tures dur i ng phase chang e ( Rolfe 1 9 68 p . 1 8 4 , D i ck erson
1 977 ) .
The therma l conduc t i vity and spec ifi c hea t cap ac i ty of wa t er vary by a
fac tor of ab out thr ee from tho se of i c e . La tent heat i s rel eas ed or
ab sorbed as water chang es phase , wh ilst the sol i d fra c tion is
ess ent ial l y unchange d . There fore the thermal proper t i es of food are
h ighly dep endan t on the frac t i on of i ce in the food ( Me ll or & Sepp i ng s
1 976 , Heldman 1 982 ) . The l atent heat can b e " lumped" t oge ther wi th the
sensible heat to g iv e .an " ap p arent " ( effec tive ) spec ific hea t cap acity
( Comini & Bonacina 1 97 4 ) . For a typical solid high mois tur e food the
relationship b et ween ice frac t i on , the rmal conduc tivity , app arent
specific heat c apaci ty and en thalpy as a func tion of temperature are
shown in Fig s . 2.1 to 2 . 4 ( Me llor 1 978 ) . The area under the p eak in
the specific heat c apacity c u rv e , excl uding the sensibl e heat
L i t er ature Rev iew 4
�
8... 0.5
Li:
0�-----r----�--�
-•o -30 -20 -10 0 10 20
Temperaf\.re (•c)
Fig . 2 . 1 Ice Frac t ion of Freez ab l e Wat er Data For a Typ ical Food s tuf f .
U'
0
I 1.5
�
>
-
·:;::
+=
0
�c
0
U.
�
E o.s
ID .
.c
�
0�-----r----�---.---.
-•o -lO -20 -10 0 10 20
Temperature (•c)
F i g . 2 . 2 Thermal Conduc t i v it y Data For a Ty p ical Foodst u f f .

Literature Review 5
1,000
0'
1...,
:::1
� 100
>.
-
·c:;
CJ
a.
CJ
u
-
CJ
•
I 10
-�
-
·c:;
•
a.
Vl
1
--40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20
Temperature (°C)
Fig. 2.3 Apparent Volumetri c Specific Heat Capacity Data For a Typical
Foodstuff.
400
300
-
l...,
�
lOO
>-
-8"
.c
-
�
100
0��---r----�--r---�---r---,
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20
Temperature (•c)
F i g. 2. 4 E nthalpy Dat a For a T ypical Foodst uff.

-
Dat um: H - o.o J m 3 at - 40 .0 °C.
Li ter a ture Review 6
cont ributio n , is the l a tent heat componen t .
Freezing and thawing p rocesse s dif fer c onsiderab ly . In freezing of

food there is a quite dis tinc t initial freezing temperature ( T if ) , at
which ice first starts to form. Abov e this temperature thermal
p ro p er ties are relatively cons tant and b elow this temp erature rapid
chang es oc cur as the ice frac tion incre ases . These cha ng es in
p roperties dec line as l ess liquid wa ter remains , until on ly "bound "
wa ter is left ( Moran 1 930 , Riedel 1 96 1 , Rol fe 1 9 68 p . 1 86 , Comini &
Bonac i na 1 97 4 ) . A t lower temp era tures further ice formation is limi ted
and p r operties are relatively cons tant at the so cal led fr oz en phase
values . I n thawing the temp era ture region where phase chang e oc curs is
entered s l owly and therma l properties chang e gradual l y . As more l atent
hea t is ab sorb ed and more ice me lts , freezing point dep ression is
reduced so T if is approache d . The maj ori ty of l a tent he at is absorbed
at temp eratures j u st b elow T i f giving a fina l rapid chang e in thermal
p rop er ties . This e ffec t is i ndicated by the heig ht and slope of the
apparent spec if ic heat c apac i ty and entha l py curves for ty pical foods
( Fig s . 2 . 3 and 2 . 4 ) .
I n freezing some non-equilib rium b ehaviou r has b een ob served ( Cl eland

et al 1 982 ) .Supercooling of the food below T if p r ior t o in i tial ice
c ry s ta l nuclea tion has p r ob ab l y occ urred . This type of ef fec t i s
unlikel y in thaw i ng as there is n o equivalent nuclea tion p rocess and
the la tent heat is g radual ly absorbed ini tial l y , ov er a larg e
temp er a ture rang e .
2.2 PHASE CHA NGE FORMULAT ION
2.2.1 Governing Partial Dif f erential Equa tions
P hy sica l l y , phase change i n foods i s defined as heat conduc tion in a

solid . This is g ov erned in a thr e e- dimensional volume , V, by the
p a r tial dif ferential equation:
c ::- : [ :: ] :y [ :; ] : [ :: ]
. k + k + . k + Q ( 2 .1 )
L i terature Rev i ew 7
where C • volumetr i c spec if ic hea t cap ac i t y

• f 1 ( T,mater i a l )
T • temp erature ( ° C or K )
t • t i me ( s)
k = therma l conduc t i v i t y (W m-1 -
oc 1 )
f 2 ( T , ma ter i a l )
x, y,z � dis tance in the three ax i a l d ir e c t i ons (m)
Q = internal hea t g enerat ion ( W m- 3 )
f 3 ( T , mater i a l )
Non-l i nea r i t y ar ises from the temp erature var i ab l e therma l p roper t i es
and the comp l ex nature of the boundary cond i tions appl i ed . App rox i mate
methods must there fore be u sed , or simp l i fy i ng assump ti ons made , to
enab le an analy t i cal so l u t ion to be found . One such assump t ion i s tha t
the latent hea t i s transferred at a un ique temperature ( T if ) and
thermal p rop er t i es undergo a step chang e in va lues at th is temp era ture
( Carslaw & J a eg er 1 955 , p . 282 ) . The formulat ion b ecomes that of a
mov i ng boundary ( St e fan) p rob lem and the p osi t ion of the phase chang e
v
front ( boundary) i s determined by E q . ( 2 . 1 ) sub j ec t to :
L
a
at
1
.. k +
[ ay az
aT
ax
1
X
+ ax a z
aT
ay
l y + a x ay
aT
az
lz ] lv�
- k-
[ ay az
aT
ax
l x + ax az
aT
ay
1y + a x ay
ar
az
lz ] lvl (2 .2 )
a t the boondary b etween the so l i d and l i qu i d phases

( J m- 3 )
v
where L .. l at en t heat
l volume of mater i a l i n unfroz en state ( m3 )
l • d irec t i o na l cos i ne to ou tward normal
A l though th is assump t ion of a un ique phase chang e temperature is t rue

in some common phase chang e s i tua t i ons such as i ce forma t i on and
mel t i ng , freez i ng and thawi ng of pure l iqu i ds and p ure metal cas t i ng ,
it is not true for phase chang e in most so l i d , h igh mo isture f oods .
The poss i b i l i ty of der iv i ng s i mp l e p red i c t ion me thods by us i ng th i s
assump tion has b ee n exp l ored ex tensi vely . However the methods der i ve d
c a n o n l y b e appr ox i mate f o r phase change i n food .
2.2.2 I n i t ia l and Sur fac e Boundary Cond i t ions
I n freez i ng and thaw i ng of foods a var i e ty of ini t ial and sur face
b oundary cond i t i ons can app ly . Mathema t i c ally , Eq. ( 2 . 1 ) is sub j ec t to
the f i rst k i nd of boundary cond i t ion ( p rescr ibed sur fac e temperatur e ) :
T • Ta on surfac e , S 1 , for t>O ( 2 . 3 )

the second k i nd of boundary cond i t ion ( p rescr i b ed surface heat f l ux ) :
[ aT aT aT
k - 1
ax X
+- 1 y +- 1 z
ay az J = 4> on surfac e , S 2 , for t>O (2 . 4 )
the th ird k i nd of boundary cond it ion ( conv ec t i v e and rad iat i v e cool i ng
[
or hea t i ng ) :
k
aT
ax X
aT
- 1 +-
ay
1
y + ] •
� con• � rad on surfac e , s ,, for t>O (2 .5 )
the fou r th k i nd of boundary cond i t i on ( ar b i trary sur face temperature ) :
T .. T w on surface , S� , for t>O (2 .6 )

and the i n i t i a l cond it ion :
T Tin in volume , V • for t =O (2 . 7 )
where T a - amb i ent med ium temp era ture (oc)
4> .. p resc r i b ed hea t f l ux (W m -2 )
.. f � ( t , pos i t i o n )
4>c on = conv e c t i v e hea t f l ux ( W m -2 )
•
hcon<T ac -T )
4> rad - rad i a t i ve heat f l ux ( W m- 2 )
• hrad ( T ar -T )
h con - convec t i v e hea t transfer coeff i c ient ( W m -2 o c- 1 )
"' f ( t , pos i tion )
5
T ac - convec t i v e amb i ent temp erature (oc)
- f 6 ( t , pos i t i on )
h rad - rad i a t i v e hea t transfer coeff i c i ent (W m -2 oc-1 )
- adT � r +T 2 ) ( T ar +T )
T ar • rad iat i v e amb ient temperature ( °C or K )
• f 7 ( t , positi on )
£ • rad i a t i on emi ss i v i ty
- r,( ma ter i a1 )
Tw • surfac e temp erature (oc)
• f , ( t , pos i t i on )
Tin • i n i t i al temperature (oc)
L i terature Rev iew 9
2.2.2.1 Appl i cab i l i ty of Boundary Cond it ions The f i r s t and fou r th

k i nd of b ou ndary cond i t i ons can b e cons i dered as a spec ial case of the
th ird wh ere h con �� and T ac = T w or T ac sT a . In p rac t i ce b ecause some
sur face r es i s tance to heat transfer always ex i s t s , not
inf i n i tely large so the f i rs t and four th boundary cond i t ions are sel dom
the b est boundary descr i p ti ons p ossi b l e . In mos t food free z i ng or
thawi ng s i tuat ions rad i a t ion is not a maj or means of heat t r ansfer so
it is conv e n i ently g rouped w i th conv ec t i on in the th ird k i nd of
boundary cond i t ion . The second k i nd of boundary cond i t ion infrequent ly
occu rs and i s seldom used even und er h ighly controlled and acc urate ly
measured exper i mental cond i t ions . The th i rd k i nd of b oundary cond i t i on
is the most phy si cally rea l i s t i c boundary cond it i on i n food phase
change p roces ses .
2.2.2.2 I n i t ial Cond i t ions Both uni form and non-un iform initial
temp era ture cond it i ons oc cur in p rac t i c e . To der i v e a simple
analy t i cal ty pe of so lut ion a uni form i n i t ial temperature d i s t r ibu t i on
must u sually b e assumed . Numer i cal solu t i ons can handle e i ther u n i f orm
or non-un i form i n i t ial cond i t ions . Use of a me an bulk temperature
( L oe ffen et al 1 98 1 ) all ows the effect of a non-uni form init ial
temperature d i s t r ibut ion on a freez i ng or thaw i ng t i me to be
app rox imated , i f a simple me thod u si ng a uniform i n it i al temperature is
used for calculat ions .
The release of la tent heat ov er a rang e of temp era ture p resents

p r oblems in def i n i ng the ons e t of thawi ng . The ini t ial thawi ng p o i nt
unl i k e the i n i t i a l freez ing p o i nt , T i f • is not well defi ned for food .
Cho ice of i n i t ial t emp eratures ( T i n ) of l ess than - 1 0 °C throughou t the
ma ter ial to be thawe d , will ensure that the p roc ess i ncludes all
s i g n i f i cant latent hea t transfer f or common food s . F o r freez i ng the
equ i v a l en t r es t ra i n t is that T i n mus t be greater than or equal to T i f •
Because of the aqueous na ture of food and freez i ng poi nt d epres s i o n ,
T i f w i l l alway s b e l ess than or equa l to 0 °C . S ignif icant superheat ing
above T i f for freez i ng or subcoo l i ng b elow -1 0 °C for thaw i ng , is normal
i n commerc ial p rac t i c e b ecause or p rior processing or storag e
cond i t ions s o these cond i t i ons are sel dom l i mi t i ng .
2.2.3 Comp l e t ion of Phas e Change
To comp l e te the de f i n i t ion of free z i ng and thaw i ng p rocesses an end

p o i n t mus t be def i ned ( Cowe l l 1 97 4 ) . If the assump t io n of a mov i ng
boundary i s mad e the end p oint i s c l early wh en the phase chang e front
reaches the thermodynami c cent re of the obj ec t .
The non-d i s t i nc t phase chang e reg ion for foods p rec ludes th is
def i n i t ion . The b est al ternat ive is to cons i der the proc ess comp l ete
when the thermody nami c centre reaches a certa in tempera ture , or when a
certa i n mass av erage temperature is reached ( Purwada r i a & He ldman
1 98 3 ) . The d i sadvantage of usi ng a mass averag e temp erature end p o i nt
i s that the mean bulk temperature i s d i ff icult to measure or es t i mate
i n p rac t i ce wi thou t ex tens i ve temperature data ( Khatchaturov 1 958 ) . In
cont ras t us i ng a spec i f ied f i nal thermodynamic c entre temperature as
the end p oint means:
the phase chang e oper a t i on i s generally conserv a t i vely desi gne d as
the mass average temperature is l ess l i m i t ing than the thermodynam i c
centre temp erature
- a cho i c e of f i nal centre temp erature can be mad e to app ro x imate any
des i red equ i l ibrat ion temperature
- unl ess the thermodynami c cent re mov es ( Fl emi ng 1 9 70 ) there is no
doub t that phase chang e i s comp l e te thr oughout the mate r i a l when the
centre re aches the endpoint temp erature
th i s means of de term i n i ng the end p o i nt is the mos t common and easy
to use .
For these reasons i t was u sed i n the p rese nt work .
F or freez i ng , a numb er of f i na l centre temperatures have b e en u sed

-5 oc ( Ro l f e 1 9 68 p . 1 97 , Cowell 1 9 74 , James et al 1 97 6 ) , -1 0 °C
( Khatcha tur ov 1 9 58 , I . I . R . 1 97 2 p . 36 , Clel and 1 977 , de M i che l is &
Calvelo 1 9 8 3 ) and -1 8 °C ( Mo l eeratanond et al 1 98 2 , de Mi che l i s &
Cal v e l o 1 98 3 , Hung & Thompson 1 98 3 ) . The p r ocess t i me obv iously
l eng thens a s the f i na l thermodynami c cent re temp erature is l owere d . A
freez i ng t i me pred i c t i on me thod w ould i deal ly t ak e account of these
chang es . Methods w i th th is capab il i t y are ava i lab l e ( Cl eland & Earle
1 98�b ) . The b es t cho ic e of the f inal thermodynami c c entre temperatu re
i s mad e to ensure tha t all s i g n i f i cant l atent heat relea se tak es p lace
ab ove i t , and that i t is commensurate wi th the sub sequent s torage

t emp er ature . The endp oint temperature of - 1 0 °C was chosen for the
p r es ent work as i t mee ts these r equ i rements and th e bulk of publ i shed
freez i ng data ar e for th is temperature ( Cl e land & Earle 1 9 8 4 a ) .
For thaw i ng , an ob v iou s cho ice for the f i na l cen tre temperature i s 0 °C .
L arge non-equ i l ibr ium e f fects are unl ik e ly to occur so phase chang e
mu st b e complete at th is temp era ture , ev en i f the food b ehaves c l os ely
to pu re water , as T i f is alway s l ess than or equa l to 0 °C . Further , in
mos t thawi ng si tua t i ons thaw ing throughou t the mater i al is demanded
( for examp l e , so the ma ter ial can be d i v i ded or used immed iately i n
further p rocesses ) , yet the lowest mass av erag e temp erature i s desi red
to minimise pos t- thaw i ng qual i ty los ses ( James et al 1 976 ) . A
temp erature of 0 °C meets both these c r i t er i a . A b ov e 0 °C only se ns i b l e
heat effec ts need to be cons idered . I f p r ed i c t ions to o ther f i nal
centre temp eratures ar e requ ire d , then s i m i l ar methods to those
ava i l ab l e to adj ust freez i ng ti me pred i c t ions for d i fferent f inal
temp era tures can p robably b e u sed .
2 . 2 .4 S ymme t ry Cond i t ions
In geometr i c shap es where there is an ax i s of rota t i o nal symme try the

formulat ion can be r estated ax i symmet r i cal l y . Equat ions ( 2 . 1 ) , ( 2 . 4 )
[ ]
and ( 2 . 5 ) b ecome:
aT
ra k- ( 2 .8 )
[
at ay
aT
ra k (2 .9 )
ar
[
and
ra k
aT
ar
lr +
aT
ay
ly ] • ra [ � con + � rad ] (2 . 1 0 )
where r rad ial d i s tance from ax i s of r otat ion ( m)

a • 1 for cy l i nd r i cal co-ord inates
• 2 and terms in y are del e ted for spher i cal
co-ord ina tes .
At all boundar i e s w i th no other boundary cond i t i on de f ined the s ymme try

( no net heat t ransfer) b oundary cond i t io n i s assumed to app ly:
k
[ aT
-- 1 +
aT
1
y +
ar
lz
] z 0 on surface , S 5 , for t>O ( 2 . 1 1 )
ax X ay az
2.3 SOLUT IONS USING THE ASSUMPT ION OF A UN IQUE PHASE CHANGE
TEMP ERATURE
To attemp t analy tical soluti on of phase chang e p rob l ems i t is u sual to

assume that phase chang e occurs at a un i qu e temperature (T i f ) and that
thermal p r oper t i e s undergo a s tep cha nge at th i s temperatur e , f rom
constant froz en values to cons tant , bu t d ifferent , unfro z en values ( or
v ic e v er sa) . Even w i th th i s mov i ng bounda ry assump t i on the phase
chang e p rob lem is still ma thema t i cally non-l i near and no general
ana ly t ical so lu t i on has b een found .
To fac i l i tate analy s i s further phy si ca l assump tions and l i mi tat ions ar e
neces sary ar i s i ng b o th from the ma thema t i c s and from the phy s i cal
p roper t i e s of food s . Generally the dens i ty d ifference b etween the
phases is ignored and a uni form i n i t i al temperature d i str i but i on is
assumed . Only simple geometr i c shap es ( slab s , infi n it e cy l i nders ,
sphere s , i n f i n i te rods and rect angular b r i c k s ) are cons idered. Also
analy s i s is often rest r i c ted to the s impler f i rst and second boundary
c ond i t ions and the i n i t i a l cond i t ion that the ma t er ial i s at the pha se
chang e temperature ( no sup erhea t i ng for freez ing or subcoo l i ng for
thaw i ng ) . Var i a t ion of boundary cond i t ions wi th t i me i s general ly not
ex ami ned excep t by numer i ca l method s or some form of t ime-averag ing
techn i qu e . A l l of the se assump t ions reduce the rang e of appl i c ab i l i ty
of the resul t i ng so lution. Many of the solu t i o ns are not ap p rop riate
for food freez i ng or thaw i ng proc ess e s , al thoug h they may b e in other
phase chang e si tua t ions such as pure metal cast i ng , or melt i ng and
sol i d i f icat ion of pure sub s tanc es . In add i t i on some ana ly t i cal l y
der i v ed so lu t i ons may require numer i cal eva lua t ion by compu ter s o th ere
are b o th phy s i cal assump t ions and numer i cal t runcat io n or round i ng
errors i n these case s . In con t rast , finite d if ference and fi nit e
element numerical methods require no physical as sumpt ions although t hey

i ntroduce numerical errors . T he lack of physical assumptions make the
lat t er group the pref erre d methods i f numerical solut ion is require d.
The common assump t ion of phase change at a un i que temperature and a

step chang e i n therma l p rop er t i es l ead s to methods that have b ee n shown
to poor ly p red i c t freez i ng processes in foods ( Cleland 1 977 ) . Bank off
( 1 9 6 4 ) , Muehlbauer and Sunder land ( 1 9 6 5 ) , Bak al and Hay ak awa ( 1 97 3 ) ,

Ock enden and Hodgk i ns ( 1 975 ) , Clel and ( 1 977 ) , Hayakawa ( 1 977 ) , Wi lson
et al ( 1 978 ) and Crank ( 1 9 8 1 ) all rev iew solu tions mak i ng u se of th i s
assump t io n .
2.3.1 E x ac t Solu tions
E x ac t solu tions for phase chang e assumi ng a un ique phase chang e

temp erature are summar ised in Table A. 1 . The semi - in f i n i te s l ab
geome try desc r i p tion and the boundary cond i t i ons u sed i n all of these
so lut ions v i r tual ly never occur in p rac t ical food phase chang e
s i tua t ions , s o these exac t solu tions are of li ttle p rac t i cal value
( C leland 1 977 ) . All o th er so lut ions to phase change problems i nvolve
the u se of mathema t i cal techn iques and ap p rox imat ions as we ll as
s i mpl i fy i ng phys ical assump t ions .
2.3.2 Approx imate Solu ti ons for Slab s
For slab s the app rox ima te analy ti cal solu t ions can be c l assed i nto
thre e group s : heat bal anc e integ ral and variat ional techn i ques ,
p er turbat i on and ser i es solu t i o ns , and other ana ly tical app roaches .
These are summari sed i n Tab l e A . 2 .
2.3.2.1 H e at Balance I nt eg ra l and Va riat iona l Techn iques The hea t

b alanc e integ ral ( integral p rofi l e ) tech nique of Goodman ( 1 9 6 4 ) and the
v a r i a t ional techn i que of B iot ( 1 957 ) reduce the set of par t ia l
d iff er ent i a l equa t i ons de f i n i ng the p roblem i nto a set of simpler
ord inary i n t egro-d i f ferent ial equat ions . In b oth me thods an
app rox ima t i o n to the temp era ture p ro fi l e in each phase i s assumed . The
me thod i s sens i t i ve to cho i c e of the app r op r iate temperature p rofile
( Goodma n 1 961 ) . I t i s d iff i cu l t to p red i c t the accu rac y achiev ed b y a
pa rt ic u la r p rofile ( Langford 1 97 3 ) . B ell ( 1 97 8 ) sub div i des the region
and solv es for eac h section s i mul taneou sly , wh il e Alb i n et al (1 976 )
stu dy six sta ges in the p ha se c ha nge p roc es s, in att empt s t o i nc r ea s e
t h e accu rac y of the method. Most solutions are restrict e d as they

Li terature R ev iew 14
cons i der only the first or second k i nd of boundary con d i t i on and the
semi - inf i n i te rather than the f i ni te s l ab , th ey r equ ire nume r i cal
evaluat i on , or they app ly on ly where the i n i t i a l temp era ture i s equa l
to the phase change temperature . The only solut ions for the th ird k i nd
of boundary cond i t i o n that do not requ ire nu me r i ca l i n t egra t i on are
tho se due to Goodman ( 1 958 ) , for a semi - inf i n i te slab where i n i t ial
sup erhea t i ng or subcoo l i ng ar e ignored , and Hrycak ( 1 963 , 1 9 67 ) who
ex tends th i s to the case wi th superheat i ng or subcool i ng for b oth a
homog eneous and strat i f i ed semi - i n fi n i t e mat e r i a l . Hrycak ap p l i es the
quasi -s teady state as sump t i on ( l i near tempera ture prof i l e b etween the
surface and the internal mov i ng phase chang e b oundary ) and assumes tha t
the movement o f the phase change front and the heat pene t ra t ion fro nt
are p roport ional .
2.3.2.2 P er t urbat ion and Series Solu t i ons The b as i s of th is g roup of

solu t i ons i s to assume a se r i es solu t i on and fi t the terms to the
i n i t ial and b oundary cond i t ions . The more comp l ex boundary cond i t i on
of the th ird k i nd i s ana ly sed b u t numer i cal i nteg ra t i on or computer
calculat ion are requ i red b ecau se these analy t i cal solut ions are ted i ous
to use due to the ir complex i ty . Al terna t i v e ly , a l ess accurat e
solut ion i s ob ta ined when only the f i rst f e w terms i n th e s e r i es are
tak en . To apply these methods to food free z i ng and thaw i ng the
assu mp t ion that in i t ial temperature is equal to th e phase chang e
temp erature mu st b e mad e wh i ch i s a maj o r d isadvan tage .
2.3.2 .3 O ther Analyt i cal Approaches A number of ma thema t i cal

techn i ques such as embedd i ng , i n t eg ral t r ans forma t ions , ana ly t i cal
integ ra t i on and s impl i fy ing assump tions such as assumi ng the so lution
to b e of the form that the d i s tance the phase change front has mov ed i s
p ropor t i onal to the sq uar e root of t ime , hav e b ee n u sed to arr i ve at
s i mp l e formulae or se ts o f ord inary d i fferen t ial equat ions requ ir i ng
nume r i cal i nt eg rat ion . These ar e app rox ima te solu tions to the phase
chang e p r ob lem . Oz i s ik ( 1 9 78 ) descr ibes the formulat ion of the pha se
chang e p roblem as a he at conduc tion p roblem w i th a mov ing heat source
and the u se of Green ' s func t ions to sol v e i t . Some oth er solu t i ons
g iv e n in Tab l e A . 2 use a co-ord ina te transforma t ion due to Landau
( 1 950 ) that i mmob i l i ses the phase change front . Plank ( 1 91 3 ) and
London & Seban (1 943 ) mak e the qua s i -steady state hea t conduc tion
assump t io n , that sens ible heat c apac i ty i n the phase between the ou ter
surface and the phase chang e front is neg l ig ib l e . The temp eratu re
prof i le i n th i s r eg ion is therefore l inear and a s i mp l e analy t i cal
solu t i on i s ob ta ined for the th ird k ind of b ou ndary cond it i on but w i th
the ma t er ial ini t ia l ly at the phase change temperature . Bo th the se
assump tions w i l l tend to y i e ld low p red i c t i ons of phase chang e t imes .
Rutov ( 1 9 36 ) cons i dered the s ens ible heat c apac i ty of the phase change
mater ial a fter phase chang e and derives a correc t i on factor to account
for i t . Cochran ( 1 955 ) and Kre i th & Rom i e ( 1 955 ) b o th cons i dered the
sens i b l e hea t capac i ty lump ed a t a mid-point in the slab , but were
unab le to arr ive at a s i mp l e solu t ion ex cep t for unduly restr i c t i v e
b oundary cond it ions . Ker n ( 1 97 7 ) and Gl asser & Ker n ( 1 978 ) der i v e
bounds for the so lut ion by cons ider i ng the effec t o f th e quas i -s teady
state assump tion and ap p rox imat ing the i nteg ra t ion , by assumi ng
d i f f erent temp erature prof i l es be twe en the sur face and the mov i ng
b oundary .
2.3.3 App rox ima te Solu tions for Rad ial Geome t ry
Many of the app rox ima te techniques u sed to get solu tions for slab s hav e
b een ex tended to the case of rad ial heat f l ow i n inf ini te cy l inde rs· and
spheres , bu t reta in the same p robl ems when app l i ed to food phase
chang e . These so lut ions are l i s ted in T ab l e A.3. For a boundary
cond i t i on of the th ird k ind w i th no i n i t i a l sup erhea t i ng or subcool i ng
Pl ank ( 1 9 1 3 ) , London & Seban ( 1 9 4 3 ) , Kor om i & H i ra i ( 1 970 ) , Sh ih & Chou
( 1 97 1 ) , Sh ih & Tsay ( 1 97 1 ) , T i en ( 1 9 80 ) , Seen iraj & Bose ( 1 98 2 ) and
H i l l & Kuc era ( 1 98 3 ) have der ived solu t ions . Chuang & Szekely ( 1 97 2 )
solve for fusion of i n f i n i t e cy l i nders w i th the i n i t i a l temperature not
equal to the phase change temp erature and the th ird k ind of boundary
cond i t i o n , bu t the method requ ires nu mer i ca l i nt eg ra t i o n of the
r esul t i ng ord inary d i f f eren t ial equa t i o n .
2.3.4 Appro x i ma te Solu t ions for Mul t i -D i me ns i onal Shapes
Where the geomet ry is c ompl ex so that heat transfer i s in more than on e

d ir ec t io n , dev e l op ment of ev en app r ox i ma t e analy t ical solut ions i s v ery
d i f f i c ul t . Solu tions have b ee n l im i t ed to dea l i ng w i th obj e c ts of
regular geomet r i c conf igurat ions . These sol u t ions are mostly of
l i mi ted p rac t ical i mpor tanc e b ecause of the ini t ial and b oundary
cond i t i ons u sed . Tab l e A . 4 summar ises av a i l ab le method s .
Sol u t i ons o f p rac t i cal i mportance for foods are tho se due to Pl ank
( 1 941 ) , T anak a & N i sh imoto ( 1 95 9 , 1 9 6 0 , 1 9 6 4 ) and Shamsundar ( 1 9 8 2 ) .
All u se the quas i -s teady state assump t ion and assume that the sur face
of the obj ec t is i sotherma l . The gene ral ap p roach is to f i nd geometr i c
fac tors that mod i fy so lu t ions for s l ab s . Plank f i nds app r op r i ate
fac tors for phase chang e in infi n i t e rod and rec tangular b ri ck shap es
subj ec t to the th i rd k i nd of bounda ry cond i t i on and the i n i t ial
temp er ature equa l to th e phase chang e temperature , by assuming that the
mov i ng boundary rema i ns paral lel to the ou ter surfac e . Tanak a &
N i sh imoto ex tend th is analy s i s for con i cal shap es , f i n i t e cy l i nders and
t rap ez o i dal bod i es . Shamsundar employs a s i m i lar approach for th e same
p roblem bu t all ows d i ff eren t con figura t i ons of the phase chang e front
to b e cons i dere d . Us i ng mathema t i cally def i ned geome tr i e s , conduc t i on
shap e fac tors suggest simple analy ti c solu t ions s i mi lar to those of
Pl ank . Hahne & Gr igul l ( 1 975 ) tabu late the conduc t i on shape fac tors
for a w i de rang e of reg ular shap es and assumed i nt er fac e geometr i es .
However for mos t mul t i -d i mens ional shapes the temperature is no t the
sa me ov er the surface at any t i me , and the shap e of the interfac e w i l l
change a s phase change p r ogr ess es, so the accuracy of the der i ved
g eome t r i c f ac tors i s sub j e c t to doub t .
2 . 3 .5 Emp i r i cal Approaches
Th is g roup of solu tions hav e resulted from recog n i t i on that ev en w i th

maj or s i mp l i fy i ng assump t i ons analy t i cal so lu t ion of phase change he at
transfer i s suff i c iently d if f i cu l t tha t alterna t i v e app roaches are
wor thwh i l e . The app roaches are var i ed in natur e , and are descr ibed i n
Tab l e A . 5 .
Charm & S l av in ( 1 9 6 2 ) mod i fy Neumann ' s solution for the f i r s t k ind of

boundary cond i t ion to mak e i t app l i c ab l e to the th ird k ind of boundary
cond i t i o n by add ing a f i c t i t i ou s th ick ne ss to the obj e c t to accou nt for
sur fac e res i s tanc e t o heat transfer. Churchi l l & Gupta ( 1 977 ) de f i ne
an effec ti v e spec i f ic heat c ap ac i t y value so s tandard e x ac t ana ly ti ca l
solut ions for heat conduc t i on w i thout change o f phase wi l l approx i mate
me l t i ng or so l i d if i ca t ion . Baxter ( 1 96 2 ) , for slab s and i n f i n i t e
cy l i nders and Tao ( 1 968 ) , for s l ab s , i nf i n i t e cyl i nder s and sphere s ,
stud ied free z i ng subj e c t to the th ird k i nd o f boundary cond i t ion b u t
wi th no superhea t i ng or subcool i ng us i ng f i n i te d i f ferenc e s . The i r
results are d isplay ed as reg ress i on equa t ions and chart s . Bax ter ' s
so lut ion i s s im i l ar in form to Pl ank ' s equat ion. Shamsundar &
S c r i v isan ( 1 97 9 ) and Shamsundar ( 1 98 1 ) der i v e a si mi larity ru l e so
numer i cal resul ts can be app l i ed ov er a w i de rang e of cond i t i ons
wi thou t add it ional compu tat ions .
None of these solu tions apply wh ere l a tent hea t is not relea sed or
ab sorb ed at a un ique temperature as is the case for foods .
2.3.6 Use of Ana logues and Graph ical Methods
B e fore the use of v ersa t i l e d ig i tal compu ters b ec ame common and
p ower ful numer i cal me thods were avai l ab l e , ana l ogue and g r aph i cal
solu t i ons for pha se chang e were u sed . Using elec tr i c al analogues
London & Seban ( 1 9 43 ) , Cochran ( 1 955 ) , Krei th & Rom i e ( 1 955 ) and Horvay
( 1 96 0 ) inv est igated sens ible heat eff ec ts neg lec ted by the quasi - s teady
s tate assump t ion us i ng a lumped heat capac i ty me thod . L i eb man ( 1 956 )
and St ephan ( 1 96 9 ) a lso worked wi th e lec tr i cal ana logues for phase
chang e he at t ransf er wh i le Hashemi & Sl i ep cev i ch ( 1 967b ) deve lop ed a
d iffus ion ana logue . Some graph i cal methods for phase chang e are due to
Ede ( 1 9 49 ) , Ke l l e r & Bal lard ( 1 956 ) , He i ss ( 1 958 ) , Longwe l l ( 1 958 ) ,
Sunder land & Grosh ( 1 96 1 ) and Sokulsk i ( 1 97 2 b) .
Graph i cal and ana l ogue me thods for so lv i ng freez i ng and thaw i ng
p rocesses ar e no longer important b ec au se o f the relat i ve ease and
accuracy of us i ng numer ical me thods on d ig i tal compu t ers .
2.3.7 Numer ical Solu t i ons
Math e ma t i ca l app ro x imat ions to Eqs . ( 2 . 1 ) to ( 2 . 1 1 ) can be made u si ng

the f in i te d i f ference me thod ( Du s i nb erre 1 9 45 ) or the f in i te e lement
method ( Tu rner e t al 1 95 6 ) . The th ird k ind of b ou ndary c on d i t ion and
i n i t ial superheat i ng or subcool i ng are e as i ly mode l l e d , though many
so lut ions cons i der only s i mp l er cond i t ions .
A numb er of me thod s to determ i ne the p os i tion of the phase chang e front

have been u sed . Fox ( 1 9 75 ) and Crank ( 1 9 8 1 ) rev iew these me thods and
descr i b e the p rinc iples b eh ind the techn iques . Br i e fly , they can b e
d iv ided into s ix group s .
( a ) N ormal f i n i te d i f ference or finite e l ement app r ox i ma t i ons to

E q . ( 2 . 1 ) are u sed throughout the ob j e c t exc ep t for the s ec t ion
wh ich has j u st reached the phase chang e temp erature . The nodes
represen t i ng these r eg ions are a r t i f i c a l l y he l d at the pha se . change
temp eratu re unt il the calcu lated accumu l a t i on or remov al of hea t i s
equ ivalent to the latent heat . Then the pha se change fron t moves
i nto the ne x t sec tion and normal app rox imat ions u si ng the thermal
p r opert i e s of the new phase are re i nst igate d . Resea rchers who u s ed
the f i n i t e d i ffer ence me thod i nc lude Dusi nb erre ( 1 9 49 ) , Tao ( 1 9 6 7 ) ,
Charm ( 1 9 7 1 ) , Cha rm et al ( 1 9 7 2 ) , Ro shan e t a l ( 1 97 4 ) and Tarna wsk i
( 1 976 ) . Z i enk i ew i cz et al ( 1 97 3 ) and Ro lphe & Bathe ( 1 9 8 2 ) u sed
the f in i te element method . A refinement of th i s me thod where the
p os i t i on of the phase chang e front w i th in ea ch reg ion is p red i c ted
and temperatures near the front are es t i mated by i n terpo l a t i on
g i ves more accurate t emp erature p ro fi l es w i th l ess osc i l l a t ory
b ehav i our ( Murray & Land i s 1 9 59 , Se i der & Chur ch i l l 1 9 65 , Te l l er &
Chu rc h i l l 1 9 6 5 , Padmanabhan & Subba Raj i 1 9 7 5 , Forg ac et a l 1 9 7 9 ,

C i chy et al 1 98 1 ) .
( b ) A co-ord ina t e transformat ion ( Landau 1 9 5 0 ) i s emp loyed to g iv e a

v ar i ab l e space g r i d that f ixes the b oundary ( phase cha nge fron t ) at
one node . The mov ement of the fron t i s calcul ated wh i l e normal
app r ox i mat ions are used in each phase . I tera t i v e so lut ion is o f ten
necessary to f i t all the spec i f i ed cond it ions . Murray & Land is
( 1 9 59 ) , Lotk i n ( 1 9 60 ) , He i tz & Westwa ter ( 1 9 7 0 ) , Kroeger & Ost rach
( 1 97 4 ) , Duda et al ( 1 975 ) , Sa itoh ( 1 978 ) , Hsu .e t al ( 1 98 1 ) ,
Heurtaul t et al ( 1 9 82 ) and Moor e & Bayaz i t og l u ( 1 9 82 ) u sed f in i te
d if ferenc e s wh il e Bonnerot & Jamet ( 1 97 4 ) and Ly nch & O'Neill
( 1 98 1 ) emp l oyed f ini te elements . Th i s me thod g iv es more acc urate
est imate of the front p os i tion than ( a) but l ess ac curate
temperature prof i le s ( Murray & Land i s 1 9 59 ) .
L i t erature Rev i ew 19
( c ) A v ar i ab l e t i me s t epp i ng scheme i s used wi th a f ix ed spac e g r id so

that the phase chang e front j ump s a full nodal d iv i s i on wi th each
t i me s t ep . An i tera t i v e approach is r equ ired to app r ox i mate the
b ou ndary cond i t i ons w i th heat b alanc es and temper ature p ro f i l es
def ined by E q . ( 2 . 2 ) ( Doug las & Gal l ie 1 955 , Goodl i ng & Khader
1 9 7 4 , Good l i ng & Khader 1 975 , Spar r ow et al 1 97 6 , Gup ta & Kumar
1 9 80 , Yu en & Kle inmann 1 980 , Gup t a & Kuma r 1 98 1 ) .
( d ) The enthalpy t ransformat ion of Eyres et a l ( 1 9 4 6 ) is u sed to remov e

the non-l inear i ty due to the mov i ng b oundary so that Eq. ( 2 . 1 )
[ ] [ ] [ ]
b ecomes:
aH = � aT +
a aT +
a
k
aT +
Q (2 . 12 )
k k
at ax ax ay ay az az
where H - en tha lpy
I: c dT
f 1 1 ( T , pos i tion )
N ormal fi n i t e d i f ference ap p ro x imat i ons to E q . ( 2 . 1 2 ) can b e u sed
throughou t th e reg ion ( Pr i ce & Slack 1 95 4 , Bax ter 1 96 2 , Lockwood
1 966 , Shamsundar & Sparrow 1 975 ) . The me thod has been re f i ned by
u si ng interpol a t i on to determine the temp erature d istr ibu tion and
i n ter fac e posi t ion more accurately between spac e grid p o i n ts
( Shamsundar & Spar row 1 9 7 6 , Voller & Cross 1 9 8 1 a , 1 98 1 b , 1 9 8 3 , B e ll
1 982 ) . Ich ikawa & K i kuch i ( 1 979 ) and K i kuch i & Ich ikawa ( 1 979 )
u sed the simi lar method of var iat i onal i ne qua l i t i es .
( e ) The i so therm migra t ion me thod t r ansforms the p roblem from that of
determ i n i ng the dep endent var i ab l e , temp erature , as a f unc t ion of
pos i t ion and t i me to that of determ i n i ng the dependen t var i ab l e ,
p os i t i on , as a func tion of time and temperature ( Crank & Gup ta
1 975 , Talmon & Dav i s 1 98 1 , Talmon et a l 1 98 1 , Tal mon et al 1 98 3 ,
Gup ta & Kumar 1 9 8 4 ) .
( f ) A v ar iety of d ifferen t schemes ar e u sed near the phase chang e fron t

to account for l atent heat effects and the mov i ng b ou n dar y
cond i t ion ( Ehr l i ch 1 95 8 , L az ar i du s 1 970 , Mor r i son 1 97 0 , Goodrich
1 97 8 , Ramak r i shna & Sast r i 1 98 4 ) . Wel l ford & Ayer ( 1 977 ) , Rub i n s ky
& Cravahlo ( 1 98 1 ) and Raymond & Rub i nsky ( 1 98 3 ) u se the f i n i te
Li terature Rev i ew 20
e l emen t me thod and include spec ial e l ements or nodes a t the phase
chang e front tha t approx i mate the latent he at e f fe c t by a heat
source or s i nk d i s tr ibu ted ov er the e l ement . A l l en & Severn ( 1 9 6 2 )
u se a r e lax ation method and model l atent hea t r e l ea se as mov ing
heat g enera t i on .
Excep t for the enthalpy transforma t i on f ew so lutions for food freez i ng

and thaw i ng are based on these me thod s , as pha se chang e i n foods
dep ar ts sub stan t i ally from the b as i c assump tion of a unique phase
chang e temp eratur e . O ther numer ical me thods can approx i mate l atent
hea t relea se or ab sorp tion ov er a rang e of temp er ature more c lose ly and
have been u sed in p re f erenc e .
2.4 SOLUT IONS FOR PHASE CHAN GE OVER A RAN GE O F TEM PE RATURES
The second way that phase chang e in food can b e t ak en into account is
by mak i ng ma thema t i ca l a l l owanc e for phase change ove r a range o f
temp eratures . Phase chang e ov er a rang e of temp era tures is the ac tua l
s i tua t ion occurr i ng in food freez i ng and thawi ng . The mos t ge neral
app roach wou ld tak e account of any var i a t ion in apparent volume t r i c
sp ec i f ic heat c apac i ty , C, and the therma l conduc t iv i ty , k, in
E q . ( 2 . 1 ) me an i ng tha t n o phy si c a l assump tions ab ou t the phase chang e
process need b e made . For foods the apparen t volume t r i c spec i f i c heat
cap ac i ty is de f ined at any temp era ture as :
dH
c - (2 . 1 3 )
dt
S impler semi -ana ly ti c al and emp ir i ca l app roaches have a lso b een tak en .
Metal a l l oy sol id i f icat ion i s a s i mi l a r pha se chang e p roc es s . It is

u sua l l y mode ll ed by a two-phase z one of so l i d and l i quid b et ween two
phase chang e f ronts mov i ng through the mater i a l . This app roach is
c los er t o the t rue phys ical s i tuat ion dur i ng phase cha ng e i n food s ,
than the assump ti on of a un ique phase chang e temp era ture , bu t i s st i l l
only appr ox i mate b ecau se i t r equ ires assu mp t i ons ab out the d i s tr i bu t i on
of latent heat across the phase chang e reg ion.
2.4.1 Appr ox i mate Ana lyt i cal Solut ions for A l l oy Sol id i f icat ion
Approx i mate analy t ical so lut ions for al l oy sol i d i f i ca t ion are
summar i sed in Tab l e A .6 . In alloy sol i d if i ca t i on it i s normally
assu med that l atent heat is released u n i formly ov er an ex tended
temp erature rang e . Error w i l l oc cur in u si ng the se so lutions for phase
change i n food becau se foods do not have constant laten t he at release
w i th resp ec t to chang e i n temp erature .
Muelbauer et al ( 1 97 3) and Hayakawa & Bakal ( 1 973 ) cons ider the th i rd

k i nd of boundary cond i t ion bu t b oth so lutions , though ana ly ti c al i n
natur e , a re comp l ex and i mp rac t i cal t o us e .
2.4.2 Semi -Analy tical Solu t i ons
Many attemp ts have b ee n made to mod i fy ex i s t i ng ana ly tical solu t i ons to

tak e accoun t of the ir l i mi tat ions and g ive them l ess dependence on
assump t i ons made in the ir theoreti cal dev e lopment . Pl ank ' s (1 91 3 )
equat ion for a f i ni te slab not in i t ial ly sup erhea ted or subcoo l ed is
often u se d as a b ase for the se mod if i ca t i ons b ecause of i t s simple
form , i t s app l i cat i on to a rang e of regular shap es ( Pl ank 1 94 1 ) and
b ecause i t is for the b oundary cond i t ion of the th ird k i nd . P l ank ' s
equa t ion can b e wr i t ten as :
t •
�H
I T a-T i f l
[ p �
h
+ R �
k
2
] (2 . 1 4 )
or i n d imension less form ( Tch igeov 1 958 ) :
p R
Fo - --- + (2 . 1 5 )
Bi Ste S te
where Mi • chang e in enthalpy during the p rocess ( J m- 3 )
Ta - amb i ent temperature ( oc )
Tif - i n i t i a l freez ing temperature ( oc )
P ,R • geome t r i c fac tors dep end ing on obj e c t shap e
D • ful l th i ck ness or d iameter
h • surface heat transfer coe ff i c ient
Fo • F our i er numb er
• at/D 2
81 • Biot numb er
• hD/k
L i teratu re Rev i ew 22
Ste • S te fan numb er

• C 1 T a - T i f i / 6H
a = thermal d iffusi v i ty
z k /C
Var iou s app rox i mate me thod s hav e b een emp loy ed to acc ount for
non-cons tan t thermal p r opert ies , s ens ible heat ef fec ts b o th ab ove and
b elow the phase chang e temp erature rang e and the non- i sothermal latent
he at rel ease or ab sorp t io n . Some f i t experi mental data wh i l e others
attemp t correc t i ons b ased on theor e t i cal g rou nd s . Al though some t imes
der ived for a spec i f i c p roduc t or cond i t ion many of the me thod s c an b e
mad e t o apply t o a w i der rang e o f p robl ems . Ki nder & Lamb ( 1 97 4 ) and
Cleland ( 1 97 9 ) rev iew the re l a t i v e mer i ts of these formu l ae for food
freez ing .
Cowe ll ( 1 9 67 ) , Lotz ( 1 97 4 ) , Mascheroni & Ca lv e lo ( 1 9 82 ) , De Mi che l i s &
Calve lo ( 1 9 8 3 ) and Pham ( 1 98 4 a ) all d iv i de the freez i ng process i n to

sep arate p recoo l i ng , phase chang e and temper i ng p er iod s . For the phase
change per i od vers ions of Plank ' s equat i on are use d , wh i lst for the
other p er iods a var i et y of d i fferent techn iques ar e u sed to ca lcu late
the heat conduc t ion wi thou t cha nge of phase . Pham ( 1 98 4 a ) wr i tes
Plank ' s equa t ion in a form analog ou s to Newton ' s law of cool i ng and
u ses th i s for all three per iods . For p recool i ng and temper i ng , th i s i s
the same as the lump ed capac i ty me thod of Cochran ( 1 95 5 ) and London &
Seban ( 1 9 4 3 ) exc ep t that the posi t ion of the lumped heat wi th in the
obj ec t is determine d by the B i ot nu mb er . For all these me thods therma l
p r op e r t ies are chos en or calculat ed by av erag i ng techn iqu e s to model
more acc urately the true hea t transfer cond it ions during each p e r i od .
For s i mi l ar reasons Mo tt ( 1 96 4 ) , Flem i ng ( 1 967 ) , Sokulsk i ( 1 972a ) ,
A l b i n et al ( 1 9 79 ) and Pham ( 1 9 8 4 a , 1 9 8 4 b ) a ll suggested the u se o f a
we igh ted av erage freez i ng temperature or temperature d i f fer ence in
solu t i ons b ased on a unique phase chang e temp era ture , whe n phase chang e
i s ov er a r a nge of temp er a tures such as i n food freez i ng a nd thawi ng .
Levy ( 1 9 8 3 b , 1 98 3 c , 1 9 8 4 ) also c onsider ed the free z i ng and thawi ng
p roc ess es i n three s tages and def ined effec t i v e heat c apac i t i es a nd
thermal conduc ti v i ti e s for each stag e f or use in solu t i o ns for he a t
conduc t ion w i th ou t phase chang e .
L i t erature Rev iew 23
Nagaok a e t a l ( 1 955 ) , Edd i e & Pearson ( 1 958 ) , Levy ( 1 9 58 ) , Ear l e &
Freeman ( 1 9 6 6 ) , F l em i ng ( 1 9 67 ) , Fraz erhurst et al ( 1 9 7 2 ) , Slat ter &
Jones ( 1 97 4 ) and Mel l or & Sepp i ng s ( 1 976 ) for freez i ng and Wa lk er

( 1 970 ) , Van ichse n i ( 1 97 1 ) and Van i chse n i e t al ( 1 97 2 ) for thawi ng , all
p r opose mod i f i cat ions to P lank ' s equa t ion in the form of mul t i p l i c a t i v e
fac tors . These generally a i m t o account f o r se nsi b l e heat e ffec ts that
Pl ank assumed n egl ig i b l e .
Khatcha turov ( 1 95 8 ) and Golov k i n e t a l ( 1 9 7 4 ) g iv e f ormulae b ase d b oth

on f i t t i ng exp er i mental data and ana ly t ical cons i dera t i ons .
S chwar tzberg e t al ( 1 97 7 ) ex ami ne s temperature p ro fi l es du r i ng phase
change for i nf in i te and zero B i ot numb er s . Mod i f icat i ons at
i ntermed iate values of Biot numb er are u sed to p red i c t phase chang e
ti mes . Sas t ry ( 1 984 ) u sed an en tha lpy trans forma t ion and Goodman ' s
( 1 9 6 4 ) hea t balance integ ral technique to app rox imate and solve the
change in en tha lpy prof i les wi th t i me dur i ng par t ial freez i ng and
thaw i ng in slab s . T e ider ( 1 96 3 ) , de M i che l i s & Calvelo ( 1 982 ) and
Mascheron i et al ( 1 982 ) developed me thods to accoun t for d i f f erent
surface boundary con d i t ions on each face dur ing freez i ng of slab s .
2.4.3 Emp ir ical So lu t ions
The d if f i c ul t y in d e r i v ing a general solu tion to phase chang e tha t has

w i de app l i c ab i l i ty , even wi th only a part ial ana ly t i ca l bas i s , has
meant that many emp ir i ca l app roaches have b een p rop ose d . Some of these
are relat iv e l y general in the i r appl icat i o n , wh i lst o ther s are v ery
s p ec if i c to the food p roduc t and/or phase chang e cond i t i on s to wh i ch
they app l y . These lat ter solut ions may only i nterpolate experi men tal
data .
For freez i ng slab s , infi n it e cyl inde r s , spheres a nd rectangular b ri ck s

to a f i na l temp er a ture of - 1 0 °C Cl eland ( 1 9 77 ) and Cl e land & Earle
( 1 97 6 b , 1 977 a , 1 97 9 a , 1 979 b , 1 98 2 b ) emp i r i cally mod i f i ed the g eometr i c
fac tors i n Plank ' s equa t i on by reg ressi on analy si s o f exp er imental
dat a . By a s i m i l ar analy s i s of slab freez i ng data to a f i nal
temp er a tu re of - 1 8 °C Hung & Thomp son ( 1 98 3 ) found d ifferen t
mod i f icat ions .
Calve lo ( 1 98 1 ) for thaw i ng of s l ab s , Creed & James ( 1 9 8 1 ) for thaw i ng

of b ee f slab s , Hay ak awa et al ( 1 9 8 3 a , 1 9 8 3 b ) for freez ing of f i n it e
cyl i nder and inf i n i t e r od shapes and Succar & Hay akawa ( 1 984 ) for
free z i ng of slab s g iv e reg ress ion equa t ions calculated from results
p red i c ted by numer i cal me thod s .
P ham ( 1 9 8 4 c ) u se d a s i mi l ar app roach t o Pham ( 1984a) bu t emp i r i ca lly

def i nes the av erage phase cha nge temperature as a func t io n of the f i nal
thermody nami c centre temp erature and the amb i ent temperature .
D i f f erent ial forms of emp ir ically deve loped vers ions of P l ank ' s
equa t ion al low Loeffen et al ( 1 98 1 ) and Cl eland & Earle ( 1 9 8 2 c ) to
cons i der t i me var i ab l e boundary cond i t ions by s i mp l e numer ical me thod s .
A non-u n i form i n i tial temp era ture d is t ribu t ion wa s handled by
calculat ion wi th a me an in i t ial temperatur e .
The emp i r ical solu tions a r e summar i sed i n Tab le A . 7 .
For a range of regular shapes two r ec ent s tud i es ( Clel and & E ar l e
1 9 8 4 a , P ham 1 98 4 c ) have shown the methods t o p redic t freez ing times due
to Pham ( 1 98 3 , 1 98 4 a , 1 98 4 b , 1 98 4 c ) and Cleland & Ear l e ( 1 982 b) to b e
accurate by comp ar ison w i th a larg e comp os i te f r ee z i ng data set .
2.4.4 Numer ical Me thods
D i rec t numer ical app rox imat ion o f Eq. ( 2 . 1 ) is an ap p roach requir ing no
assump t ions ab out the phys ical proc es ses of freez i ng and thaw i ng .
Errors may ar i s e from imp rec ise thermal data , and from nu mer i cal
t ru ncat ion and round i ng error s . A wide rang e o f nume r i ca l me thods have
b een u sed .
Those u s i ng the f i n i t e d iff erence method i nc lude: simple exp l i c i t

scheme s where k and C are comb ined and therma l d i ffusi v it y , a, i s t ak en
as a func t ion of temperature ( Earl e & Earl 1 966 , Cul lwi ck & Earl e 1 97 1 ,
B a i l ey & J ames 1 97 4 , He ldman 1 97 4 a , Heldman & Gorb y 1 97 4 , Cha ttopad ha y
1 975 , James et al 1 977 , James & Creed 1 980 , Creed & James 1 98 1 b,
Heldman 1 9 83 ) , exp l i c i t solu t i o ns where k and C are tak en as separate
func t ions of temperatu r e ( James et al 1 9 79 , James & Bai l ey 1 980,
Mascheron i & Calvelo 1 9 80 , de Mi chel i s & Calve l o 1 9 8 2 , Ma scheron i &
Calvelo 1 9 8 2 , Mascheroni e t al 1 9 82 ) , exp l i c it d iff er enc e formulae

b as ed on the en thalpy transformat ion ( Eyres et al 1 9 46 , Price & Sl ack
1 95 4 , Albasiny 1 9 5 6 , Lock wood 1 96 6 , Cordell & Webb 1 9 7 2 , J osh i & Tao
1 97 4 , Shamsundar & S parrow 1 975 , 1 9 76 ) , ful ly i mpl i c i t and two t i me
l ev e l imp l i c i t schemes ( Crank & N i cholson 1 9 47 , Albas i ny 1 9 6 0 , Hashemi
& Sl i epcev ich 1 967 a , Flemi ng 1 97 1 c , Ste i nhag en & Myers 1 98 3 , Sue car &
Hay ak awa 1 9 8 4 ) and three t i me l ev e l imp l i c i t so lu tions ( B onae ina &
Com i n i 1 97 1 , Bonac ina et al 1 97 3 , Com i n i & Bonac ina 1 97 4 , C le land &
Earle 1 9 7 7 b , 1 97 9 a ) .
Bonac ina & Comi n i ( 1 9 7 1 ) and Cl e land & Ear le ( 1 98 4 a ) c onsi dered the
d i f feren t f i ni te d i f fer ence sche mes and conc luded that the i mp l ic i t
three t ime l ev e l scheme due to Lees ( 1 9 6 6 ) is super ior in t e rms of
acc uracy . It is a lso stab l e and convergen t . The thre e t i me l evel
scheme p red i c te d freez ing data to with in ab ou t ± 1 0 % for slab s , i n f i n i t e
cy l inders , spheres and rect angular b r i ck shap es ( Clel and e t al 1 982 ) .
Methods for the i n f i n i t e cy l i nder and sphere g eome t r i e s are based on

the scheme p r oposed by Albas i ny ( 1 9 60 ) . Where i mpl i c i t methods are
u sed for two- and three-d imensi onal geometry a number of a lternat i ng
d i r ec t ion i mp l i c i t schemes have been used ( Doug las 1 95 5 , Peaceman &
Rachford 1 95 5 , Doug las & Rachford 1 956 , Br ian 1 96 1 , Fa irweather &
Mi tchel l 1 9 65 , Al lada & Quan 1 966 , Flem i ng 1 97 0 , McKee & Mi tchel l 1 97 1 ,

Bonac ina & Comi n i 1 97 3 , Cl e land & Ear le 1 97 9 b ) . All the ab ov e schemes
are l i mi ted to shap es w i th regular conf igura t io n . F ini te d i f ferenc e
schemes to mod e l i r r egu lar g eome try in two d imensi ons ( Fl eming 1 97 1 a ,
Br i sson-Lop es & Dom i ngos 1 979 , Koskela inen 1 97 9 ) and non-homog eneous
mater ials ( Fl emi ng 1 97 1 b ) have b ee n dev e loped but ar e comp l ex .
The f i n i t e e l emen t method has b ee n wi dely u se d for p rob l ems w i th phase

change ( Comi n i et al 1 97 4 b , Com i n i & Del Gu i d i c e 1 9 76 , Com i n i & L ew i s
1 97 6 , L ew i s & Bass 1 97 6 , R eb ell ato et al 1 97 8 , Fr i v ik & Thorberg son
1 98 1 , F r i v i k & Com i n i 1 982 , Hay akawa et al 1 983 b , Purwada r i a & Heldman
1 98 3 ) . The maj o r advantag es of the finite e leme n t method ov er the
f in i te d if f er ence me thod are that it is abl e to c op e eas i l y w i th
i r regular g eometr i e s and heterog eneou s mater i a ls ( Arce et al 1 98 3 ) .
Comp l e x boundary cond i t ions are i ncorporated si mp l y ( Com in i & Bonac i na
L i t era ture Rev iew 26
1 97 4 ) and h ig her order ( quadrat i c or cub i c rath er than l inea r )

app ro x i ma t ions t o temp erature p rofi l es can b e u sed ( Emery & Carson,
1 97 1 ) . D i sadvantages of the f i ni te e lement me thod are tha t the t i me
step is ne cc essar i l y shor ter for stab i l i ty and non-osc i l la t ion ( My ers
1 978 , Bald 1 98 1 ) and that the comp u ter s torage requ i remen ts and
p rocess i ng t ime are g reater ( Yalamanch il l i & Chu 1 9 7 3 ) than for f i n i t e
d i f ferenc es.
Test i ng of the f i n i t e e l ement me thod has demons trated good ac curacy of

pred i c t ion aga inst experi mental da ta for two-di mens ional problems
cons i der i ng freez ing of roads ( Fr i v ik et al 1 977 ) , freez ing of i c e ( Hsu
& P i z ey 1 98 1 ) , freez i ng of food ( Purwadaria 1 980 ) , thaw i ng of f i sh
( Mi k i e t a l 1 9 78 ) and freez ing of f i sh ( Mi k i e t a l 1 9 8 2 ) .
F i ni te e l emen ts are common ly emp l oyed to d i scre t i se i n spac e , but b oth

the fi n i t e e lement me thod ( Bruch & Z y rolosk i 1 97 4 , Chung 1 9 8 1 ) and
f i ni te d i fferenc e sc hemes hav e been u sed in t i me ( Donea 1 97 4 , Wood &
Lewis 1 975 ) . Us i ng fi n i te elements means h igher order time

approx i mat ions can be used bu t s ignif i cant ly i ncreases th e s iz e o f �e
compu t i ng p rob l em . Where thermal p rop er t i es ar e chang ing rap idly the
l i nea r , c entra l ly balanced , three t i me l evel Lees ' scheme has b een
fou nd to be stab le and conv erg ent ( Comi n i e t a l 1 9 7 4 b ) .
In numer ical me thods the calculated heat flow thr oug h the obj ec t
surfac e shou l d equa l the in ternal entha lpy chang e ov er the wh ole phase
chang e proces s . C lo se ag reemen t ( re ferred t o as a heat balanc e ) mus t
b e ach iev e d for a nu mer i ca l me thod t o b e cons idered b oth accurate and
val i d . To ensure a heat balanc e , a number of d i fferent methods to
ca l c ulate the thermal p rop er t i e s ( espec ially in th e l atent he at p eak
temp erature rang e ) hav e been propo sed ( Comi n i et a l 1 97 4 b , Com i n i & Del
Gu i d ic e 1 9 7 6 , Lemmon 1 9 7 9 ) . Morg an et al ( 1 9 78 ) suggest they may not
g iv e b enef i ts over d irec t evaluat ion. Cleland e t a l ( 1 982 ) , s tudy i ng
numer ical p re d i c ti on o f freez ing , d iscov er e d tha t the b et ter f in i t e
d i f ferenc e and f in i te element me thods are prob ably more l i mi ted by
thermal data unc erta inty than numer i ca l app rox i ma t i ons . Both the
f in i te element me thod and the f in i te d i f f er enc e me thod for cont inuously
var i ab l e therma l p roper t i es can model a u n ique phase chang e t emper ature
by appr op r iate cho i c e of the therma l p r operty func t ions ( Bo nac ina et al
1 9 73 ) .
The b oundary elemen t me thod , wh ich i s s i m i l ar to the finite e leme n t

me thod , has been p r oposed for non-l inear trans i en t he at conduc t ion w i th
var iab le p rop er t i es ( Brebb ia & Walk er 1 9 8 0 ) . I t ha s the advan tage of
reduc i ng the d i mens ional i ty of the p r ob l em and there fore the compu t i ng
requ irements ( Wrob el & Breb b i a 1 98 1 ) , b u t wi l l only b e accurate for
shapes wi th l a rge sur fac e area- to-volume rat ios ( Wr ob e l & Br ebb i a
1 9 79 ) . It ha s not b ee n use d for hea t transf er w i th phase cha ng e as i t
has n o p r oven advantages over the f i n i te element me thod for th i s typ e
of p rob lem .
2.5 THE EFFECT O F GEOMETRY ON FR EE ZING AND THAW ING TIME PREDICTIONS
A par t from some f i n i te d i fferenc e me thod s and fi n i t e element schemes ,

me thods for freez i ng or thaw i ng ti me p red i c t ion are near ly all
restr i c ted to regular g eometr i c con fi gurat ions such as slab s , infin i t e
cyl inder s , spheres , inf ini te rods and rec tangular b r i ck s . Many food
p roduc ts ar e not regular in shap e so methods are requ ired to t ak e
account of i r r egular geome try .
B y assumi ng ( a ) a geome t r i cal descr i p tion for the phase chang e fro n t ,
( b ) that the sur face temperature i s constant b u t s t i l l t i me var i ab l e
ov er the surface and ( c ) tha t the qua s i -s teady state assump tion is
app l icab l e i n the pha se between the surfac e and the phase change fron t ,
P l ank ( 1 9 4 1 ) , Tanak a & N i sh imoto ( 1 9 59 , 1 96 0 , 1 964 ) and recently
Shamsundar ( 1 98 2 ) der ived geome t r i c fac tors to acc ount for the obj ec t
configura t i on for many regular shap es . Where the se cond assump tion i s
t rue and the phase chang e front i s para l l e l t o th e sur fac e , the fac tors
dep end d irec tly on the surface area t i mes th ick ness -to-v olume ( AD/ 2V )
rat i o . Ru tov ( 1 9 36 ) and Mot t ( 1 9 6 4 ) b oth ex tended the i de a to u s i ng
the rat i o o f p roduc t surfac e area t imes th i ck ness- to-volume as an i ndex
of the shape in calculat ions for all geome tr i es . Th i s app roach is
accurate f o r slab s , i n f i n i te cyl i nders and spheres w i th the th ird k ind
o f boundary cond i t ion as the surface i s a l ways i s o thermal . irresp ec t i v e
of Biot number . Cl e land & Ear le ( 1 9 8 2 a , 1 9 82b) show i t i s not acc urate
for o ther shapes when the Biot numb er i s non-z er o . Pham ( 1 9 84b) u s ed
the same g ener a l app roach bu t i nc ludes a correct i on to the Blot numb er
L i t era ture Rev i ew 28
b ased on the "mean heat conduc t i ng path " ( MC P ) fr om the c en tre to the
sur fac e of the obj ec t . A me thod to calculate the mean conduc t i ng p a th
l eng th i s g iven for freez ing of rec tangular b ri ck shap es b ased on fi t
to experi mental data . Sokulsk i ( 1 97 2 a ) u ses the AD/ 2V rat i o b u t only
consi ders a sec t i on of the obj e c t near the thermodynami c cen tre .
Cleland & E ar l e ( 1 982b) def ine EHT D ( equ ivalent heat t ransfer
d imens i onali ty ) as the ra t i o of the freez i ng t i me for a slab of
equ ivalent th i ckness to the freez i ng ti me of the shap e in ques t io n ,
under the same i n i t i a l and boundary cond i t ions . The v a lue o f EHT D i s
calculated from the rat ios of d i mens ions for rectangular b r i ck shapes
or from exp er imental data bu t is, like Pham ' s method , esse n t i ally
equ ivalent to the area t i mes th i ck ness -to-volume ra t io w i th a
correc tion for B i ot nu mb ers g reater than z ero .
Both the EHTD and MCP conc ep ts gav e accurate p red i c t ions of
exp er imental data for freez ing o f rec tangular b ri ck s when app l i ed i n
conj unc t ion wi th an accurate p red i c t ion me thod for freez i ng of the
simple slab shap e . N e ither method ha s a tot ally theore t i ca l b asi s , bu t
b oth cons i der the l i mi t i ng ca se s of Bi �o and B i � m . Goodness of f i t to
exper i mental data was also u sed in the i r der ivat ion . Bo th EHT D and MC P
have b een p ostulated as su i tab l e for irregular shap es , bu t th is has no t
b een v er i f i e d .
A c ommon me thod t o account for g eome t ry i n phase chang e o f i r reg ularly

shaped foods has been to app r ox i mate the shape by the c loses t s i mp l e
shap e ( slab , inf i n i te cyl i nder , sphere) and define an equ iv alent
d ia me ter or th i cknes s . Th is me thod is of l imi ted u se as the
app rop r i ate correla t i o n for equ iva len t d iame ter is spec i f i c for each
produc t ty pe and r equ ires experi mental dat a to determine i t accurate l y .
Often the equ ivalent d iame t er is chosen to i nc lude correc tion for
errors i n the p red i c t io n me thod u se d , as well as th e effect of shape on
hea t transfer . A g enera l model to ac count for g eometr i c effec ts w i th in
a calculat i on me thod i s super i or to an experi mental corre l a t io n for a
p ar t i cu lar p roduc t , as i t i s not restr i c ted by p roduc t typ e . Tab l e A . 8
l is ts r e sear cher s who u se equ ivalen t d ia me ters for irregular shap e s .
For heat conduc t ion wi thou t phase change , Smi th e t a l ( 1 96 7 ) , Sm i th et

al ( 1 9 6 8 ) , Clary et al ( 1 9 6 8 ) , Smi th & N e lson ( 1 9 6 9 ) and Cl ary et al
( 1 97 1 ) def ined a geome t ry i ndex for i r r egular shapes calcula ted from an
ell i p so i dal model shap e tha t has equa l orthog ona l cross-sec t iona l ar eas
to the anomalous shap e tha t i t r ep lac es. Th i s i ndex has not b een
tested for phase chang e p rob lems .
2 .6 PHYS ICAL PARAMETERS REQUIRED FOR CALCULAT ION OF PHASE CHANGE

IN FOODS
2 .6 . 1 Therma l Proper ty Data
The therma l p rop er t i es requ ired to p red i c t phase chang e in food i nc lude
thermal conduc t iv i ty , k , volume t r i c spec i f i c heat c apac i ty , C, latent
hea t content , L, phase chang e temp erature , T if ' and spec i f i c hea t
g enera t i on , Q . N o me thod to p re d ic t freez ing or thaw i ng times for
food s tuffs can be accura te i f the food thermal propert i es requ i r ed by
the me thod cannot b e ob tained ac cura tely , or are not rep rese nta ti ve of
the who l e produc t . There has been a great deal o f r esear ch , rev i ewed
by Woolr i ch ( 1 9 6 6 ) , Woodams & Nowry ( 1 96 8 ) , Mor l ey ( 1 97 2 ) , Me llor
( 1 976 , 1 9 78 , 1 979 , 1 980 ) , Pol l ey e t al ( 1 9 80 ) and Me ffer t ( 1 98 4 ) , i nto
thermal p roperty data requ ired to calculate phase chang e for foods . A
comp l ied set of da ta for meat ( Mor l ey 1 972 ) demons t r a tes some
i ncons i stenc ies in the thermal p rop er ty data . S i mi lar i ncons i s tenc ies
in data c ould b e exp ec ted for other food s .
Collec tion of thermal p roperty data i s ted iou s and exp ens i ve b ecau se o f
the v ar i ab i l i ty o f foods tuffs i n compos i t ion and s t ruc ture and the w i de
rang e of temp erature for wh ich data is requ ired . Data for froz en food
are esp ec ially d i f f icult to determine b ecau se it is d i ff icul t to
ma inta in the app ro p riate , exp erimental cond i t i ons .
B ecau se of the se d iff icul t i e s , numer ou s a t temp ts hav e been ma de to

mathe ma t i cally model food p ro p er t i es and hence der i v e calculat ion
me thods for the thermal p r op er t i es . Data that can be determ ined
simply , cheap ly and accurately such as i n it i a l freez i ng temperature ,
compos i t io n , average unfrozen thermal conduc t iv i ty and spec i f ic heat
cap ac i t y and the b ound water frac t i on are u sed as i npu t data f or these
L i t era ture Rev i ew 30
mode ls . The s implest models sum the e ffec t of the sol i d and l iquid
componen t p a r t s ( Com i n i e t a l 1 9 74 a , Lamb 1 9 76 , D i ckerson 1 9 77, L e ntz &
Van Den Berg 1 9 77, Mascheroni e t a l 1 9 77, Levy 1 9 8 1 , Levy 1 9 8 2 a ) . An
al terna t i v e i s to pred i c t the water and ice frac t io n from freez i ng
point dep ress i on equa t i o ns and re late th is to the chang es i n p ro p er t i es
from unfroz en values ( He ldman 1 9 74 b , Heldman & Gorby 1 9 75 , Schwa r tzberg
1 9 76 , Schwar tzb erg 1 9 77, Mascheron i & Ca lv elo 1 9 80 , Heldman 1 9 8 1 ,
Heldman 1 982 , Mascher on i & Ca lvelo 1 98 2 , Lark in e t a l 1 984 ) . A th i rd
app roach i s to u se emp ir i cal or reg ress i on equa t i ons to f i t the data
( Levy 1 9 79 , Chang & Tao 1 98 1 , Ramaswamy & Tung 1 98 1 , Levy 1 9 82 b , 1 982 c ,
1 983a) . All three app roaches are c l a imed to l ead to data of s i mi lar
ac curacy to that ob ta inabl e by d irec t measuremen t .
Numer ical me thod s b ased on approx imat ing Eq. (2 . 1 ) ne ed ex tens i v e

therma l data over the ful l tempera ture range wher eas many s i mp l e
me thods d o no t . Complete therma l p roper ty tab l es , simp l i f ied l i ne a r
app r ox i mat ions t o the ac tual data ( Bonac ina e t al 1 9 74 , Com i n i e t al
1 9 74 a , B onac ina & Comi n i 1 9 76 , Tao 1 9 75 ) and sy stems b ased on the ab ov e
p r op e r ty p red ic t ion me thod s have a l l b een used in numer ical me thods
wi th good rep orted acc uracy .
Meff'e rt ( 1 9 8 4 ) and Hs i eh et a l ( 1 9 77) inv est igated the error i n therma l

p r op e r ty data and i ts effec t on p red i c t ion accuracy . Cons i der i ng tha t
error o n i n d iv i dual values of any p roper t y ca n b e as h igh as 4 0 % the
error can b e substantial in any sub s equen t pred i c t ions of freez i ng and
thawi ng .
2.6 .2 Surface Hea t Transfer Coeffic ients
One of the mos t d iff icult parameters to de termine indep enden tly in food
freez i ng and thaw i ng proc es ses that i nvolve the th ird k i nd of boundary
cond i t ion i s the surface heat transfer coe ff i c ient b et ween the amb i ent
med ium and the p roduc t surfac e . Arce & Sweat ( 1 980 ) r ev iew tech n i ques
to est imate , and g iv e data for , surface hea t transf er coeff i c i e n ts in
many food heat t r ansfer s i tu a t i ons.
There are many correla t i o ns ( McAdams 1 95 4 ) b u t these tend to b e med ium,

p r oduc t , and s i tuat i on spec if i c , and of doub t ful accuracy . Measurement
i n s i tu i s a b e t te r p r op osa l a s the ac tual heat transfer cond i t io ns a r e

more c lose ly rep rese n ted and any var i a t i on due to equ ipme nt will be
t ak en into ac c oun t . Some t rans i ent methods are d i scussed b y Cleland &
Ear le ( 1 9 7 6 a) and Earle & Cl e land ( 1 97 9 ) . Some research es hav e u sed

metal t ransduc ers ( F lem i ng 1 967 , Kopel man et al 1 97 0 , Ear l e 1 97 1 ,
Cowe l l & Namor 1 9 7 4 ) . Users o f such dev i c es canno t be sure of the
corre l a t ion b etween the sur face heat transfer coeff ic i en t measur ed for
the transduc er and those for the ac tua l foodstuff or mater i a l . Others
work ers hav e used the ac tual food under s i m i lar experi mental cond i t i ons
and hav e chosen the surface heat transf er coef f i c ient to fi t so lu tions
for he at transfer wi th ou t pha se change ( Charm 1 963 , Bak er & Charm
1 969 ) , or to g iv e the b est fi t of surface and cent re temp erature
p red i c t ions us i ng f i ni te d i f ference me thod s ( Beck 1 969 , Bonac i na &
Comi n i 1 97 2 , Chav arr i a & He ldman 1 984 ) . Com i n i ( 1 97 2 ) shows tha t

sur face tempera tures a r e mos t sens i t i v e to change in the sur fac e heat
transfer coe ff i c ient and hence advocates the ir u se in an op timal
exper i mental des ig n . For measur i ng sur fac e heat t ransfer coeff ic i en ts
to irregular shapes on ly me tal tr ansducers are can b e u sed wi thou t the
need for comp l ex tr ial and err or compu ter ana ly s i s by the f in i te
el ement method . F or s i m i l a r rea sons i n s i tu tr ans i e n t de termi na t i ons
are l i mi ted to regular geome tr i c shapes . Var i a t ion of th e surface heat
transfer coeff i c ient ov er the sur face is c ommon w i th var i ab l e g eome t r i c
conf igurat ions and i n cond i t ions such as a ir f low ( P urwada r i a 1 980 ) .
Local v a r i a t i ons of the surface heat transf er coe ff i c ient can b e
s ig n i f i can t b u t are v ery d i ff icul t t o mea sure . Often a n av erage value
mu st b e determ i ned or est i ma t e d .
2 .7 SUMMARY
There ar e a larg e nu mb er of solu tions to the p rob l em of he at con duc t ion

wi th phase change for regu lar geome t r ic shapes . Mo st analy t ical and
some nume r i c al solu t i o ns ar e b ased on the assump tion that phase chang e
occurs a t a un ique temperatur e . None of the se have b e en p rov en
accu ra te for food whe r e phase chang e is ov er a rang e of temp eratures .
O ther common l i m i tat ions of me thods are that th ey do not cons i de r the
mos t common and u se ful th ird k ind of b ou ndary cond i t ion , do not accou n t
f o r i n i t ial temperature not be i ng at the phase chang e temp er a tur e , and
are der ived for semi - i n f i n i t e rather than f in i t e g eometr i c shap es .
Li terature Rev iew 32
Mod if ied analy t i c a l and emp ir ical so lut ions retain �e s i mp l e

analy t ical form , have less deta i led thermal data r equ i re men ts than more
r i g orou s method s , bu t tend to be p roduc t or si tua t ion spec i f i c . Wi th in
th i s group , those formulae of a general na ture hav e been tes ted aga i ns t
exp er imental freez ing data and some hav e shown ac cep tab l e ac curacy .
There has b e en no ex tens i v e tes t i ng of si mp l e p red i c t ion me thods for
thawing .
The f i n i te d i ff erence numer ical me thod is of p rov en accuracy for

freez i ng of r egu l ar sh ap es . The f i ni te e l emen t me thod has b e en ·
formulated and shown to b e super ior to the f i n i t e d if fer enc e me thod for
p red i c t i ng phase change in two-d imens ional irregul ar shap e s . Ne i ther
numer ical method has b een tes ted ex tens i v e ly for thawi ng of food i n
regular shap es or for freez i ng or thawi ng of food s of irregu l ar
g eometry due to the lack of su itab le exp er iment a l data .
S i mp l e analy t ical me thods to al low ca lculat ions for irreg u l ar shapes

hav e b een p rop ose d , but no s i g n i f ican t test ing or r e f i n emen t ag a inst
exper i menta l or numer i ca l l y ca lculated data ov er a rang e o f cond i t io ns
has b een carr i ed ou t .
33
3 RESEARC H O BJECTIVES
U l t imately , v er i f i ca t i on of the acc uracy of any method to p red i c t

freez i ng and thawi ng t i mes mus t · b e made by compar i son wi th accu rate
exp er imental freez i ng and thaw i ng data ( H el dman 1 9 83 , Cl e land & Ear l e
1 98 4 a ) . The mos t useful data s e t w ould b e l a rge and d i ver se i n order
to d i fferen t i ate b et ween error due to imp rec ise k nowl edg e and contro l
of the phase change cond i t ions ( exper i mental error ) , error due to
unce rta inty in thermal p rop er ty data ( data error ) and i naccu racy
ar i s i ng from as sump t i ons or app rox i mat ions made in the der i va t i on of
the p re d i c t i o n me thod ( p re d i c tion error ) .
For freez i ng of regular shapes such as s l ab s , cyl inder s, spheres and

rec ta ngular b ri ck s L i ng e ( 1 97 3 ) , Cl e land ( 1 977 ) , de M i che l i s & Calvelo
( 1 983 ) , Hayakawa et al ( 1 98 3 a ) , Hung & Thompson ( 1 983 ) and Succar &
Hayakawa ( 1 9 8 4 ) hav e publ i shed maj or data sets for a variety of

foods tuffs and food anal ogu es, froz en under a range of cond i t i ons .
Cl eland & Earle ( 1 9 8 4 a ) and Pham ( 1 9 8 4 c ) used an ama lgamated data se t
from the se sourc es to tes t freez i ng t i me pred i c t i on me thods for regular
shap es . This study showed that accurate freez ing t ime p re d i c t i on
me thods ex i s t ed for these shapes .
Data g i ven for i rregular shap ed obj ec ts tend to be p roduc t spec if i c .

In v i r tually all cases pub l i shed in the l i teratur e , deta i l ed
g eometr ical descr i p ti ons have not b een g iven and cons i s t ency in size
and shape dur i ng exper i ments was not control led . For examp l e , i n the
freez i ng and thawing of mu tton carcasses the s i z e and shap e i n forma t i on
i s of ten l i mi ted to the relevant we i ght range ( Earl e & Fleming 1 9 67 ,
Van i chseni e t al 1 97 2 ) . This i n format ion i s generally not suff i c iently
de tai led to test pred i c t ion me thods o ther than product spec i f i c
emp i r i ca l formulae .
The restr i c ted na ture of publ i shed data l ed to the formula t i o n of the
f i rs t two a i ms of the pr esent research :
( 1 ) to collec t thaw i ng data f or the b as i c s l ab , infi n i t e cyl i nder ,
sphere and r ec tangular b r i ck shapes
( 2 ) to coll ec t fr eez i ng and thawi ng data f or other ( ir r egular) shap es .
Resea rch Obj ec t i v es 34
T h i s expans ion of the data b ase was necessary to fac il i tate tes t i ng of
thawi ng t i me p red i c t ion me thods for s i mp l e shapes and pred i c t i on
methods app l i cab l e to i rregular geometr i es for both freez i ng and
thaw i ng .
Tab l e 3 . 1 g ives the des i rab l e attr i bu tes of any method for food
freez i ng and thawi ng t i me pred i c t ion d i scussed by Slatter & J ones
( 1 97 2 ) , Cl eland ( 1 97 7 ) and Cl eland & Ear le ( 1 9 77 a) . The methods
ava i l able are conv en i ently d iv i ded i nto two broad groups for fur ther
study :
Grou p ( I ) : Formulae requ i r i ng on ly hand calcul a t i on
Group ( II ) : Numer ical me thods requ i r i ng computer calcul ation.
These groups d iffer s l i gh tly from those u sed in Sec . 2 . 3 and 2 . 4 . Many
e ng i neers do not have the sp ec i al ised knowledge to impl ement nume r i cal
method s . They will not u se Group I I me thod s unl ess they ar e ava ilab l e
as computer packages . Such people therefore mus t often rely on the
simple formulae ( Group I) . The g rea ter soph ist i cation of numer i cal
me thods may jus t i fy the ir u se if comp l ex cond i t ions are to s tud ied and
more det a i l ed des i g n i n forma t i on is requ ired . Often imprec i s e
k nowledge o f the pha se change cond i t i ons and uncerta i nty in thermal
data me an that the more comp l ex numer i ca l methods are no more accurate
in p rac t ice than Gr oup I me thod s .
Cond i t ions usually imposed i n the der i v a t i on of Group I methods are

l i s ted in Tab l e 3.2. If any of these cond i t ions ar e v iolated Group I
methods can on ly b e app l i ed to p rac t i ca l p robl ems by tak i ng app rop r i a t e
av erages f o r the phase change p rocess . I n cont ras t Group II me thods
are app l i cab l e whe ther these assump tions are made or not .
Pr ov i ded the e ight assump t ions in Table 3 .2 are met , freez i ng or

thaw i ng t i mes are i nfl uenced by the sev en major fac tors l i s ted in Tab l e
3.3. The accuracy and u sefulness o f any experi men tal data col l e c t ed i s
dep endent on the ab i l i ty to measure these parameters , t o control
accurately the exper i mental env i ronment and to mee t the cond i t io ns in
Tab l e 3 . 2 . The data se ts collec ted were desi gned so that all imp or tant
parame ters c ould b e exam i ne d . These data enabled the th i r d , f our th a nd
f i f th a ims of the current study to b e c on s i dere d . These were to:
( 3 ) ass ess the accuracy of b o th Gr oup I and Gr oup II me thods for
Research Ob j e c t i ves 35
pred i c t ion of thawi ng ti mes for regular shapes

(4) a ssess the accuracy of Group II me thods for p rediction of freez i ng
and thawi ng ti mes for i r r egular shap es and
( 5 ) i nv est igate the p oss i b i l i ty of develop i ng a Group I method to
p red i c t freez i ng and thawi ng t i mes for i r r egular shapes .
A dec is ion was mad e to l im i t the current study to si tua t i ons where the
e ight cond i t ions l i s ted in Tab l e 3 . 2 app l y . Th i s dec i s ion was ma de
b ecause of time and resou rce l i m i tat ions . Desp i t e th is rest r i c t i on a
w i de range of p rac t i ca l ly i mportant problems can s t i l l b e c overed .
Fu ture work may inv est igate si tua t i ons no t l i mi ted by these
assump t ions .
Tab l e 3 . 1 Desi rab l e Attr ibu tes of Freez ing and Thaw ing T i me Pred i c tion
Method s
( a ) Suff i c ient accuracy ov er a wi de rang e of cond i t i ons

( b ) S i mp l e and che ap l y processed cal cu l a t i ons
( c ) A pp l i cab i l i ty to a w i de rang e of b iolog i cal mater ials of v a r i ou s
s i z es and shap es
( d ) A pp l i cab i l i ty to the p rac t i cal l y impor t an t th ird k ind of boundary
cond i t ion in s i tua t i ons where there is superhea t i ng or subcool i ng
( e ) Mi n imal need for deta i l ed thermal p roperty data
( f ) Pred i c t ion of hea t f l ow and temp era ture prof i l es as func t ions of
t ime
( g ) Use of a un i f ied app roach for b oth freez i ng and thaw i ng .
( h ) Appl i c ab i l i ty where b oundary condi t ions are t i me and pos i t ion
var i ab l e
Research Obj e c t i ves 36
T ab l e 3 . 2 Cond i t ions R equ i red For Der ivat ion of S i mpl e Fr eez ing and
Thawing T i me Pred i c t ion Formulae
( a ) That the boundary and i n i t ial cond i t ions are constant wi th t i me

and /or p os i t ion
( b ) Homogeneous mater ials
( c ) That the th ird b ou ndary cond i t i on desc r i b es the heat transfer at
the b oundary adequately and that rad iat ion ef fec ts ar e
i ns i g ni f i cant
( d ) No i n ternal heat generat ion
( e ) I sotrop i c mater i a ls
( f ) N eg l i g i b l e dens i t y chang e dur i ng phase chang e
( g ) I n ternal heat transfer by conduc t ion only
( h ) No mass transfer , such as evap ora tion , at the surface
( i ) That the obj ec t reta ins i ts phys ical i n t egri ty dur i ng the phase
chang e p rocess .
Tab l e 3 . 3 Fac tors Affec t i ng Fr eez ing and Thaw i ng T imes
( a ) Thermal p roper t i es of the ma ter ial

( b ) S iz e of the obj ec t
( c ) I n i t i a l temp erature of the mater i a l
( d ) The amb i ent hea t i ng or cool i ng temp erature
( e ) The surface resi s tance to heat transfer as defined by the surface
heat t r ansfer coeff i c i ent
( f ) The geome tr i c con f igura t i on o f the obj ec t
( g ) The f inal temperature at the thermodynami c centre at the comp l e t i o n
of the phase chang e p rocess .
37
4 NUMERI CAL MET HOD FORMULAT I ONS
I t was neccessary to develop some numeri cal free z i ng and thawi ng t ime
pred i ct i on methods beyond what has been reported in the l i t erature i n
order t o meet the f our th r es ear ch obj ect i ve defi ned i n Chap . 3 .
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Numer i cal methods to pre d i ct rates of phase change processes in f oods

can be d i v i ded i nto thr ee groups :
( a ) the f i n i te el ement method
( b ) the f i n i t e di ff erence method
( c ) the approx imate ana l y t i cal methods tha t requ i r e numer i ca l
i ntegration o r ar e too compl e x f o r hand calcul a t i on .
The l at ter group have f ew advantages over the other two and have the
maj or d i sadvantage that usually severely l i mi t i ng phy s i cal
approx imat i ons are made . Ther ef ore th i s group of numer i cal methods was
not cons i dered further . Only numeri cal me thods that account for phase
change by cons i de r i ng con t i nuousl y tempera tur e var i abl e thermal
proper t i es were cons i dered as they are phys i cally the most real i s ti c .
T he al terna t i ve numer i cal methods trea t i ng phase change as a mov i ng
boundary probl em by assum i ng a uni que phase change t emperature do not
approx i mate phase change in foods very c l osely and ar e ther efore
i nf e r i or ( Cl el and 1 9 77 ) .
Advances i n compu t i ng t echno l ogy have meant that cos ts f or computer

computat ion power and dat a s torage ar e now rel a t i vely low so numeri cal
methods become attrac t i ve compared wi th s i mpl e analy t i ca l methods . The
ava i l ab i l i ty of comprehensi ve programs is i ncreas i ng so detail ed
knowl edge of comput er programm i ng and of the numer i cal techn i ques are
not neccessar i l y required to use thes e methods .
N umer i cal methods have been advocated as a s tandard metho d for

pred i c t i o n of phase change aga i ns t whi ch al l other pre d i c t i o n me thods
shoul d be compared , because numer i ca l methods are the c l osest to an
" exact" pred i c t ion method that e x i sts ( Hel dman 1 98 3 ) . · C ompari sons w i th
numer i cal methods shoul d only compl ement , not repl ace , compar i sons wi th
N umeri cal Method Formul a t i ons 38
actual exper i mental freez i ng and thaw i ng data ( C l eland & E ar l e 1 98 4 a ) .

A numeri cal method can only be accurate if it has been correctly
formul at ed and , impl ement ed and i f rel i ab l e data are used . C ompa r i sons
wi th e xper iments ar e necessary to assess these factors . The f i ni te
d i f f erence method i s l i mi ted by prac t i ca l cons tra i nt s to use for
regul ar shaped obj e c ts such as slabs , i nf i ni t e cyl i nders , s p heres ,
i nfi ni t e rods and rec tang ul ar bri cks . For these shapes f i x ed regular
gri ds can be us ed for the f i ni te d i ff er ence appro x im a t i o ns and
comparat i ve l y s i mpl e schemes developed . For i r regul ar shapes mor e
compl e x f i ni te d i ff er ence schemes and i rregul arly spaced gri ds c an b e
used ( F l emi ng 1 97 1 c ) . These ar e more compl ex to impl ement o n computers
than f i ni t e el ement me thods .
Numer i cal methods requ i re no physi ca l assump ti ons about the phase
change process but mak e numeri cal approximati ons . For complex bo undar y
cond i t i ons , i rr egular shapes , non- homogeneous mater i als and where
t emperature prof i l es change rapidly wi th posi t i on , the f i ni t e el ement
method is abl e to make mor e exac t approx imat i ons than the f i n i t e
d i fference me thod . F o r these reasons only the f i ni t e el ement method
has been used extens i ve l y for i rregular shapes ( Comi ni et al 1 97 8 ) .
4.2 THE F INITE ELEMENT METHOD
Al though the f i ni t e e l ement method has been wi de l y used for phas e

change ( C om i ni et al 1 978 ) none of the publ i shed appl i cat i ons of the
f i ni t e el ement method to phase change cons i dered three-d imens i onal
probl ems , and only l i mi ted tes t i ng of some two- dimens i onal f i ni te
element codes aga i ns t exper imental data has been car ri ed out
( Sec . 2 . 4 . 4 ) . A s i mpl e probl em spec i f i c program was avail abl e f or
three- d imen s i onal hea t transfer ( L im 1 97 5 ) but a general f i n i t e e l ement
program was not . Therefore a general formul a t i o n for heat cond uc t i on
i n three-d imensi onal geometry was devel oped and programmed ( C l eland et
al 1 98 4 ) .
N umer i cal M et hod Formul at i ons 39
4.2.1 F i ni te E l ement Method Formul a t i on
The f i n i t e el ement me thod can be formul ated for heat tr ansfer wi th

change of phase in a thr e e- d i mens i onal obj ect by usi ng the Gal er k i n
we i g hted resi dual method for spacewise di scret i zat i on o f E qs . ( 2 . 1 ) and
( 2 . 8 ) ( Z i enk i ewi cz 1 97 1 , Seger l i nd 1 97 6 ) . I ncorporat i ng the boundar y
condi t i ons ( E qs . ( 2 . 3 ) to ( 2.6) and ( 2.9) to ( 2 . 1 1 ) ) us i ng Green ' s
theorem , ye i l ds the n s i mul taneous d i f f er ent i al equa t i ons to be solved
impl i c i tl y for the t emperatur es at the n nodal poi nts defi ned
throughou t the reg i on . Wri t ten i n matr i x form the sol ut i on b ecomes
( Z i en k i ewicz & Parekh 1 9 70 , C omi ni et al 1 9 74b ) :
1: I(t) + c I(t) = f (4. 1 )

wher e I[ � thermal conduc tance mat r i x
I vec tor of noda l temperatures as a f unc t i on of t i me
c = thermal capac i t ance matr i x
!: thermal for c i ng vec tor
The t yp i ca l matr i x e l ements are:
(4.2)
(4.3)
(4.4)
whe r e W • 2 nr for cyl i ndri cal co- ord i nates

• 4nr 2 f or s pher i ca l co- ordi nates
,. 1 o therw i s e
shape f unc ti ons for the i th or j th node i n the e l ement
or s ur f ace undergoi ng i nt egra t i on .
Equa t i on ( 4 . 1 ) can be approx i mated by f i n i t e d i ffer enc es or f i n i t e
el ements and sol ved for f uture ti mes g i ven the appropri at e i ni t i al
condi t i on . U s i ng f i ni t e el ements in the f our th ( ti me ) d imensi on
greatl y i ncr eases the s i ze of the probl em for comput er i mpl ementat i on
but does all ow non- l i near es tima t i on i n the t ime doma i n . U se o f f i ni te
d i f f er ences i n the t i me domai n i s more common . The three t ime l ev e l ,
l i near , f i ni te d i fference scheme propos e d b y L ees ( 1 966 ) i s wel l proven
N umer i cal Method Formul ati ons 40
for phase change probl ems ( C om i n i & Bona c i na 1 97 4 ) :
(4.5)
I t has the advantage over other f i ni t e d i ffer ence schemes that it is

central l y bal anced s o only cent ral t i me val ues o f the � and C mat r i ces
and f: vec tor ar e requ i re d . Therefore i terat i ve t i me stepp i ng
algor i thms are not needed to i ncor porate correct val ues of the
t emperature and t i me dependent thermal proper t i es , and the boundary
cond i ti ons . T he L ees ' scheme has been shown to be uncond i ti onall y
st abl e and converg ent i n the cont ext of f i ni t e el ement anal ys i s ( C om i n i
et al 1 9 7 4 b ) .
By u s i ng the temperature- dependent apparen t spec i f i c heat capac i ty and

thermal conduc t i vi ty ( s uch as F i gs . 2 . 2 to 2 . 3 ) thi s nume ri cal method
wi l l cl os e l y mod el the true physi cal process dur i ng phase change if
data are accurat e . To account for both chang es i n thermal proper ti es
over each e l ement vol ume wi th t i me and the pos s i bl e t i me dependence of
the boundary condi t i ons , the i nt egra t i ons shown in Eqs . ( 4 . 2 ) to ( 4 . 4 )
must be repeated f or each t i me step , and I, C and f re- eva l uated . In
Eqs . ( 4 . 2 ) t o (4.4)
the summat i ons are t aken f or each e l ement , V e • i n
the e l ement reg i on , and f or each e l ement sur f ac e , S 2 e or S 3 e • on whi ch
E q . ( 2 . 3 ) or ( 2 . 4 ) is spec i f i ed . The spa t i al arrangement i s chosen so
that wi thi n each e l ement or on each sur f ace the var i abl es k , C , Q, $,
h con • E,
T ac and T ar ar e no l onger dependent on pos i t i on . I n phy si ca l
t erms , th i s means that no e l ement covers a reg i on made u p o f mor e than
one materi al type , and that boundary s urfaces are chos en so that
boundary var i ab l es $. h con • T ac and T ar can be ass umed cons tant f or
E,
that s urface , but not neccessar i l y the same as for other boundar y
s ur f aces . Knowl edge of these var i abl es i s often subj ect t o s i gn i f i cant
uncert ai nty . Therefore from a prac t i cal v i ewpoi nt the above
l im i tat i ons shoul d no t be restr i ct i ve . The dependence on t emperatur e
of k , C , Q , hrad • and on t i me of h con • �. T ac and T ar at each of the
s urfaces , r ema i ns .
T he f ul l numer i cal i nt egrat i on of Eqs . ( 4 . 2 ) t o ( 4 . 4 ) requ i res a l arge

c omput at ion effort a t each time s t ep . Therefore a s i mpl e r formul a t ion
is also proposed i n whi ch Eqs . ( 4 . 2 ) to ( 4 . 4 ) b ecom e :
N umer i cal M ethod Formul at i ons 41
J
aN j +
aN i aN j
- - -- W dV
ay az az
N j W dS 3 (4.6)
(4.7)
IS Ni w dS 2
ze
Is N i w dS 3 (4.8)
3e
T h i s requ i res the f urther assumpti ons that wi th i n each of the el emen t s
o r across each of the el ement s urfac es f o r wh i ch the summat ions are
made , that the proper t i es k , C , Q and h rad are cons tant wi th res pe c t to
temperature , but that these values can change from one t i me s tep to the
ne xt . Even though this is not physi cally accurate , if a val ue of these
proper t i es that is repres ent a t i v e of the whol e el ement or el ement
surface can be de termi ned , and if the e l ements ar e not l arge this
approach may be suff i c i ently accurate for many pur poses . G i ven that
the t i me s t ep i s control led so that temper ature changes per t i me s t ep
are small , the maj or di sadvantage of thi s s i mpl er formul a t i on is that
the proper t i es ar e not re- eva l ua t ed at each i nt egrat i on poi nt . I n the
full formul a t i on evalua t i on at each i nt egra t i on point hel ps accoun t f or
property vari at i on over the e l ement reg i on so that os c i l l atory
behav iour , espe c i al l y near the phas e chang e t emperatur es wher e thermal
proper t i es change rap i dl y , i s l ess l i kely ( C l el and et al 1 98 4 ) . The
advantage of the simpl er formul a t i on is that the i nt egra t i ons shown i n
Eq . ( 4 . 6 ) to ( 4 . 8 ) need only to b e calcul ated for the f i rs t t i me s t ep .
T hereafter the constant val u es resul t i ng from the i nt egra tion c an b e
stored and m ul ti pl i ed e l ement b y e l ement ( and s ur f ace by s ur f ace ) by
the appropriate proper t i es , and the s ummat i on compl et ed . T h i s requi res
f ar l ess computat i on t i me and computer memor y than f or the f ul l
f ormul a t i on .
The cho i ce of formul at i on must take i nto account the t rade- off between
loss in acc uracy and sav i ngs in comput at ion cos ts . As c omput a t i on
costs are usually f ar l es s than the cost of data preparati on ( S egerl i nd
1 97 6 ) , the sav i ng s may be qui t e smal l . Also uncert ai nti es in thermal
propert i es and bounda r y cond i ti on dat a are s ubstant i al ( Sec . 2. 6 ) .
Provi ded numeri cal errors are small compared wi th physi cal
uncer t a i nt i es no wort hwh i l e i ncrease i n pred i ct i on accuracy w i l l occur
N umeri cal Method Formul a t i ons 42
b y mak i ng t he method more soph i s t i ca t ed . T he s i m pl i f i ed method uses

thi s fact and poss i bl y increases numeri cal error , but may not l e ad to
s i gn i f i cant l y poor er pred i ct i ons of exper imental va l ues . If there was
a si gni f i cant i ncreas e in error i t woul d be e xpected to b e a maximum
when the t emper atur e grad i en t s across the el ements were l argest i n the
t emperature range where phas e change occurs . In thawi ng , this
corres ponds to h i gh sur f ace heat transf er coef f i c i ents , i ni t i al
t emperatur es clos e to the phase change t emperatur es and amb i ent
temper at ur es great l y d i f f erent from the phase change temperat ures
( Cl el and et al 1 9 8 2 ) .
4.2.2 C ompu ter Impl em entat i on
Both the f ormul at i ons g i ven by Eqs . ( 4 . 1 ) to ( 4 . 8 ) were programmed in

F or tran 7 7 . The full cod es are g i ven i n App . D whi ch also i n cl udes
da ta pr eparat i on not es . The p rograms use numer i cal i nt egrati on of the
el ement mat r i c es and a Gauss i an el i m i na t i on al gori thm for symme t ri c ,
pos i t i ve def i n i t e , banded mat r i ces wi th back subst i tut i on as the
equa t i on sol ver . Most of the computer pro cess t i me to run these
programs i s due to es t i mat i on of thermal proper t i es and numer i cal
i nt egrat i on of the el ement mat ri ces . T herefore us e of a mor e
soph i st i cat ed and eff i c i ent techni que to solve the s yst em of e quati ons
i s not j us t i f i ed . C omputer memory requ i r ements ar e h i gh b ut can b e
mi nimi sed b y mat ch i ng array d imens i ons c l osely t o the probl em s i ze or
by usi ng peri pheral s torage dev i ces . The speci al featur es des cr i bed
below are i nc l uded i n the programs .
The Lees ' scheme makes a l i near appro ximat i on by f i ni te d i f f er ences in

the i nt erval ( t- � t ) to ( t + � t ) . For a l i near var i at i on i n t emperatur e
the rad i a t i on hea t transf er coeffi c i ent w as accurately approximat ed by
the method o f C om i ni et a l ( 1 974 b ) :
£ a ( ( T + T �r ) ( ( T ) + ( T � ) ) + ! ( T � -T � ) ( T � +T - �T
h rad •
i i 2 2 1 1 2 i i-1 )
+ � ( T �; 1 -T �� l ) ( T i -T i - l ) ( T i - l +T � l ) + ( T i -T i - l ) 2 ( T i + �T � 1 - � T � 1 ) ] (4.9)
i n which only k nown val ues of t emperature are used . T h i s all ows
central val ues of t to be used wi th good accuracy and an i terat i ve
procedure ( Fr i v i k et al 1 97 7 ) to solve Eq . ( 4 . 5 ) i s not r e qu i re d . As
r ad i a t i o n i s not a maj or form of heat transfer d ur i ng food phase change
processes thi s method shoul d be suff i c i en t l y accurate for mos t
N umer i cal M ethod Formul at i ons 43
pur poses .
I n f i ni te el ement analysi s stab l e osc i l l at i ons frequently occur

( Y al amanch i l l i & Chu 1 97 3 , Myers 1 978 ) . They can be accentuat e d when
us i ng central values of [ ( Comi ni & Lewi s 1 97 6 ) . U pdat i ng t emperatures
at the end of each t i me step usi ng the averag i ng procedure (Wood &
L ew i s 1 975 ) :
Ti-1 � ( T i - 1 +T i +T i + 1
= ) (4.10)
or reduc i ng the t i me step ( Segerl i nd 1 9 76 ) wi ll reduce these
os c i l lati ons . Too small a t i me s tep is undes i rabl e as computat i on
t i mes are i ncreased and computer round i ng errors can be come
s i gn i f i cant .
The accuracy of Eq . ( 4 . 1 ) wi ll be best i f the vari at i on of k, C, Q,
h rad • h con • �� · T ac and T ar wi th t i me over each t i me step is small or i s

reasonably l i near . For mos t probl ems h con • <f> , T ac and T ar ar e
ess en t i al l y cons tant wi th ti me , so that t emperature dependenc e of k , C ,
Q and h rad wi l l be the l arger contri but i on to i naccurac y .
A number of techni ques have been used t o f i nd values of k , C and Q that

are represent a t i v e when rates of change of these quanti t i es wi th space
ar e l arge , such as near the phase change temperatur es ( Sec . 2 . 4 . 4 ) .
T hes e approaches may l ead to erroneous r es ul ts (Morgan et al 1 97 8 ) so
d i rect eval ua t i on of these pr oper t i es as f uncti ons of temperat ur es i s
us ed . Control of the t ime s tep , so that excess i ve t emper ature changes
over each t i me s t ep cannot occur , i s the ul t i mate strategy t o g i ve
acc uracy . The t i me s tep control ens ur es proper heat bal anc es a cross
el ements and boundar i es , helps reduce numer i cal os c i l l at i on and
therefor e i n creas es prec i s i on in the solution. Smal l t emper ature
changes per t i me step r educe the error i n ass umi ng that the r e i s l i near
var i at i on i n k, c, Q and hrad i n the i nt er val ( t- 6 t ) to ( t+ 6 t ) .
T herefore the use of val ues f or K, C
and [ at the central t i me val ue ,
t, wi l l be an accur at e approximat i on . An automat i c t i me s t ep
adj ustment ( C om i n i et al 1 97 4b ) i s us eful to keep tempera t ur e changes
per t i me step l ow wi thout great l y i ncreas i ng comput at i on t i me . This i s
ach i eved b y choi ce o f val ues f or the parameters 6Tmi n an d
appropri at e
6Tmax • whi ch are the maximum and m i n i mum nodal t em per ature changes per
t i me step and ar e used to dec i de when to adj us t the t ime s tep . The
N umeri cal M ethod F ormul a t i ons 44
mos t appr op r i at e si zes of �T mi n and � T max are gover ned by the wi dt h of

the peaks in the p rof i l es of k , C and Q v ersus temperature (Morgan e t
a l 1 97 8 ) .
The accuracy of thermal proper t y approximat i ons and the numer i ca l

method appro x ima t i ons c an b e chec ked b y cal cul a t i ng the heat bal anc e :
apparent i nt ernal
entha l py chang e
heat fl ow i nt ernal
in through + heat
the s ur f ac e genera t i on
dV] dt
= 1 . 0 for bal ance (4.11 )

A heat balance does not occur if proper t y approximat i ons ar e
i nsuf f i c i ently accurate , time step or s pa t i a l i nt ervals ar e too l arge
or the numer i cal approx imat i ons used are not val i d . For exampl e , a
heat bal ance greater than 1 . 0 generally i nd i cates that " j ump i ng" of the
l atent heat peak has occurred ( C l el and & Ear l e 1 97 7 b ) and that t i me
s t eps shoul d be shor tened by reduc i ng both �T mi n and �T max · S imi l ar l y ,
a heat balance l ess than 1 . 0 general l y indi cates that t emperatur es at
for some el ements have " stayed on" the l at ent heat peak too l ong , and
that t i me s teps and/ or s pace i ntervals shoul d be reduced . T he f i rst
case of " j umpi ng " of the l atent heat peak i n the apparent s pec f i c heat
capac i t y prof i l e is a probl em in free z i ng calc ul at i ons because as the
temperat ur es drop b e l ow T i f the peak i s suddenly encounter ed , wher e as
the s econd case occurs mos t freque ntl y i n thawi ng cal cul at i ons because
the l atent heat peak suddenly d i sappears as t emperatur es ri se above
Tif .
T he programs can be used f or heat transf er probl ems i nvo l v i ng obj ects
of one , two or three- d imensions . T he a x i s ymmetri c featur e can be used
to s i mpl i f y probl ems wher e one or more axes of rota t i onal s ymmetry
exist . The el ements used ar e based on the rect angul ar "S erend i p i ty"
fami l y ( Z i en k i ewi cz 1 97 1 ) . L i near or quadrat i c i s oparametr i c and
super parame t r i c el ements are ava i l abl e . The high ord er el ements r educe
the total number of e l ements necessary and a l l ow curved e l ement
boundari es to b e use d t o model i rregul ar geomet r i es . The only s pe c i f i c
use of s ubparametr i c e l ements woul d be f or regul ar shapes wher e a
quadr at i c t emperature prof i l e i s required . A s quadra t i c i so parametri c
el ements ar e capabl e of handl i ng thi s case j us t as wel l , wi thout
Numer i cal Method F ormul at i ons 45
s i g ni f i cant i ncreas es i n computat ion t i mes , subparametri c el ements are

not i nc l uded i n the programs .
A l l the boundary cond i t i ons g i ve n i n the f ormul at i on ( Sec . 4 . 2 . 1 ) can

be used , and any i ni t i al t emper ature d i s t r i b u t ion may be s pec i f i e d .
4.2.3 F i ni te E l ement Method Tes t i ng
Tes t i ng of the f i ni t e e l emen t codes was made aga i ns t exper i mental

f ree z i ng dat a and anal y t i cal sol ut ions f or s impl i f i ed phase change
probl ems ( Cl e l and et al 1 98 4 ) . The number of no des and e l emen t s used
was a compromi se between the hi gher accuracy and l ess frequent
occurrence or smal l er ampl i t ude of os c i l l at i ons ach i eved wi th a l arger
number of nod es , and pra cti cal l i mi t at ions on the comput at ion t ime and
computer memor y storage requ i rements ( Seger l i nd 1 97 6 ) . S imi l arl y , the
number of i nt egration poi nts us ed in the numeri cal i ntegr ation of
el emen t mat r i ces was a balance between accuracy and compu tat i on time.
The us e o f thr ee i nt egration poi nts i n each d i rection was found t o g i ve
adequa t e accuracy in mos t cases . For the f ul l formul at i on the
c om b i na ti on of number of nodes and type of el ements ( l i ne ar or
quadrat i c ) was found to be l ess important as l ong as abou t e l ev e n nodes
( and consequen tly ei ther ten l i near el ements or f ive quadr ati c
el ements ) were used i n each d i rect i on ( C l el and et al 1 98 4 ) . For the
s impl er formul ation the number of el ements i s mor e cri t i cal as the
assumpt i on of cons tan t k , C and Q over each el ement becomes l ess
accurate for a f ew l arge quadrati c el ements rather than wi th more ,
small er l i near el ements . The benef i t of be i ng abl e to use a l ower
n umber of quadrat i c el ements is ther efore l essened because the t i me
step mus t be decreased to mai nta i n heat balances . I ncreas i ng the
n umber of nodes or el ements f or the full formul a t ion or the number of
i nt egra t i on poi nts f or both formul ati ons , above these s ugges t ed values ,
gave only mi nor changes i n pred i ct i ons . Quadrat i c el ements shoul d be
used i f the p roduc t s ur f ace i s curved or i rregul ar .
The exact sol ut i on due to Neumann ( Carsl aw & J aeger 1 95 9 , p . 2 8 2 ) f or a

spec i f i ed temperatur e boundary cond i tion , the analy t i cal sol uti on f or a
spec i f i ed s urface heat flux ( Carsl aw & J aeger 1 959 , p .75) and a
numer i ca l sol uti on f or the rad i at i on boundary cond i t i on ( Haj i -Shei kh &
N umeri cal Method F ormula t i ons 46
Sparrow 1 96 7 ) were used to tes t the programs f or the range of boundary

condi t i ons i n corporated . S im i l ar accuracy to that shown for other
f i ni te el ement codes ( C om i ni et al 1 97 4 b ) was demons trated ( Tabl es 4 . 1
to 4 . 3) . Both f i ni t e el ement formul a t i ons gave c omparabl e
temperature/ t i me prof i l es wi th those g i ven by the f i ni te d i f ference
method for the same probl ems . F or heat conduction in sol i ds wi th the
th i rd k i nd of boundar y cond i t i on the onl y solut i on for
thre e- dimens ional geometry i s due to Newman ( 1 936) . F i ni t e el ement
pred i ct i ons usi ng a coarse 6x6x6 node gri d ( Tabl e 4 . 4 ) gave simi l ar
pred i ct i on accuracy to a f i ni t e d i ff erence program for the i denti cal
probl em ( C l el and & Ear l e 1 97 9b ) . The thermal properti es are cons tant
in th i s l as t probl em and i t is not d i f f i c ul t to sol ve the probl em
numer i cal l y . Ther efore th i s probl em i s mor e a check that the method
has been impl ement ed correctly on the com put er , rather than a check
that the method is accurate in general .
C omprehens i v e experi ment al data av a i l abl e for heat cond uc tion wi th

phase change were l i mi ted to freezi ng of the regul ar shapes namel y :
sl abs ( Cl el and & Earle 1 97 7 a ) , i nf i ni t e cyl i nders and spher es ( Cl el and
& Ear l e 1 97 9 a ) and rect angul ar bri ck s ( C l el and & Ear l e 1 97 9 b ) , s ubj ec t
to the boundary condi tion of the third k i nd . Al though the full
f ormul at i on coul d not be run on all the rec tangul ar bri ck data due to
e xcessi v e comput at i on t imes , the overall predi ct ion accuracy compared
favourabl y wi th the f i ni te d i f fer ence pred i ct i on of this data ( C l el and
et al 1 98 4 ) .
I n al l test i ng the s impl i f i ed formul at i on gave s i mi l ar resul ts to the

f ul l f o rmul a t i on though often small er t i me steps wer e requ i red to
achi ev e heat bal anc es f or quadrat i c el ements . C omputat i on t i mes f or
the three- dimens ional probl ems wi th 2 1 6 nodes i n a 6x6x6 g r i d of 1 25
evenly s i zed , l i near i s opar ametr i c el ements over 250 t i me s teps were
about 1 5 000 sec . and 3 0 00 sec . f or the two formul ations r es pe c t i v el y
o n a Prime 750 compu t er . By compar i son , the thr ee- d i mens i onal , L ees '
s cheme , f i ni te d i fferen c e method program wi th a 6x6x6 node g r i d used
about 300 sec . computer process t i me f or 250 time steps on a Prime 750
c omputer .
Numer i ca l Me thod Formulat i ons 47
Tab l e 4 . 1 Compar i son of Resul ts From the F i n i te El ement Me thod Programs

W i th Neumann ' s Solut ion 1 For Thawi ng of a Slab Sub j e c t to the
F ir s t K i nd of Boundary Cond it ion
D 1 . 0 m , ks kl = = 1 . 0 W m - 1 °C - 1 , C S c
1
� 1 . o MJ m -3 oc - 1 ,
L 3
75 . 0 MJ m- , T a = 1 5 °C , T in - 1 5 °C .
=
Interface t neum 2 t femf 2 t fems 2

Pos i t ion
(m) ( s ec ) ( s ec ) ( s ec )
0 . 05 1 0 400 1 0 800 9700

0.10 4 2500 42700 3 8600
0.15 93 400 95900 88900
0 . 20 1 6 6000 1 70 800 1 6 2800
0 . 25 25 9300 26 4700 258000
1 Car slaw & Jaeger ( 1 959 . p . 282 )

2 t neum t i me calcul ated from Neumann ' s so l u t i o n 1 , t femf
= t ime =
calculated from the ful l f i n i te el ement formulat i on ( Eqs . ( 4 . 2 ) to

( 4 . 5 ) ) and t fems t i me calculated from the s i mp l er f i n i t e e lement
=
f ormul at ion ( Eqs . ( 4 . 5 ) to ( 4 . 8 ) ) . Latent heat was evenly

d i str i buted ov er the temper ature range from -0 . 25 °C to 0 . 25 °C , 21
nod e s and 20 l i near i s o pa r a me t r i c e l em e n t s w er e u s e d in th e f i n i te
e l ement programs .
Numer i cal Method Formulat ions 48
Tabl e 4 . 2 Comparison of Resul t s From the F i n i t e El emen t Method Programs

W i th a Known Ana l y t i cal So lut ion 1 For Cool ing of a Slab
Subj ect to the Second K i nd of Boundary Condi t ion
0 = 1 . 0 m, k = 1 . 0 W m - 1 oc - 1 , C = 1 . 0 MJ m -3 °C - 1 , 4> = 1 0 0 W m -2 ,
T i n = 1 00 °C . Values of tempera ture ( °C ) are tabu lated.
Slab Sur face At 0 . 1 m From Sl ab Sur face
T ime Ana l y t i cal Numer i ca l 2 Analy t i ca l Nume r i cal 2

( sec )
20 84 .04 83 . 83 92 . 09 9 2 . 90
40 77 . 4 3 77 . 28 86 . 0 4 85 . 90
60 72.36 72.24 81 . 22 81 10
•
80 68 . 09 67 . 98 77 . 09 76 . 99
1 00 64 . 3 2 64 . 22 73 . 43 73 . 3 4
1 Carslaw & Jaeger ( 1 9 59 , p . 7 5 )

2 Both the ful l formul at ion ( Eqs . ( 4 . 2 ) to ( 4 . 5 ) ) and the s i mpl i f ied
formulat ion ( Eqs . ( 4 . 5 ) to ( 4 . 8 ) ) gave i dent i cal r esult s , 2 1 nodes
and 20 l i near i soparametr i c elemen t s were used in the f i n i te e l emen t
programs .
Numer i ca l Method Formulat ions 49
T ab l e 4 . 3 C ompar i son o f Results From the F i n i te Elemen t Method P rograms

W i th a Numer i c al Sol u t ion 1 For Coo l i ng of a Slab Sub j e c t to
the Th i r d K i nd of Boundary Cond i t ion Includ ing Rad i a t ion
1 1
D 1 .0 m, k 1 . 0 W m- °C - , C "' 1 . 0 MJ m - 3 °C - 1 , h = 1 .0 W m -2 oc - 1 ,
£ = 1 . 0 , Tac 0 K , T ar = 0 K. Values o f Y ar e tabul ated .
Slab Sur face Slab C entre
Fo Numer i c al 1 F EM 2 Nume r i cal 1 F EM 2
3
£ oT i n D / k
0 . 02 0 . 80 0 .79 1 . 00 1 . 00
0 . 06 0 . 70 0 . 70 1 . 00 1 . 00
0 . 20 0 . 58 0 . 58 0 . 94 0 . 93
0 . 40 0 . 50 0 . 50 0 . 80 0 . 80
1 . 00 0 . 33 0 . 32 0 . 50 0 . 50
2 . 00 0.16 0.15 0 . 23 0 . 23
3
£ oT i n D / k 4
0 . 02 0 . 70 0 . 69 1 . 00 1 . 00
0 . 06 0 .61 0 .61 1 . 00 1 .00
0 . 20 0 .5 1 0 .5 1 0.91 0.91
0 . 40 0 . 43 0 . 43 0 . 76 0 .7 6
1 . 00 0 . 29 0 . 28 0 . 44 0 . 45
2 . 00 0. 1 3 0 .1 4 0 . 20 0 .21
1 Haj i -She i kh & Spar row ( 1 9 6 7 )

2 FEM "' calculated from the e l ement method , both the full formul a t ion
( Eq s . ( 4 . 2 ) to ( 4 . 5 ) ) and the s i mpl i f i e d f ormula t ion ( Eqs . ( 4 . 5 ) to

( 4 . 8 ) ) gave i dent i ca l resul ts .
Nume r i cal Method Formulat ions 50
Tab l e 4 . 4 C ompa r i son of Results From the F i n i t e Element Me thod P rograms
W i th a Known Analyt i cal Solut ion 1 For Cool i ng of a Cube

Sub j e c t to the Th i r d K i nd of Boundary Cond i t ion
Bi 4.0. Values o f Y are t abulated .
C entre of Face Centre of C ube
Fo Ana ly t i cal 1 Nume r i cal 2 Ana ly t i ca l 1 Numer i ca l 2
0 . 04 0 . 489 0 . 495 0 . 999 1 .001

0 . 08 0 . 3 87 0 . 3 92 0 . 974 0 . 985
0.12 0.318 0.31 9 0 . 897 0 . 91 2
0.1 6 0 . 26 1 0 . 265 0 . 7 90 0 . 80 4
0 . 20 0.215 0.218 0 . 6 77 0 . 6 88
0 .24 0 . 1 77 0 . 1 80 0 . 570 0 . 580
1 N ewman ( 1 9 3 6 )
2 Both the f u l l formu lat ion ( Eqs . ( 4 . 2 ) to ( 4 . 5 ) ) and the s i mp l i f i ed
formul at ion ( Eq s . ( 4 . 5 ) to ( 4 . 8 ) ) gave i dent i cal r esul t s , a 2 1 6

( 6x 6 x 6 ) node gr i d and 1 2 5 l i near i soparame t r i c e lements were used i n
the f i n i t e e l ement pr ograms .
N umer i cal Method F ormul at i ons 51
The ab i l i t y of the code t o deal wi th c urved i rregul ar g e ometry i n two

d i mens i ons was conf i rmed by modell i ng the cyl i ndr i ca l shape w i th the
g r i d g i v en in Fig . 5 . 1 5 . P redi c t i on accuracy was s i m i l ar to that
obta i ned usi ng r egu l ar one- d i mens i onal ax i s ymmet r i c el ements . A l though
the f i ni t e el ement code h as not been proven for a truely i rr eg ul ar
shape , there is no reason why simi l ar p r ed i ct i on accuracy ca nnot be

a c h i e v e d i f s u f f i c i en t l y det a i l ed nodal gri ds are us ed , as the f i n i te
el emen t method does not treat regul ar shaped e l ements any d i f f er entl y
f r om i rregul arly shaped ones .
T he two f i ni te el emen t programs were ther efore cons i de r ed to be

acc urately formul ated and correctly i m pl ement ed . H enc e they w er e
ava i l ab l e as pred i c t i on methods tha t wou l d be expected t o g i ve a c c urate
pred i c t i ons of phase change in obj ects of i r r eg ul ar geome try .
D i s ag r e ement wi th e xper imen tal data is more l i k e ly to be due to

imprec i s e thermal and e xp e r i mental data than to i nade qua c i es in the
f o rm ul a t i on or prog ram . I f pred i c t i o n me thod error ari s es i t i s more
l i k e l y to be because prac t i cal l i mi ts on memory and compu ter pro ces s
t i me ha ve meant that coarse s pace and t i me g ri ds ha ve been u s ed .
4.3 THE F I N I T E DI FFE RENCE ME T HOD
Dev el opm ent of the f i n i te e l ement method has meant that the f i ni te
d i f f er ence me thod is mai nly us ed f or pre di c t i on of heat transf er i n
regul ar l y s haped obj ects . For probl ems w i th regul ar shapes , f in i t e
d i ff er en c es requ i r e l es s det a i l ed pr ogr am preparat ion and hav e l ower
compu ta t i on t i m es . Bonac i na & C om i ni ( 1 97 1 ) , C l el and ( 1 97 7 ) and
C l el and & E arle ( 1 97 7 a ) s t u d i e d f i ni t e d i f f er e nce methods and f ound the
thr ee t i me l evel i m pl i c i t L ee ' s s cheme t o be the bes t f or mod el l i ng
f r e e z i ng of food . C omp uter program s us i ng the L ee ' s scheme for
i nf i ni t e s l ab s ( C l el an d & Earl e 1 97 7 b ) , i nf i ni t e cyl i nders and s pheres
( C l el and & E arle 1 97 9 a ) , rect angular r o ds ( Cl el and 1 9 77 ) and
rec tangul ar b r i c k ( Cl el and & E ar l e 1 97 9b ) shapes are ava i l abl e and were
subsequently us e d . T hese programs have been shown to b e acc ur ate to
wi th i n about ± 1 0% compared w i th experi mental sl ab , i nf i ni t e c y l i nde r ,
sphere and r e ct angular b r i c k free z i ng data ( Cl el and et al 1 9 8 2 ) . T hey
also meet anal y t i ca l chec k s . T her e i s no r e as on why s i mi l ar pred i ct i on
a c c uracy c annot be expe cted us i ng these p rograms f or thawi ng of f ood .
N umer i cal Method F ormul at i ons 52
T he e qu i va l ent s chem e f or the f i ni te cyl i nder geomet r y has not been

publ i shed and is ther efore d es c r i bed her e .
4. 3 . 1 F i ni t e C yl i nder F i ni t e D i f f erence Scheme F ormul at i on
For the f i n i t e cyl i nder geometry the general heat co nduct i on equa t i on
is:
()T k ()T
[ :: ] [ :: ]
a a
c k + - - + k ( 4. 1 2)
at ar r ar ay
A l though the f i ni te cyl i nder i s thr ee- d i mensi onal , because i t h as an
ax i s of rotat i onal symm etry , i t can be cons i dered as two- d imens i o nal .
Bonac i na & C om i ni ( 1 9 7 3 ) hav e shown how the L ee ' s sc heme can be appl i ed
to probl ems in two d i mens i ons by usi ng s tandard a l ternat i ng d i r ec t i on
impl i ci t proc edur es . Equa t i on ( 4 . 1 2 ) can be appro x i mated by a L ees '
schem e :
i+ 1 i- 1
T j -T mj
ci . m
mJ
2H
+
�
k j
2m
m 1
+ +
( T i + 1 j -T i 1 j + T i + j - T i j + T i -
m- 1 m 1 m- 1
1 i- 1
m + 1 j -Tm- 1 j
)]
+
1 �
i i+ 1 i+1 i i i- 1 i-1
2 k mj + � ( T mj + 1 - T mj + T m j + 1 - T m j + T m j + 1 - T m j )
L
� 1 - T�j � 1 +T�j -T�j - 1 +T �j 1 -T�j � 1 )]
3 ( 6y )
�
+ k j � (T
-
( 4 . 1 3)
T a k i ng the radi al d i r ec t i on f i rs t , the two sweeps of the al t ernat i ng

N umer i cal M ethod F ormul at i ons 53
[
Second sweep ( i n y d i re c t i on ) :
i+1
- T mj -1
[
y ki
mj - i Jl + T mj r.l
i + 1 c i +Y ( i
mj
i
i mj - i
k mj + + k ) ] - T i+1
mj + 1
y ki
mj + l
J
i
= C mj i+1 *
T mj - y
�l mj
i i- 1
+ i ( T mj + 1 -T
i-1 )
mj -k
i ( i-1 i-1
mj - 1 T mj - T mj - 1
)] (4.15)
26t 26t *
where X = 2' Y = 2 and T are i nterme d i at e t emper at ures
3 ( 6r ) 3 ( 6y )
cal cul ated by the al ter nat i ng d i re c t i o n scheme that hav e no phy s i ca l
s i g n i f i canc e .
Because of the s ymmetry only a quadrant of the axi symmetr i ca l

two- d i mens i onal g r i d needs be cons i dered , wi th a s pace g r i d o f ( M + 1 ) x
( J + 1 ) nodes , whe re M6rxR and J 6y =D y / 2 . T he t h i rd k i nd of boundary
cond i t i on i s taken i nt o account in a s i m i l ar manner to that shown by
C l el and & Earle ( 1 97 7b ) for slabs and C l el and & Earl e ( 1 979a) f or
rad i al geometry .
A t the rad i al ce n t r e ( m = O ) the method of A l bas i ny ( 1 960 ) :
2
l i m 1 aT a T
(4. 1 6 )
a r .... a?
r +O ;
was used to av o i d the si ngul ar i t y . T he f i rs t sweep ( Eq . ( 4 . 1 4 ) )

becomes :
(4.17)
� �
set t i ng k -! j =k + ! j and T m- 1 j -T m + 1 j at al l t i me l ev el s . T he s econd
sweep i s unal tered f r om Eq . ( 4 . 1 5 ) .
A t the rad i al sur f ac e ( m=M ) :
aT
h ( T a -T w ) • k - (4.18)
or
N umer i cal M ethod F ormul at i ons 54
and the f i r s t sweep ( E q . ( 4 . 1 4 ) ) bec omes :
r�:1 ; [- x k �- lJ ] + r�1 * [c!u • x (k!-u•Mr)J

i i-i +
= C mj T mj
[ i
X k m- i i i-1 i-1
� j ( T m- 1 j -T mj + T m- 1 j - T mj )
] + i - i-1 )
X hAr ( 3T a- T mj T mj
i[ i i i- 1 i-1 i i i i- 1 i- 1
+ Y k mj + � ( T mj + 1 -T mj + 2T mj + 1 - 2T mj ) - k mj - � ( T mj - T mj - 1 + 2T mj - 2T mj - 1
)] (4. 19)
wh i l e the second sweep i s unal tered f r om E q . ( 4 . 1 5 ) . For both sweeps

the f ol l owi ng co r r ec t i ons to the thermal conduc t i v i ti es al ong the
s urface must b e made , due to the reduced area for conduc t i on :
.
1
M -tt C l ·
mJ "
2M
--
A t the surface i n the y d i r e c t i on ( j = J ) :

ar
h ( T a-T w ) = k - ( 4 . 20 )
ay
T he f i r s t sweep i s Eq . ( 4 . 1 4 ) and the second sweep i s una l tered f rom
for mak 1 ng C mj = C / 2 , k m+ � j = k m � j / 2 , k m- � j = k m- � j I 2 ,
. i i i i i i
Eq . ( 4 . 1 4 ) exc e p t mj +
because onl y hal f of the normal volume i s asso c i a ted wi th each s urface
i i+1 i i-1
node , and set t i ng k mj + � = hAy and T mj + 1 = T mj + 1 =T mj + 1 =T a .
A t cor ner s on the gr i d a comb i na t i on of both of the appropr i at e changes
t o the scheme g i ven abov e are used .
4.3.2 C omputer I mp l ementat i on and T es t i ng
T he f i n i t e c yl i nder f i n i te d i f f er ence p r ogram was checked aga i ns t the

k nown anal y t i cal sol u t i on for the th i r d k i nd of boundary cond i t i on and
constant thermal proper t i es ( N ewman 1 9 3 6 ) . T abl e 4 . 5 shows that the
agreement of t emperatur es for a 1 0 x 1 0 g r i d i s good . A l though no data
f or phas e change i n f i ni t e cy l i nders were av a i l abl e , f r e ez i ng data f or
i nf i n i t e sl abs ( C l e l and & E arle 1 9 7 7 a ) and i nf i ni t e c yl i nders ( Cl el and
& E ar l e 1 97 9 a ) were used to tes t the p rogram . Mak i ng e i ther the
cyl i nder l eng th d i mens i on ( for i nf i ni te cyl i nders ) or the radi al
d i mens i on ( f or i nf i ni t e sl ab s ) ver y l arge in compa r i s on wi th the other
d imens i on , heat trans f e r in these ext ended d i r e c t i ons becomes
i ns i gn i f i cant at the centre of the g r i d and the s i mpl er geomet r y was
c l os e l y approx imated . T he e xper i mental i nf i n i te s l ab f ree z i ng data was
pred i ct ed wi th a mean error of 0 . 8 % and 95 % conf i de nce bounds of ±1 2 . 2%
and the i nf i n i te cyl i nder exper iment a l f r ee z i ng dat a wi th a me an of
N umer i ca l M ethod F ormul at i ons 55
- 3 . 6 % and 9 5 % bounds of ± 9 . 6 % us i ng the thermal data g i ven in T ab l e

5.1 . I nd i v i dual pre d i c t i ons were i denti cal to the r es ul ts f or the
s pec i al i sed sl ab and i nf i n i t e cyl i nd er f i n i te d i f f er ence prog rams u s i ng
the same therm al data . I t was concl uded that th i s f i ni te d i f f e rence
scheme f or a f i n i t e c y l i nder was as accurate as equ i va l ent schemes f or
other r egular shapes .
I n the above s cheme i t was chosen to do the f i rs t sweep i n the rad i al

d i r e c t i on . The al t erna t i v e wi th the f i r s t sweep i n the y d i re c tion was
also de r i ve d . I t has the same trunca t i on errors as the s cheme wi th the
ra d i a l sweep f i rst and was found to no t g i v e si gni f i c antl y d i ff erent

resul ts ov e r the range of probl ems and d i ffer ent cyl i nd e r rad i us to
l e ng th rat i os used . C onsequen tly the f i rst scheme was ret a i n ed because
the rad i al d i mens i on is the more i m por tant in mos t p robl ems , al though
both are equal l y approp r i ate .
The p r og r am i nc l udes the heat bal ance an d tem per atur e updat i ng
techn i ques d i scuss ed i n Sec . 4 . 2 . 2 for f i ni t e el ement me thods , i n or der
to p r event osc i l l at i on and to detect l atent heat peak " j ump i ng "
p ro bl ems . T o prevent osc i l l a t i on d u r i ng calcul a t i o n of phase change
for i nf i ni te c y l i nders C l el and & Ear l e ( 1 97 9 a ) d e f ined :

i i i
k mj - 2l ( k m + ij + k m- ij )
-
(4. 21 )
The same metho d was used i n the f i n i t e cyl i nder p rogram .
F or eleven nodes i n each d i r e c t i on and 1 000 t i me s t eps a t y p i cal

computat i on t i me f or th i s scheme wri t t en i n F or t r an 77 was 2 5 0 sec . on
a P r i me 750 computer . By compari son , the f ul l f i ni t e el ement
f ormul at i on ( Eq s . ( 4 . 2 ) to (4.5) ) , u s i ng the same g r i d s i ze , g a ve
c omputa t i o n t i mes of about 1 0 00 s ec . for 1 0 0 0 t i me steps .
Numer i c a l Method Formulat ions 56 .
Tab l e 4 . 5 C ompa r i son o f Resul ts From the F i n i te C y l i nder F i n i te
D i f ference Me thod Program W i th a Known Ana ly t i cal So lut ion 1

For Cool i ng of a F i n i te C y l i nder Sub j ect to the Th i r d K i n d of
Boundary Cond i t ion
Or =0 . 02 m , Dy =0 . 02 m , k = 0.617 W m- 1 °C - 1 , C = 3 . 6 9 MJ m
- 3 oc - 1 •
An 1 1 x 1 1 node g r i d was used . Values of Y are tab ul ated .
Edge of F i n i te C y l i nder Cent r e of F i n i t e C y l i nder
T i me Anal y t i ca l 1 Numer i c al Ana ly t i cal 1 Numer i ca l

( s ec )
1 00 0 . 6 25 0 . 624 0 . 936 0 . 93 4
300 0 . 398 0 . 39 7 0 .626 0 . 6 25
500 0 . 260 0 . 259 0 . 40 9 0 . 407
700 0 . 1 69 0 . 1 69 0 . 266 0 . 265
900 0. 1 10 0. 1 10 0. 174 0 . 173
-1
h 1 000 . 0 W m - 2 oc
15 0 . 0 38 0 . 037 0 . 959 1 . 000

45 0 . 01 2 0.01 4 0 . 90 4 0 . 934
75 0 . 00 7 0 . 006 0 .71 8 o . 7 41
1 05 0 .004 0 . 00 4 0 . 524 0 . 54 1
1 35 0 . 003 0 . 00 3 0 . 370 0 . 3 83
1 Newman ( 1 9 3 6 )
57
5 EXP ERIMEN T A L PRO C EDUR E AND DA T A COL LEC T ION
5. 1 EXP ER IMEN TA L ERROR
Whenever any fr eez i ng or thaw i ng t i me pred i c t ion method is compared
wi th experi ment al freez i ng and thaw i ng dat a , s ome lack of agr e ement i s
i ne v i tab l e . Th i s imp rec i s ion may ar i se f r om one o f three sources :
( a ) unc erta i n t y i n th ermal p roper t y dat a for th e mat e r i a l be i ng fr oz en
or thawed ( data error )
( b ) imprec i s e knowl edge and co ntro l of the free z i ng or thaw i ng
cond i t i ons ( e xpe r i mental err or ) and

( c ) i naccuracy ar i s i ng from as sump t i ons or ap prox imat ions made in the
d er i va t io n of the p r ed i ct ion me thod ( p red i c t io n method error ) .
Thermal p roper t y data uncerta inty depends on th e ma te r i a l used for the

exper imen ts and is d i scussed in Sec . 5 .2. T o assess in i solat i on as
far as i s pos s i b l e the magn i t ude o f the th i r d sou rce of i naccuracy , the
a i m of any expe r i ment a l proc edur e or techn i q ue i s to k eep e xpe r i me nta l
errors r andomly d i st r i buted and sma l l i n s i z e .
The f i r s t o f two s our ces o f experi men tal error is th e err or a r i s i ng

from imperfec t control o f ex per imental cond i t i o ns . Many var i ab l es are
contro l l e d to pre-se t va l ues . There i s cont ro l error w i th i n e ach run
as well as control p roblems i n atta i n i ng the same pre - set v a lue in a l l
s i mi lar runs . Th e ab i l i ty t o reduce the con trol err o r c an b e me asured
from the var i ab i l i ty of rep l i cate runs for the same set of nominal
e xper imental cond i t io ns .
Second ly , there i s the error ar i s i ng from imp rec i s e knowl edge of the
expe r i mental cond i t ions . Hav i ng control l ed th e exper i ment a l cond i t i ons
dur i ng each run the mean values must be measur ed . Uncer t a i n t y can
a r i se as a d i f f er enc e between th e measure d va l ue o f a paramet er and t he
unknown true value . The uncer t a i nt y can be reduced by r ep l i cate
determ i nat ions , b u t measurement s are suspe c t i b l e to sys t ema t i c errors
wh ich r ep l icate determ i nat ions wi l l not d i scern. Syst ema t i c error
c annot be eas i l y quan t i f i e d an d can only be m i ni m i sed by ensur i ng that
the measur ement t echni ques used ar e val i d and accurat e . Sources of
sy stema t i c err or inc lude ; u nwan t ed e dge h eat t r ans f er , i ns t rument
E xper i mental Pro cedur e and Dat a C o l l e c t i o n 58
cal ibrat io n error s a n d i nhomogene i t ies i n th e phase change mat e r ia l du e

to the presence of a i r voids or thermocou p l e w i r e .
Cle land & Ear l e ( 1 98 4 a ) d i scuss th e d i f f eren t sources o f error common l y

encoun tered i n phase change exper i mentat ion and g i ve a chec k l i s t that
enab l e s the mos t p r ob ab l e s ourc es of d i f ferences between ex per iments
and pre d i c t ions other than the pred ict i o n method er r or to b e asse s s ed .
E x pe r imen tal dat a are most u se fu l i f systemat i c error i s negl i g i b l e
compared w i th random er r ors , and the l a t t e r are mi n im i sed .
5 .2 C HO IC E OF PHASE CH ANGE MAT E R I ALS
The mate r i a l s u sed for phase change e xper i mentat i on mu st me et t he

cond i t i o ns l i s ted in Tab le 3 .2 , be cheap and easy to use , g i ve
r epr oduc i b l e resu l t s and sh ou l d have acc urately k nown the rmal
propert i es . Food mat e r i als are rar ely homogeneou s , each samp l e c an
on l y be u sed e xpe r i mental l y on ce or t w i ce , an d they t e nd to ha ve a w i de
var iat i o n in compos i t ion . Co nse quent ly therma l property data ar e often
i mp r ec i se . For these reasons ana l ogu es ha ve common l y b een u s ed ( R i ede l
1 9 6 0 a , Lentz 1 9 6 1 , Fraz erhur s t et a l 1 9 7 2 , Geuz e et al 1 972 , Badar i

Na rayana & Kr i s hna Mur thy 1 9 75 , Alb i n e t a l 1 97 9 ) . " Kar l sruh e t est
substance" developed by R i edel ( 1 9 60 a ) i s p robab ly the mo s t succes sful
and w i de l y u se d ( Flem i ng 1 9 67 , Bonac ina & Com i n i 1 97 1 , Bonac i na &
Com i n i 1 9 7 2 , Bonac ina et al 1 9 7 4 , Com i n i et a l 1 9 7 4a , Gorenflo & Mer t z
1 975 , Cle land 1 9 77 , Hayakawa e t a l 1 983 b ) . Common l y k nown and r e f erred
to as " Ty lose " , it is a 2 3 % me thy l-cellulose gel . Ty lose i s eas i ly
mou l d ed i n t o d i f feren t shapes and i s homogen eou s on ce e qu i l ibr a t i on has
occurred . It can be use d repet i t i v ely for exper i ment s wi thou t
dete r i orat ion , i t s dens i t y does no t a l t e r s i gn i f i ca nt l y as pha se c hange
occur s , and it has well c haract er i se d therma l proper t ies s i m i lar to
tho se of many h igh mo i s tur e foods ( Cle land 1 977 ) . For these r e a sons
mos t of the ex per imental wor k was done w i th Ty lose . The par t i c ul ar
Ty lose u sed was MH 1 000 � a produc t marke ted i n New Zea l an d by Hoechst
New Zealand Limi t e d .
O n mix i ng of the powdere d mater i a l w i th wat e r , rap i d hydrat i o n of the

gel meant that i n i t ia l l y it was non-homogen eous and some a ir
entra i nment occurred i n the f inal mou l ds . The water content o f th e ge l
E xp e r i mental Proc edur e and Data Collec t i o n 59
e qu i l i b rat ed over a per iod of several day s lead i ng to a homog e neou s

ma t er i a l . Air pock ets w i th in the gel tended t o b e very s ma l l ( l ess
than 1 mm in d i ame t e r ) and e v en l y d i s t r i bu t e d . B y a v i s ua l exam inat io n
of the f i na l g e l , the voids volume was es t i mated as less than 0.5%,
wh i l st br eak i ng th e join of the Ty l ose w i th f l a t met a l and p l a s t i c
sur fac es showed an almo st comp l e t e and ev en contac t . The pos s ib l e

effects on heat t r ansfer of i mp er f e c t con tac t are d i sc u ssed in
Se c . 5 . 4 . 3 . I t wou ld be expected that other r esea chers usi ng Ty l ose
have had s i mi l ar probl e ms w i th a i r en tra i nme nt , y et no dev i at i ons f rom
the repor t e d thermal p roper t i es have b een no te d . Th erefo r e it was
cons i de r ed that the unc ert a inty in the rmal pr oper t i es for Tyl ose was
not s i gn i f i c antly increased by the presenc e of the a ir bub bl e s .
Er rors i n mea sur i ng comp onents led to a mo i s ture con t ent of 7 7 . 0 ± 0 . 2%

i n the gel . D i rect me asuremen t of th e mo i s tur e in the ge l a f t er
exper i menta l work showed that except whe r e l i q u i d i ngress occurred
dur i ng freez i ng or thaw i ng by l i qu i d immer s i on ( d i scus sed in l a t er
secti o ns for shap es wher e th i s was a prob l em ) , the f i na l mo i s tur e was
w i th i n 0 . 5 % of th e or i g inal v a l u e .
C l e land & Ear l e ( 1 9 8 4 a ) g i v e the thermal c onduc t i v i ty and ap parent

vo lume t r i c spec i f i c heat c apac i t y ver sus temper atur e dat a f or Ty l ose
based on th e dat a of R i edel ( 1 9 60 a ) and Com i n i et al ( 1 974a) . Other
vers ions o f the therma l proper t y dat a have b e en u se d . C l e l and & Ea r l e
( 1 9 7 9 b ) use d a " f lat t ened" v er s i on wh ich enab l e d sub stan t i a l sav i ng s i n
comput a t i on t imes for nume r i ca l pred i c t io n method s , at a s l i gh t cost i n
t erms of loss of accuracy as l arge t ime steps cou ld be use d w i thou t
" j ump i ng " o f the latent heat peak . C l e land et al ( 1 9 82 ) tested a
hypothe t i ca l vo lume tr i c spec i f i c heat capac i t y c urve wh i c h h ad some
superc oo l i ng effec t s i ncorporated i n t o i t . The Ty los e thermal property
dat a u se d i n Group I I ( nume r i ca l ) me thods in th e present wor k are g i v en
i n Tab l e 5.1 . Compar i so ns w i th the or i g inal data from R i edel ( 1 9 6 0 a )
and dat a for m i nced l e an bee f ar e shown i n F i g . 5 . 1 a n d 5 . 2 . Val ues i n
Tabl e 5 . 1 were c hosen t o b e an accur a t e r ep r esen tat i on of R i e del ' s
data , but th e shape o f the volumetr i c spec i f i c heat capac i t y c urve was
altered so that when i ncorporated i n to the f i n i t e d i f f er ence method and
f i n i t e e lemen t me thod pr ograms , " j ump i ng " of th e latent he a t p eak was
less l i k e ly and large t i me steps st i l l gave good heat balanc es . Most
E x pe r i mental Procedure and Dat a Co l l ect i on 60
s i mple freez i ng and thaw i ng t i me p r e d i c t ion me thods need values of the

therma l pr oper t y dat a for on l y th e par t s o f the overa l l t emp erature
r ange where th e change i n therma l proper t i es w i th temperature is s ma l l .
T he therma l p roper t y dat a for Tylose u se d by Cleland ( 1 977 ) were
adop ted for Group I ( s i mp l e ) methods . These are g iven in Tab l e 5 . 2 and
are cons i s te nt w i th Tab l e 5 . 1 .
To show whether expe r i mental results obtaine d usi ng Tylose were t y p i ca l

o f the freez i ng and thaw i ng of real foods , e xper i men ts wer e a l so
conduc ted wi th mi nced lean bee f . Mu l t i p le fat and mo i s tu r e
det ermi nat i o ns g a v e th e compos i t i o n of the m i nced lean bee f as 74 .9±
1 . 9 % water and 3 . 1 ± 1 . 1 % fat . Mea t as a mat e r i a l i s less homogeneou s
than Ty lo se , so publ i she d therma l p roper t y data va r y s i gn i f i cant l y and
ar e not cons i s tent w i th each other ( Mor ley 1 9 7 2 ) . T he therma l p rop erty
dat a u se d we re de r i ved f rom R i edel ( 1 957 ) , Mor l ey ( 1 9 72 ) and f rom the
comp os i t i on factors o f Com i n i et al ( 1 9 7 4 a ) by C l e land & Ear l e ( 1 9 82a ) .
These are shown i n Tab les 5 . 1 and 5 . 2 and F ig s . 5 . 1 and 5 . 2 . T hey are
probab ly less prec i s e than the Tylose dat a .
5.3 T EM P ER ATUR E ME ASUR EM EN T AND C ON T ROL
Al l t empe rature me asuremen t s wer e made wi th 24 St anda rd W ir e Gauge

( SWG ) copper / cons t antan th ermocou ples ( 0 . 5 mm wire d i ame t e r , 0 . 9 mm
d iame t e r i nc l ud i ng p l as t i c i nsul a t i o n ) connect ed to e i the r a 12 po i nt
Taylor Ins truments "Mu l t i-Scan Recorder " p oten t i ome ter operat i ng on a
60 second print c yc l e or a 12 po int Hon eywe l l - Br o wn r ecord i ng

pot ent iome ter opera t i ng on a 1 00 seco nd p r i n t c yc le w i th an o p t i o nal
i ntermi t t en t 1 5 m inut e de l ay between cyc l es . Bo th of these mach ines
wer e ca l i b ra t e d w i th the abov e thermocouple wire t o w i th in 0 . 3 °C in the
r ange -50 °C to 5 0 °C .
Pr ior to thaw i ng or freez i ng the ob j ects of Ty lose or m i nced l ea n beef

wer e k ep t in temper atur e cont r o l l e d r ooms for l on g enou gh t o att a i n a
uni form temp eratu r e throu ghou t . To r educe the var i a t i o n in i n i tial
t emperature dur i ng the t i me fr om r emoval o f obj ec t s fr om the con s tant
t emperature areas t o the start of the f r eez i ng or thawi ng proc es s , the
obj ects were i ns u l a t ed . Excep t for th e s l ab shapes where sheets o f
0 . 05 m th i ck po lystyrene foam boar d wer e u sed , t h e obj ec t s wer e w r apped
Exper i mental Procedur e and Data Co llect ion 61
Tabl e 5 . 1 Thermal Property Data U sed In Catcula t i ons By Numer i ca l

Methods 1
T k T c H2
( oc ) (W m
-1 oc - 1 ) ( oc ) (MJ m - 3 o c - 1 ) ( MJ m - 3 )
Ty lose
- 40 . o 1 . 67 - 40 . 0 1 . 88 0.0
- 30 . 0 1 .6 7 -30 . 0 1 . 92 19 .0
-20 . 0 1 . 66 - 20 . 0 1 .95 �
8.3
-1 5 . 0 1 .6 4 -1 8 . 0 2 . 00 2.3
-1 0. 0 1 .63 -1 6 . 0 2 . 20 46 . 5
-9 . 0 1 . 61 -1 4 . 0 2. 0 � 51 .0
-8 . 0 1 . 60 -1 2 . 0 2. 0 56 . 1
-7 . 0 1 . 58 -1 0 .0 �
. 70 62 . 6
-6.0 1 .56 �
- .0 . 20 66 . 6
-5 . 0 1 .5 2 0 5 . 00 71 .2
�
-
•
-4 . 0 1 . 46 - .o 5 . 90 6.6
-3 . 0 1 . 35 l
- .0 7 . 20 3 .2
-2 . 5
-2. 0
1 . 28
1 . 18
�
- .0 1 1 00
1 7 . 00
• 92 .
1 06 .
�
- .0
-1 . 5 1 . 04 -3 . 0 25 . 00 1 27 . g
-1 .0 0 . 82 -2 .5 u 3 . 00 1 41 .
-0 . 8 0 .66 -2 . 0 5 . 00 1 61 3 •
-0 . 7 0 .55 -1 .5 70 . 0 0 1 90 . 1
-0.6 0 . 49 -1 . 1 00 . 00 207 . 1
0.0
20 . 0
0 . 49
0.56
-0 .
-0.5
6 1 00 . 00
1 9 .93
2 1 .1
2 J§
.1
40. 0 0 .6 2 0.0 3 .71 28 .o
1 00 . 0 0 .62 1 00 . 0 3 .7 1 660 . 0
M i nced Lean Beef
- 40 . 0 1 .58 - 40 . 0 1 . 89 0.0
-24. 0
-1 2 . 0
1 .5 � -30 . 0 1 .91 1 .o �
1 .4 -25 . 0 2.02 2 .8
-8 . 0 1 .40 - 20 . 0 2 .7 0 40 . 6
-4.0 1 . 28 -1 5 . 0 �
.58 56 . 3
-2.0
-1 . 0
0 . 98
0 . 48
-1 0 . 0 . 55 �
6 .7
-8 . 0 5 . 26 6 .5
o.o
1 00 . o
0 .49
0 .50
-6 . 0 7 .71 9 .4 �
-5 . 0 1 0 . 40 1 0 .5
-4 .0 1 5 .7 0 1 21 .5
-3.0 3 1 . 20 1 45 . 0
-2 . 0 53 . 1 0 1a .1
-1 . 5 73 .70 21 . 8 A
-1 . 3 25 5 . 00 251 . 7
-1 . 2 25 5 . 00 2 77 . 2
-1 . 0 3 . 65
3 . 65
� 03. 1
1 00 . 0 71 . 7
1 L i near interpolat i o n was use d .

2 Datum : H • o . o at -� . o oc .
Exper i mental Proc edur e and Dat a Co llect ion 62
Tab l e 5 . 2 Thermal Pr oper ty Dat a U sed In Calculat ions By Simple Formu l ae
Property Ty los e Minced Lean Beef
ks ( W m - 1 oc - 1 ) 1 .65 1 . 55
kl ( W m - 1 oc - 1 ) 0 . 55 0 . 50
CS ( MJ m -3 oc - 1 ) 1 . 90 1 .90
c
l ( MJ m -3 oc - 1 ) 3.71 3.65
L ( MJ m -3 ) 209 . 0 20 9 . 0
tJi (MJ m- 3 ) 226 . 0 23 0 . 0
Tif ( oc ) -0 . 6 -1 . 0
T i fave ( oc ) -2 . 1 -2 . 5
k ave ( W m - 1 oc - 1 ) 1 . 2f
1 ot•
1 �H entha lpy d i ffer ence between 0 °C and - l 0 °C , k ave

= =average
the rma l conduc t i v i t y dur i ng the pha se change pr ocess , T ifave mean =
freez i ng or thaw i ng temperatur e .

Ex peri m ent al Proc edure and Dat a C o l l ec t i o n 63
?
1.5
�
�
· · · · · · · •·
·· · ·
· ·· •
· · ·•
··
··
·· ·.
>-
··
··
•
-
·
•
·s;
•
.
.
:;: ·.
.
(J •
• Legend
-dc .
•
•
. A
0 .
.
u B
.
•
�
• .. . . . . . . . . •
.
•
.
E
�
0.5 ;;L---I'ftr.=
�
..c:.
I-
0 4-----�----�--��-
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
Temperature (•c)
Fig. 5. 1 Th e r ma l Conduc t i v i t y Da t a For T y l o se ( A ) a nd M i nc e d L e a n
Bee f ( B ) .
1,000
�
� Legend
� 100 A.
>-
a
1
···-·-·-
c
...............
I
u
;
u
,_.._______
cl
-20 -15 - 10 -5 0 5 10
Ter11*'oh.r• (•c)
F i g. 5 . 2 A pparent Volu met ric S pec ific Heat Capac it y Data Fo r T ylos e
( A , C ) and Minc ed Lean B eef ( B ) .
A , B - dat a from Tab le 5 . 1 , C - data from R i e de l ( 1 9 60 a) .

Exper i mental Procedur e and Data Col l ec t i on 64
i n insulat ion ma ter i a l and transported i n containers l ined w i th 0 .02 m

th i ck po lystyren e foam . Though the de l ay s we re as long as 1 0 m i nu tes ,
usi ng th is method the max i mum measured d i fferenc e in the ini tial
temperature of the obj ects from the mean value was found to b e 2 . 0 °C .
For s l ab s , b ec ause th e i nsulat ion cou l d be app l i ed and hel d more
d irec tly ont o th e sur faces , the temperature var iations were only ±0 . 5 °C
ab out the mean value .
For var i a t i ons i n temper atur e of up to 1 0 °C on e i th er side of a mean

i n i t i a l temperatur e the d i f feren ce in pr ed i ct e d freez i ng t i me for slab s
was found to be less than 0 . 5 % ( Cl e land 1 97 7 ) . Wh ilst th is analy s i s
was carr i ed out us i ng f i n i t e d i fferenc e s i mulat ion very s i mi l ar r esul ts
wou ld be expected if an exper imenta l invest igat ion was carr i e d ou t , as
f ini te d i f ferenc es prov id e a suf fi c i en t l y ac curate s i mulat ion of the
fr eez i ng process . Errors of s i mi lar magni tude would be expected for
shapes other than s l ab s . For thaw i ng the error du e to i n i t ia l
temperature non-un i form i ty wou ld b e expected to be smaller because the
enthalpy change for a 1 °C var i a t ion in i n i t i a l temperatur e is a lower
percentage of the total enthalpy change , c ompared w i th that for a 1 °C
var i a t i on i n ini t ia l temperatur e in fr eez i ng . Th e need to u se a mean
i n i t i al temperature to r epresent a non-un i form i n i tial temperature
there fore intr oduced negl i g i b l e error .
The amb ient heat i ng or coo l i ng med ium was e i th er water or 29 % ca lc ium
chlor ide b r i ne he ld i n a 1 m3 i nsulated t ank ( F i g . 5 . 8 ) . The med ium
temperature was measur e d by two th ermocoupl es ; one pr ior to and one
aft er the ex per imental sec t io n . E xternal c ir c ulation of the med ium was
used for sl ab thaw i ng ex p er i men t s , in wh i ch c ase an add i t i onal
thermoco uple was locate d i n the return stream to the tank . In all
expe r i men ts there was no measur abl e d i f ferenc e in temperature b etween
the thermocouples b ec ause the c irculat ion rate of the med ium w i th in the
p i p i ng and ar ound the t an k was suff i c i en t l y h ig h .
The t ank t emperature was c ontrolled b y a RKC PN- 4 1 " Bl i nd Control ler"
act iv a t i ng bo th refr i g erat ion and heat i ng systems . Th e thermal
capaci t y o f the tank contents was l arge c ompared w i th the heat loss or
ga i n from the env ironmen t and from the obj ec t be i ng frozen or thawed .
Exper imental Procedure and Dat a Collec t i o n 65
Th i s mean t that the med ium t emperature wou l d change on l y slow l y wi th

t ime if l e ft uncontrolled dur i ng the exper i ment . The control system
was suff i c i en t l y prec i se that no var i at io n of the temperature dur i ng
exper iments was detec tab l e w i th the recorders u sed .
Tak i ng r ecor der ca l ibrat ion error i nto account , the overal l err or in
temp era ture measurement and control was est ima ted a t l ess than ±0 . 5 °C .
5.4 THAW ING OF S LABS
5 .4 . 1 The Equ i pment
One-d imens ional heat transfer in an infi n i te slab undergoi ng f r eez i ng

c an b e approxi mated by an i nsula ted f i n i te- siz ed slab i n a pl a te
freezer ( Cl e land 1 9 77 ) . A s i mi lar arrangement shown in Fig . 5 . 3 was
used for thaw i ng of s l abs . Tw o plates wer e heat ed i n ser ies by water
pumpe d at a rat e of approx i mate l y k g s - 1 fr om the we l l m i x ed
temperature control led tank ( F i g . 5 . 8 ) . Any th ick ness of slab could be
accommodated . Therma l cont act betwe en th e sl ab surface and th e pl ates
was k ep t the same for all exper iment al runs by comp res s i ng th e plates
wi th p r es sur e prov ided by 1 00 kg of weight ove r the p l a te a r ea of
0 . 1 6 m2 •
For each slab th i c k ness a mou ld was ma de by cutt i ng a 0 . 22 m d iameter

ho le i n the c en t r e of a 0 . 4 m x 0 . 4 m p ie ce o f po lystyrene foam b oard
of the approp r i at e th icknes s . Two she ets of alumin i um fo i l w i th one o f
b rown paper between wer e u sed t o cove r o n e s i de o f the mou l d , a nd then
it was f i l led w i th Ty lose or mi nced lean b ee f from the op pos i te s i d e
t ak i ng care t o avo i d a ir entra i nmen t . Copper /const ant an thermocouples
were i nserted , two at d i f ferent pos i t ions on each sur fac e , and thre e at
d iffere nt pos i t io ns at the c entre th i ck n es s of th e slab . All
thermocou ples were run through i sotherma l r eg io ns ( para l l e l t o the slab
surfac es ) . Jun c t ions were located near the m i dd l e of t he 0 . 22 m
d iame t er mater i a l sec t ion to m i n im i se errors due to h eat conduct ion
a l o ng the w ires and e dge heat transfer effects. Two l aye rs of
alumin ium fo i l w i th one o f brown paper between were then f i x ed t o the
upper fac e to g iv e a f i l led moul d as shown in F i g . 5 . 4 . The wrapp i ng
added a smal l h eat transfer res i st anc e but prevented dehydrat ion of the
Exper i ment a l Procedure and Data Col l ec t ion 66
sur face of the mater i a l . The brown paper , p laced betwe en the two
l ayer s of a luminium foi l so that i t rema ine d dry , prov ide d structura l
strength t o the wr ap p ing . The mate r i a l was f i l l ed sl ightly ab ov e the
level of th e po lystyrene i nsu l a t ion to ensur e the insulat ion wou l d not
h inder contact b etween the plates and the sur face of the s lab .
5 .4 . 2 Th i ckness Control and M easurement
Th e s l a b th i ckn es s was measure d a fter equ i l ib rat ion over se vera l day s ,
i n both the frozen and unfroz en s t ates . Pr ior to thawi ng ex per i ments
th e s l ab s were fr oz en in a p l a te freezer t o ensure a flat sur face f or
good contact w i th the thaw i ng plates , even wh en so l i d and i n f l ex ib l e ,
and to g i ve the requ i r ed th i ck n ess . The th i ck ness of the Tyl ose sl ab s
was found to vary by up to 0 .5 mm across each slab . There was no
d i ff eren ce between the frozen and un froz en measureme nts for Tyl ose as
the dens i ty d id not change apprec iab l y . Thou gh the dens i ty change for
m i nc e d l e an bee f is of the or der of 4% some o f the var i a t i on i n vo lume
caused the poly styrene surround ing the slab to compress and d id no t
affect th e th i ck n es s t o th i s ful l ex ten t . The va l ues tak e n in the
froz en and unfr ozen s t ates wer e found to d i ffer by less than 0 . 5 mm
from the mean for meat . As the s ma l l es t s l ab th i ckness w i th mi nced
lean b ee f was 0 .024 m the er ror assoc iated w i th th is measur emen t i s
l es s than 2 % . Becau se a l l thermo coupl es wer e p l aced t owards the centre
of the 0 . 22 m d iameter s lab to avo i d edge effec t s in he at transfer ,
more empha s i s was p u t on th i ckness measuremen t s i n th i s reg i on .
5.4.3 Measurement and Control o f Sur face Heat Tr ansfer Coef f i c ients
In the plate thawi ng system use d the res is tanc e to heat transfer
between the s l ab surface and th e heat i ng medium was smal l , there were
no s i g n i f icant rad iat ion or mass transfer effec t s , and so th e boundary
cond i t io n was adequately descr i b ed by the th ir d k i nd of boundary
cond i ti o n . T o alter the surfac e heat transfer coeff ic ient ( h) vary ing
number s (0 to 1 0 ) of 1 . 5 mm th i ck , black " I nsert ion" rubber she ets w ere
placed on e i th er side of the test slab betwe en the p lates shown i n
F i g . 5 .3 . D iffer en t surfac e hea t t r ansf er coef f i c i e nts were obt a i ned
by alter i ng the number of sheets of rubber .
Exper imental Procedur e and Dat a Co l l ect ion 67
Four methods were u sed to measur e h: (a) a f ini t e d if fe rence

approx imat ion method , (b) a heat balance method , ( c ) the Goodman plot
and ( d ) an ana l y t i c a l method . Deta i l s o f the f ir s t three o f these are
g iven b y Cl e land & Ear l e ( 1 9 7 6 a ) . Bec ause sur fac e temper ature is mos t
sensi t i ve t o changes i n th e sur face h eat transf er coe f fic i ent ( Comi n i
1 97 2 ) , these three methods are based on me asurement of slab surfac e
temperatur e as i t v ar i es w i th t ime . The f ourth method u sed the
ana l y t i c a l solu t ion for he at conduct ion subj ect to the th ir d bou ndary
cond i t io n , for constan t th erma l proper t i es wh ere there i s no change of
phase ( Cars law & Jaeger 1 959 ) . The proc edur e i nvolved calcul at i ng
va l ues of the sur fac e heat transfer coeff ic i en t that f i t ted
exp er imental values of the surface temperature as it chang ed w i th t i me .
The therma l d iffus i v i ty of frozen ma ter i a l ( as ) is h igh so the

prehea t i ng t ime prior to phase change oc curr i ng dur ing a thaw i ng run i s
too short to obta in accurate est ima t io n of h by two o f th e four
method s . Also th e maj or i ty o f the heat transfer dur ing thawi ng w i l l b e
wi th th e surfac e o f the s l ab thawed . In the short t i me the s l ab
sur fac e was st i l l froz en the r i g id nature of th e slab may have resulted
in i mper f ec t cont ac t wi th th e p l at e surfaces g iv i ng effec t i ve ly l ower
surface heat transfer coeff i c i ents . For these reasons , separate
exp er imen ts conduc ted at temperatures gre a t er than the in i t i a l freez i ng
point of Tylose were used to determi ne th e sur fac e heat transfer
coeff i c ient rather than r e ly ing on preheat i ng data. Abov e 0 °C th erma l
propert i es c an be cons i dered constant and a l l four methods c ou l d b e
appl ied equally wel l .
A total o f 3 3 runs u s ing a var i ety of Ty lose slab th i ck nesse s , and

amb i en t and i n i t ia l temperatures we r e u se d to det ermi ne h . I f each o f
the ru bber she ets was i ncomp ress i b l e and prov ided equal resi stanc e to
heat t r ansf er a l ine ar va r i a t io n of th e r es istanc e t o heat transf er
{ 1 /h ) wi th the number of rubber sheets should oc cur ( Cowe l l & Namor
1 97 4 ) . The maxi mu m number o f rubber sheets u se d was t en and the p l a te
to plate pressure was kep t cons tant at a l ow valu e , so i t is unl i k e ly
that s igni f i can t var i a t io n i n r es istan ce e i ther betwe en th e sheets or
due to the compres s io n of the rubber oc cur re d . The heat capac i ty of
the rubber i tsel f may a l so affect exp er i ments . By preheat i ng the
rubber on the plates the amou n t of heat transfer r equ ired t o change the
Exper i mental Procedure and Data Co l l ec t io n 68
ru bber temperature was kept min imal compared w i th that n eeded to heat
the actual s l ab mater i a l in b oth tha w i ng e xper i me nts and runs to
determine h. If the heat ing of the rubber was s i g n i f i c an t , the
est i mated h val ues wou l d be lowe r than tho se ac tua l l y occur r i ng and
wou ld appear to vary w i th t ime . The later trend was no t ap parent for
any of the methods so th i s effect was cons i de r ed negl ig ib l e .
Ther e was no s ign i f i c ant d i ffer enc es b etween values of h calculated

from th e four me thods at the 95% l eve l of conf i denc e . Also the
d i fference in values was i nsign i f i cant compar ing exper iment s wh ere th e
s l ab s were coo l ed w i th tho se where they wer e heate d . The re was no
corr e la t i o n of h w i th the slab th ickneses or the amb ient and i n it i a l
temperatur es that were u se d in these runs . Figure 5 . 5 g i ves the l east
squares regress ion l i n e relat i ng ex ternal h eat transf er res i s tanc e
( 1 /h ) to th e numb er of she ets o f rubb er . Var i at i on i n the ind i v i dua l l y
measured h values showe d that the error i n the average es t i mates of h
for par t i c ular numb ers of rubber sheets was ±2 . 2% .
Becau se o f the pr eparat ion of s l ab s by pre-freez i ng and th e u se of a

constant pressure , the var iat ion i n surface heat transfer coe f f ic ient
between r eg io ns on th e sur fac e of th e s l ab was co nsi der ed n egl i g ib l e .
Ev i denc e t o th is effec t was fou nd from rep l i c ate surface the rmoc ou p l es .
Var i a t io n i n recorded temperature was less than 1 . 0 °C i n any thaw i ng
run .
It i s poss i b l e that surface heat transfer coeff i c ients determi ned from
th e separat e ex per i ments are no t r ep r es entat i v e of h dur i ng thaw i ng
runs . However the heat transfer cond i ti ons dur i ng the separate
exper imen ts were s imi l ar to tho se dur i ng each thawi ng run , ex cep t for
the i n i t i a l stages i n the thawi ng runs where th e slab surfac e was st i ll
froz en . The s lab s were ini t ia l l y froz en i n a p l a te freeze r and the
rubber sheets mounted between the p lates and the slab i ts el f had some
f l ex ib i l it y . There fore the cont act between the plates and the s l ab
surface was considered cons tant throughout the thawi ng expe r i menta l
runs . Furthe r , pred i c t ions of surface temp erature by numer i cal methods
wer e as good i n i t i ally as they were later in the exper imental runs .
Th i s conf i rms that these est i mates of h were rep resentat i v e o f the
ac tual values throughout thawi ng . Us i ng a number of separate runs
Ex per i mental Proc edure a nd Data Co l l ec t io n 69
A
B
1'---- - ---1----1 .......

E F
F i g . 5 . 3 Schema t i c D i a gram of the Exper i me n tal Slab Thawing Equipme n t .

No t t o sca l e . A - hea t i ng p l at e s , B - rubber shee t s , C -
i n su lated test slab , D - th ermo c ou ples , E - cool i ng plates , F
- heat i ng elemen t s , G - c irculat io n pump , H - insu lat ed ,
ag i tated, temp eratu r e control led tank .
E xp er i mental Procedure and Da ta Co l l ec t i on 70
. .
Fi g . 5 . 4 Cons truc t i o n of Test Slab s .

( a ) a comp leted slab
( b ) a slab w i th i nsulat ion r emov ed.
E xper imental Proc edur e and Dat a Collec t io n 71
0.10
0.08
.......
3: 0.06
�
E
u
0
�
..c 0.04
�
0.02
0 2 4 6 8 10
No. of Rubber Sheets
F i g . 5 . 5 Pred i c t ion of Sur face Heat Transfer Coe f f ic ien ts For Slab
Thaw ing Exper imen ts .
Exper i menta l Procedure and Da ta Co l l ec t i on 72
meant tha t h was det ermi n ed accurat e ly , yet as i ndependen tly as

poss i b l e of the thaw i ng t ime ex per i me nts .
To confi rm that h v a lues es t i mated i n the separate expe r i ment s were

r ep resentat i v e of va lues dur i ng thaw i ng , some ana ly s i s dur i ng ac t ua l
thaw i ng runs was done us ing all the me thods d isc ussed prev iou sly .
Ther e was no d i ffer e nce in these resu l ts compared wi th th e sep ara te
exper iments .
For the thawi ng of th e mi nced lean beef slabs the sur face heat transfer
was assumed to be the same as for the Tyl ose s l ab s . Ther e was no
reason to suspect that h wou ld be d iff eren t beca use mos t of the
r es i stan ce to h eat transf er was suppl i ed by the ru bb er sh ee ts , the same
slab cons truc t ion was used and the we ight ing of th e slabs ensured good
therma l con tac t for both mat er ia ls .
5.4.4 Ana ly si s of Heat Tra nsfer i n Slab s
In a true one-d imens ional slab there i s no heat transfer i n the other
two d i mens ions . I n prac t i ce th i s i s i mposs i b l e t o ach i eve . To r educe
heat trans fer in the other two d irections three techn i ques were
emp l oyed :
( a ) the other two d i mens ions were mad e l arger than the slab th icknes s ,
wh i ch i s the cr i t ical d i mension b y a t leas t a f ac tor of 2 . 1 : 1
( b ) each s lab was surrounded on the edges by at l e ast 0 . 09m of
po lystyrene foam i nsu l at ion, and
( c ) the thermo co uples were placed near the centre of each 0 . 2 2m
d iame t er s l ab .
For the wor st case o f a l arge slab b e i ng thawe d slowly the effect of
edge e f f ects due to he at transfe r thr ough the i nsu l at i on ar e shown by
the analy s i s in App . B to decrease thawing t ime b y 4 . 6 % . Th is ana ly s is
took the most pess imi s t i c v ie w of the s i tuat io n . For a mor e t yp ic a l
case th e effect of edge heat transfer o n thawi ng t i mes was l ess than
1 .0%. The s l ow nature of thaw i ng means that edge heat t r ansf er c annot
be avo ided , so when data are interpreted i t must be r emember ed that
some exper i men t s wi th s l abs wer e not tru l y one - d i mens i ona l . I n onl y 6
out of 35 slab ex per i ments was the effec t on thaw i ng t i me s of h eat
t r ansf er through t he e dges , f ound to be mor e than 1 .0 % .
Exper imenta l Pr oc edur e and Dat a Co l l ec t ion 73
A i r entra inmen t a nd th e r esu ltan t l es s than p er f ec t therma l contac t

were ment ioned in Sec . 5 . 2 . The latter problem d id not occur i n
exper i menta l wor k w i th s l ab s bec au se th e we i gh t i ng of the p l a tes to
hold the s lab s t i ghtly in p lace ensur ed good contact . Pr e-fr eez ing the
s l ab s i n a p l a te fr eez er me an t that the pro tec t i v e l ayer of a luminium
fo i l was alwa ys t i ghtly and comp letely bound to the frozen mater i a l .
Because a ir vo i ds in the Ty l ose ge l w ere s ma l l and uni forml y
d i stributed the ir e ffec t i s only impor tant i f they a ffect the ov era l l
heat transfer behav i our of a s l ab . Go od pred i c t i on of e xp er i menta l
sur fac e and centre temperature prof i les wer e obtained by nume r i c a l
me thods for freez i ng ( Cleland & E ar l e 1 97 7 b ) and for thaw i ng
( Se c . 7 . 2 ) . These results ind icate that the rma l propert i es use d wer e
representat i v e of the Ty l ose mate r ia l inc lud i ng voids , thu s i mp ly i ng
that the ef fec t of the vo ids i s neg l i g ibly sma l l .
There are a lso error s consequ en t on th e th ermocouple placeme nt w i th i n

each slab . Al l thermoc ou ples were inserted paral l e l to the heat
transf er surface thr ough supp osed ly i so thermal reg i ons . There fore , the
only temperature grad ient for conduc t i o n along the th ermocou p l e wires
was due to heat transfer from edge ef fect s , wh i ch has been shown ab ove
to be genera lly sma l l . Also the w i r e cross -se ct ional ar ea i s less than
0 . 1 % of the area ava i l ab l e for heat t ransfer due to s i de e f f ec t s , so
ov erall the effec t of th e co nduc t io n along the w i r es was ins ign i f ican t .
O f the to tal a r ea norma l t o th e d irec t ion of heat f l ow at each surfac e ,

and a t th e centre , only 0 . 5 % to 1 . 0 % was covered by th ermocoupl e wire
and the i r p l as t i c i nsulat i on . As th e gre ate r r es ist an ce to heat
transfer prov ided by the plas t i c i nsulat ion ag a inst that of Ty lose only
appl i es for th i s l i mi t ed are a the thermocoupl e s did no t af fec t heat
f low s ign i f icant ly . The th ermocou ple l eads oc c up ied less than 0 . 0 5% of
the gel vo lume so th e heat c apac i ty of th e slab was no t s ign i f ic an t ly
affected by the i r p resenc e .
Temperature me asurements were t ak en a t th e two mo st impor tan t places ;

th e surf a ce a nd the cen t r e of th e s l ab s . The former i s s ens i t i ve to
changes i n the ex ternal heat transfer cond i t i ons and so was used in
est imat io n of the surfac e heat trans f er c oe f f i c i en t . Th e l a t t er was
needed to measure the thawi ng t ime . Acc ur ate p l acemen t of the
Exper i me ntal Procedure and Data Col l ec t i on 74
thermocouples at th e sur fac e and cen tre wh i l e mak ing the slabs i s
d if f i c ul t and m i gra t io n of the thermoc ou ples w i th in the gel aft e r
const r uc t ion is pos s ib l e . For these reasons more tha n o ne thermocouple
was u se d to me asur e each tempera tur e .
I t was i mposs i b l e for a the rmocoup l e to be ab ove the slab sur face
because of the plate confi gurat ion . Prov ided hea t transfer is
homogen eous acros s the sur face , the fastes t hea t i ng thermocoupl e w i ll
be the best est imate of the sur fac e temperature . A true est imate of
surface temperature wou l d be g i ven b y a th ermocoupl e j u s t touch i n g the
layer of alumi n i um fo i l , so any sl ower heat ing the rmo couple is l i k e ly
to b e below th e surface . Howeve r i n thaw i ng th ere is no de f in i t i ve
cr i t erion to d i s t i ngu ish between d i ffer enc es in temperature due to
i nhomogenei t y and tho se due to the rmocouple placemen t , such as the
su percoo l i ng behav iour observed in fr eez i ng by Cl e land ( 1 9 7 7 ) . Th e
only o th er cri t er io n that can be used is wh ether the surf ace
temp erature prof i les flat ten not icab ly ( plateau ) in the l atent heat
temperature range or no t . Becau se th e sur face i s th e f irst reg i on to
thaw and the temp erature change c an not be slowed by the presenc e of
lat ent heat add i t i on in r eg io ns ou ts i de th e surface, any the rmocouples
r i ght at the sur fac e will tend to "sl ide" through th e l atent heat
temperature r ange rathe r than show the ty p ical p l ateau effec t
char acter ised b y mo r e cen tral pos i t io ns . Unfortunat e ly , th e speed that
th e surface tempe rature pas ses throu gh th i s temperatur e range is
dependent on the ov era l l rate of heat transfer . As amb i ent
t emp eratures c l ose to the thaw i ng t emperatures wer e often u se d i t was
d if f i c ult to f i nd a c lear d is t i nc t ion b etwe en good and bad th ermo couple
pos i t i on i ng . For other amb i en t cond i t i ons some d i f fere nt ia t i on cou l d
be made . F i gure 5 . 6 shows typ i c al tempera ture prof iles f o r d i fferen t
thermocoup les near the sur fac e . Curve A i s typ ic a l of a we ll p l a ced
surfac e thermoco up l e . Its prof i l e i s bar ely a ffected by latent heat
release in the thaw i ng temperature range , but has a p l a teau at a
temper ature between th is and the amb ient temperature . Curve B i s for a
l ess prec i se l y pos i t ioned thermocoupl e . The temperature pro f il e
flattens c ons i derably due t o l atent heat before r i s ing becau se the
thermocoupl e i s be low the surfac e . Curve C i s for the very bad case
wher e the thermocou ple is we l l below the surface and the rate of
t emperature change w i th t i me is slowed marked l y by the absorp t i on of
E xper imental Pr ocedur e and Data Co l lec t io n 75
l atent h eat .
C l early , th is c r i t e r ion does no t comp l et e ly d is t i ngu ish between good

and b ad sur face thermocoupl e plac ements , espec ially where overa l l rates
of heat transfer ar e low . After de let ing obv iou s badly placed
thermocoupl es i t was found that ind iv i d ua l thermocoup l es gave
measurements of the , surface temperature of the slab that var i ed by less
than 1 . o oc ar ound th e ir mean valu e . Ty p i c a l ly one or two ou t of four
sur face thermocouples wer e found to be poorly placed and were no t use d .
After exper imenta t i on placemen t was ch ecked b y d i sma nt l i ng th e s l ab s .
The obse rv ed th ermocoup l e pos i t ions c ompar ed well w i th thos e suggested
by th e above ana ly s i s and in a l l cases at least one thermoc oup l e was
wel l placed .
Hea t transfer cond it ions on b oth faces of the slab were as equ i va lent
as poss i b l e so th e geometr i c and thermodynami c c entres shou l d co i nc i de .
Any thermocou ple no t exac t ly at the cen tre w i l l change in temper ature
more qu i ck ly than one at the cen tre . Prov i ded he at transf er is
homogeneous across the slab sur fac e and w i th in the slab , the l as t
thermocoup l e to reach 0 °C w i l l g i v e the best est i mate of the slab
c entre temperatur e and the most accurate est imat e of the thaw i ng t ime .
When food thaws most of the l atent heat is ab sorbed at temperatur es

j u s t below the i n i t ia l fr eez i ng temperature ( T i f ) . An ab rup t cha nge i n
therma l prope r t i es oc cur a t T if ' r esu l t i ng in a su dden incr ease i n
temp erature . Cons ider a s l i ghtly mi splaced centre thermo co up l e .
Thaw i ng will no t be comp le t ed through ou t the s l ab wh en th i s
thermo co upl e reaches T i f • Hence a rap id change in th e temperature w i l l
not occ ur a s heat transfer i s s t i l l r equired to supply latent heat t o
more c entral r eg ions . Th e measur ed temperature tends to rema in
'
r elat i ve ly co nstant at some temperature j ust abov e T i f depend ing on how

far i t i s from the centr e . When the l ast r eg ions of the obj e c t thaw ,
a l l the t e mperatures · ( e v en at the surface thoug h th e e ff ec t there i s
less appar en t ) undergo a sec ond increase i n r ate of temperature change
wi th t ime. Th i s is b e cau se h eat transf er is now r equ ired only for
sens i b l e hea t ing . The further from the c entre the smal l er th is second
"br eak" i n th e tempe rature p rof i le wi l l be . A s i mi l ar e f fe c t occurs i n
free z i ng but is less not i cable b ec ause the change f r om latent he at t o
Exper i ment a l Proc edure and Data Col l ec t i on 76
sensi b l e heat abso r p t i o n i s l ess d is t i nct than that i n thawing . James

et a l ( 1 976 ) used th i s pr inc i p l e t o pred i c t pha se change t i mes by on l y
measur ing surface temperatur e . I t can also be used to imp rov e the
est i mate of tha w i ng t i mes from the rmoco upl es not placed ac curate l y at
the c entre . Where the slowest heat i ng th ermo coup l e d id not " b reak "
away from th e l at en t heat temperature range and immed i ate l y head
asymp to t i c al ly for the amb i ent temperature , th is method was use d to
est i mate th e tha w i ng t ime . Tangen t ia l ext ensions to the temp erature
pro f i le i mmed iately prior to and immed iate ly after the second "b reak "
po in t we re drawn and the thaw i ng t i me t aken at the t ime ind ica ted by
the ir i n tersec t ion as shown in Fi g . 5 . 7 .
The err or i n est ima t i ng th e thaw i ng t i me by th i s b reakpo in t ana ly s i s

was inves t i gated in two way s . Firstly , u s ing exper imental d a t a where
one we l l p l a ced c en t r e thermocoup l e could be compar ed w i th another
cent r e thermocou p l e in the same slab . The t i me pred ic ted usi ng th is
ana l y s i s on the second thermocoup l e was compa red wi th the t i me for the
well p lac ed thermocou ple to reach 0 °C . In all cases stud i ed the
d i fferenc e was l ess than 0 . 5 % of th e tota l t i me a l though the ex ac t
d i stance the se co nd thermoc ou ple was from the actua l thermo d ynamic
c entre was unknown ( d i sman t l i ng o f the s l ab s showed that a ll centre
thermoc oup les were w i th in 5% of the total th ick ness from the geometr i c
c entre o f th e s l a b ) . Secondl y , f i ni t e e l ement and f in i te d i f f erence
me thods w ere use d so the e ffect of the er ror in the pos i tion of th e
thermocoup l e s c ou l d b e s tud ied quan t i t a t i ve ly . The same e f f ec t was
shown. Us i ng th is method the pred icted freez ing t i me s for a
thermocoup l e d i splaced 1 0% o f th e d istance from the c entre to t he
sur fac e were w i th in 0 . 5 % of the true values of 0 °C at the thermo d ynam i c
centre for the w i d e r ange of cond i t io ns s tud ied . The e f f ec t of centre
temperature thermo co up l e placement was therefore not s i g n i f icant in
es t ima tes o f thaw i ng t i me but mus t be cons i d ered when compar i ng
pred icted temperture prof i les . Only experimental runs that had good
c entre a nd sur face th ermocoup l e pos i t io n i ng we re used for tempe ratur e
pro f i l e comp ar i son .
For obj ec ts w i th mor e than one d imensio n th is same break p o i n t analy s i s

w i l l a l so a pp l y . In fac t , because for these obj ec ts l es s th an 5% o f
the volume i s enclosed w i th in a d is t ance 5% from th e thermodynamic
Exper i mental Pr oc edur e and Data Collection 77
10
.
.....
. ..
...
u .
. .
0
...__
0 t------:>,__ ___ / .. -- T; ,
-:#----� -
,.__ •
.. ..
.
I /
I !
•
I
=
-10
Legend
I A
I B
c
-20 �--�----r---�--.--.
nme
Fig. 5 . 6 Ty p i c a l T e mp e r a t u r e Pr o f i l e s For Th e r mo co u p l e s Pos i t io n e d A t
Or N e a r t h e Sur f a c e o f a Th a w i n g S l a b . A - at t h e s u r f ac e , B
- 0 . 0 025 m b e l ow the sur fac e , C - 0 . 005 m b e l ow t h e s u r f ac e .

-2
D 0. 1 m, h = 50 . 0 i-i m oc - l , T = 1 3 . 0 °C , T = - 2 0 . 0 °C ,
a in
T
if
= -0 . 6 °C .
3 .
·
.
.
.
•
.
.
.
2 :
1/
..·,
u t2
.
� .
«»
3 ....
.
- tl
0 •
L.. ..
• •
••
«» ..
!
••
0
Legend
-1 A
8
c
. . . . . . ...••
-2 �----r---��--�--.---T---r-
10 10.5 11 11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5
Time (hrs}
Fig . 5 .7 Break point Analy s i s to Es t i ma t e Thaw ing Times From
Thermocoup l es Not Posi t ioned Exac t l y at the Th ermod y namic
Centre . A - a th ermocouple at the thermodynam i c cent r e , B - a
thermocoup l e 0 . 0 05 m from the thermodynami c cent r e , C - a
· thermo c ouple 0 . 0 1 m from the thermodynamic centr e . D • 0 . 1 m,
h - 50 . 0 w m- 2 o c- 1 , T a • 1 3 .0 °C , T i n . - 20 . 0 °C , T i f 2 - 0 . 6 °C ,
t • est i ma ted thaw i ng t i me from A , t 1 • est i mated thaw i ng
t ime from B , t 2 • est i ma ted thaw i ng t i me from C .
E xp er ime ntal Procedure and Da ta Co l l ec t ion 78
centre the bre ak effec t w i l l be magn i f ied . Cl e land ( 1 977 ) showed that
a th ermo coup l e p l aced 1 0% of a spheres rad ius i n error , t he measur ed
freez ing t i me wou ld be 0 . 6 % in error e ven i f the ab ov e analy si s was not
used . Any err or in p l acemen t of th e c en t r e thermoc oupl e was h i gh l y
damp ed i n i t s effec t on fr eez ing t i me , and d id not s i gn i f icantly
i nc r ease the overa l l err or . For s l ab thaw i ng , th e err or for a 1 0%
d isp lac ement was found to i ncr ease as ( T a - T i f ) increased but by us ing
the b reakpoint me thod of analy s i s was only 0 . 1 % for T a = 1 3 °C . The
break point analy si s was therefore used for all shapes inv e s t i gated
where c entre the rmo coup les we re shown to be not acc urate ly plac ed at
the th ermodynamic centre .
An est i mate of the exper i mental er ror ar i s ing from imprec ise control of
experi mental cond i t ions for th e s l ab experi men t s was determin ed from
rep l i c ate thaw ing runs . As far as pos s ible , th e repl icates wer e
i ndep en den t of each oth er inc lud i ng the construc t i on of ne w s l ab s for
each run . After norma l i sa t ion of th e rep l i cates the variab i l i ty showed
that th e e xper imenta l error ar i s i ng fr om poor cont ro l corresponded to
95 % co nfidenc e bounds of ±5 . 2% . The total exper imen tal error wi l l be
h igher than th i s due to unc er tainty in measur ement of the e x per imental
cond i t ions and sour ces o f syst emat i c er ror .
5 .5 TH AW ING OF I N F I N ITE CY LIND ER S
5 .5 . 1 The Equ i pment
To obta in un i form heat t ransfer cond i t ions at th e sur face for shap es
other than s l ab s a l iqu i d immers ion thaw i ng sys tem was u sed . Liqu i d
immer s ion g ives much less var iat ion of the surface heat transfer
coe f f i c i en t and amb i e nt temperatur e ar ound an obj ec t than th e a ir
thawi ng sy stem wh ich i s also commonly use d . A schema t i c d iagram o f th e
l iqu i d i mmer s i on t ank i s shown in Fig . 5 . 8 .
The i mp e l l e r c irculated the thawing med ium, water , around the

2 . 1 m x 0 .7 m x 0 . 7 m i nsulated tank. The l iqu i d passed over
r e fr igera t ion plates and then heat i ng e leme n ts before flowing through
the expe r i men ta l sec t i on ( 0 . 8 m x 0 .5 m x 0 .7 m ) a nd back to the
i mpeller . Two mesh screens ( ap er ature size 1 mm x 1 mm) prov ided
Exper ime n tal Pr oc edur e and Dat a Col l ec t i o n 79
suff ic ien t head los s to equa l i se any un evenness i n the l i qu i d f l ow .

The c irculat ion was su f f ic iently h igh that the t ank acts as i f i t was a
p er f ec t ly m i x ed sy s tem. The temperatur e was control l ed to w i th in
±0 . 3 °C i n the range 0 °C to 5 0 °C for thaw ing ex per iments ( Se c . 5 . 3 ) .
Thoug h the var i a t ion i n surface h eat trans f er cond i t ions shou l d be
sma l l in the l i qu id system , the test samp les were osc i l lated throughou t
the exp er imen ts to ensure tha t obj ec t or i enta t i on w i th in the flow
stream d id no t af fec t un i formi ty of sur fac e cond it ions . The obj e c t s
were tur ned throu gh an ang le of 300 ° every 30 se cond s . The sa mp l e
osc i l lator i s shown in Figs . 5 . 9 , 5 . 1 0 a n d 5 . 1 2 .
In order to ap prox imate i n f in i t e ly l ong cyl inder s , five d i f fe rent

leng ths o f cy l indr ica l p i pe 0 . 45 m to 0 . 50 m long were u s ed . Stee l
p i pes of 0 . 1 m and 0 . 1 5 m nominal d iameter and polyv iny l chlor i de ( P VC )
plas t i c p i pes of 0 . 05 m , 0.1 m and 0. 15 m nom ina l d iame t er gave
d i f ferent heat transfer res i s tanc es due to the d i fferent wa l l ma ter i a ls
and th i cknesse s .
The c y l i nders were pack ed w i th Ty lose and thermo couples int roduc ed at
the c entre and surfac e pos i t ions from e ach end throug h i s othe rmal
reg ions . Two th ermocouples at the c entre and four at the surface were
used for each cyl inde r . To redu ce end he at trans f er e ffec ts ,
poly styren e foam insulat i o n cap s of at least 0 . 05 m th ick ness were pu t
on the end of each cyl i nder and th e c y l inder clamped in th e samp l e
holder for osc il lat i o n a s shown in Fi g s . 5 . 9 , 5.10 and 5. 1 1 . The
thermo coupl e ent r y points and the po lystyrene cap s wer e sea l ed to
prevent l i quid contac t w i th the Ty los e .
5 . 5. 2 D iame ter Cont rol a nd Measurement
Ther e was no s igni f ica nt d i ffer ence in d iameter measuremen ts b etween

the fro z en and unfrozen s t ates for the c y l i nders . Any dens i ty chang e
that occurred has a long i tud ina l e ffect tha t was ab sorbed by
compr ess i on o f the po lystyrene foam cap s . The d iame te r was measure d to
an accuracy of ±0 .5 mm .
Exper i mental Procedur e and Dat a Col l ec t i on 80
r
,.
� �
�
.,
� +
A B
�
� � tI C
/'
, D
,,
,,
E �
,, '•
,,
/
'• F
'• G
.,
'• ' '
Fig. 5 . 8 S c h e ma t i c D i a g r a m o f t h e L i q u i d Imme r s i o n Ta n k .
A p p r o x i ma t e sca l e 1 : 1 5 . A - h e a t i n g e l e me n t s , B - c oo l i n g
p l d t es , C - i mp e l lor for c ircu !.lt ion , D - ba f f l e plate , E -
mesh screens , F - e x p e r i me n t a l s ec t io n , G - i nsula ted t an k .
A
B
•
F
•
F i g . 5 . 9 Schema t i c D i a gram of the System U sed To Ho ld and Osc i l l a t e the

Inf ini t e C y l inder s and Two- D i mens ional Irregular Shapes i n the
L i q u i d Immers ion Tank . Approx ima t e sca l e 1 : 5 .
A - attachmen t to the sa mp l e o sc i l lator , B - s t and attached t o
t h e imme r s io n tank , C - c lamp to ho l d the test obj e c t , D -
i nsul at e d c ap s , E - the t e s t obj ec t , F - thermocoupl es .
Exper i m e n t a l Pr o c e d ur e a n d Data C o l l e c t i on 81
Fig. 5. 1 0 The Sa mp l e Osc i l l a t or a n d Inf ini te C y l i nd e r Tha w i n g E q u i p m e n t
Used in the Liqu id I mmer s i o n Ta n k .
D E
Fig. 5. 1 1 Schema t i c D i a g ram Sh ow i ng the Arrangemen t o f t h e Po l y s t y r e n e
Foam C a p s a n d Thermo c ou p l es Leads For I n f i n i t e C y l i n d er
E x pe r i men t s . No t t o s ca l e .
A - p o l y s t y r e n e f o a m cap s , B - t h e r mo c o u p l e l e a d s , c - p i pe
wal l , D - s u r fac e t h e r mo c oup l e s , E - c en t r e the r mo co u p l es .

Exper i mental Procedure and Data Col l ec t ion 82
5 .5 .3 Measurement and Control o f Sur fac e He at Transfer Coeff i c ients
The d i f ferenc e in cyl i nder wa l l mat e r i a l a nd th ickness .save some

var i at ion in th e sur face hea t t r ansf er coeff ic i en t . To g i ve greater
var iat ion of h , and to reduce th e surface heat transfer coe f f i c ient to
values more common ly encountered in a ir th aw i ng sys t ems , zer o to four
sheets of rubber were glued to the ou ts ide of each cyl i nder . The
rubbe r u sed was th e same as tha t u sed to a l t er h in th e s l a b thaw i ng
exper imen ts . The same l i n ear r e lat ionsh ip be tween heat trans fer
r es i st ance and th e numbe r o f rubber shee ts u sed for s l ab s cou l d not be
ap p l i e d because of the c urvature of th e c y l inder surface ar ea and the
need for glue to permanan t l y attach the rubber . Consequen t l y separate
est imates of th e surface heat t rans fer coeff i c ient were ma de for each
comb ina t ion of p i pe mater i a l , wal l th i cknes s and number of rubb er
sheets .
For the same reasons as those ou t l ined in Sec . 5 . 4 . 3 for slab s ,

separate heat i ng or coo l i ng e xper imen t s wi th ou t pha se change were
necessary to accurately es t i mate h. To determine h for the ten
d i f fer e nt comb i nat ions out l i ned ab ove , a tot a l of 29 runs were mad e .
I n i t i a lly the thr ee me thods use d by C l e land & Earle ( 1 97 9a ) were
app l ied . Simi lar to the method s u s ed to de t ermi ne h for s l ab s , the se
methods a l l depended on the me asur eme n t of surface temperature as it
var ied w i th t i me . I t was found tha t th e resu l t s were h i gh l y v ar i ab l e
and i ncons i s ten t . Th i s was thou ght to b e due t h e e ffect of i mperfect
cont ac t of the Tylo se to th e i n s i d e sur fac e of th e cy l inde r wa l l s .
Imp erfect contact was no t a major p rob l em i n fr eez ing ex per i me n ts u s ing
th e same equ ipmen t ( Cl e l a nd 1 977 ) as the s l i gh t ex pans ion of the Tyl ose
and contrac t ion of the p ip e wal l ma t e r i a l dur i ng fr eez ing f i l led any
vo i d s . In thaw i ng , s l ight shr ink i ng of the Ty l ose and e xpans ion o f the
p ip e wall mat e r i a l o cc ur r e d and th i s c reated voids .
D i sman t l i ng o f the c y l i nder s a fter exper i menta t i on sh owed that thermal

contact was b e t ter than 80% . Where perfect contact did not oc cur a
smal l gap was p r es en t between the p ipe wal l and the Tylose. The se
voids were randomly d i s t r ibuted and i l l-def in ed in s ize so it was
i mposs i b l e to e va l u a te the i r i nd i v i du a l e f fec t d ir ec t l y . The b e s t way
Exper imen tal Pr ocedur e and Dat a Collec t io n 83
to accoun t for them was to u se an average h value for the who l e

surface . The mode of heat transfer across th ese voids would be natural
convec t ion . I f he at t r ansfer acros s th e gap s was by conduct i on on l y
then a 0 .5 mm void wou ld lead to a s i g n i f icant res i s tanc e of
oc
-1
0 . 02 5 m2 w • The actual heat transfer res is tanc e due to natural
convec t i on wou l d b e l ess than th i s , b u t how much l ess can no t b e easi ly
pred icted .
Ind iv idual sur face thermo co uples wou ld be affected by the ir prox im i t y
to the se voids . Henc e the va lue of h es t imat ed f rom sur face
temp erature me asurements would be affec ted and may no t be
r ep r es entat i v e of the t ru e average value . Becau se there was no
c r i terion to chos e wh ich thermocou ple mo s t c los ely resemb led the
av erage sur fac e cond i t ions th e me thods based on sur face temperature
cou ld not be rel i e d on to g i v e good e s t i mates of h .
A me thod that cons i dered th e c entre temperature was the re fore u sed . By
usi ng t h e cen tre temperature the effect of a ny var i a t io n in heat
transfer c ond i t ions at th e sur fac e was e f fec t i ve l y averaged and the h
value was more representat i ve o f the true valu e . Loca l i sed variat ion
in h is no t i mport ant i f i t i s re lat i ve l y smal l in magn i tude and i s
randomly d is tr i b uted ove r the surface. Th is was probably the case w i th
the sur face voids and i mper fe c t cont ac t .
The me thod use d t o est i ma t e the surface heat t ransfer coef f ic ient was
the h ea t p ene t ra t ion method ( Ar c e & Swea t 1 980 ) . For l ong t i mes the
analy t ical solution for heat transfer w i th cons tant the rmal propert ies
and the th ird k ind of b ounda ry cond i t ion ( Ca rslaw & Jaeg er 1 9 59 ) is
close ly ap prox imated by tak ing only the first term in the ser ies
so lu t ion . The sur fac e he a t t rans f er coeff ic i en t c an b e c a lculate d f rom
the slope of a plot of ln Ye versu s t i me ( Charm 1 9 6 3 , Bak er & Cha rm
1 9 6 9 , Kopelman e t a l 1 9 7 0 ) . An advan tage of th is me thod i s that i t is
i ndependent o f the exac t pos i t i on of th e thermoc oup l e wi th i n the
cyl inder . I f th e c entre th ermocou ple i s not p rec i s ely loc ated on the
c en tral ax i s , th i s does no t a f f ec t the est ima t i on o f h b y th i s metho d .
A n i n d i c at i on that the presence of v o ids was affe c t i ng surface

temperature read i ng s was that the read i ng c lo sest to the a mb i en t med ium
Exp er i me n tal Pr oc edure and Dat a Collec t i o n 84
temperature d i d no t c orrespond t o th e same thermocoupl e throug hou t the

run . The best est i ma te of th e centre t emperature was t ak en as th e
ther mo c ouple record i ng the temperature th at was slowes t to change
towar ds th e amb ient t emperatur e . The two centra l the rmocou ples t ended
to show temperature p rof i les cons is ten t l y d i f f erent fr om each other ,
ind icat ing that inhomogene i ty was l argely a surface problem and that
any e f fects of non-un i formi ty at the sur face were h igh l y damp ed i n
the ir e ffec t o n heat transfer near the c entre .
The rubb er shee t s gave a cons t an t add i t iona l res istan ce to heat
transfer over the whole cyl i nder sur face excep t for the j o i n t n ec essa ry
down th e leng th of the cyl inder . The rubb er was cut ac curate l y so that
th i s jo int was alway s less than 0 . 5 mm in w idth . For the sma l le s t
cyl i nder th is af fected 0 .3% of the sur face ar ea , wh i ch is
ins ign if icant . Wher e mu lt iple layer s of rubber were glued on , the
j o ints were no t over l apped so the change in sur fac e cond i t ions cau sed
by the jo ints wer e not compounded at one se ct ion of th e cyl inder
sur fac e . Th e contact adhes i ve used gave extreme l y good cont ac t b e tween
rubber layers and the p i pe walls w i th no a ir spaces so heat transfer
thr oug h the rubber l ayer s was uni form .
Thaw ing ex per i ments were carr i e d ou t wi th the amb ient me d ium
t emperatur e in the range : 5 . 0 °C to 4 5 . 0 °C . Al though the l iq u id
ve loc i t y ar ound the tank wa s constan t , some var i a t i on of the transport
proper t i e s of water and ther e fore the f i lm h eat transfer coeff ic ient
may occur wi th temperatur e . I n the tempera tur e range us e d th e changes
in l i qu i d propert i e s were small , and the b ulk of th e res i s tanc e to hea t
t r ansfer was i n th e p i pe wa ll and sheets o f rubb er anyw ay . Hen ce there
was no stat i s t i c al l y s i gn i f ic ant correlat ion of h w i th amb ient
temp erature .
Centre temperature prof i l e s change l ess than surface t emperatures for a

g iven change i n h so ther e was a loss o f measuremen t sens i t iv i t y . The
result was that ind i v idual h values d if fe red by up to 20% from the mean
v a lu e i n se t s of repl i ca t e runs for the same cyl i nde r and r ubb er
th i c k nesse s . The unc erta i n ty in th e mea n est i ma tes of h were th erefore
ab ou t ± 7 . 0 % at the 9 5 % level o f conf idenc e .
Exper i me n ta l Pr ocedur e and Dat a Col lec t io n 85
5 .5 . 4 Ana lys i s of Heat Transfer in Inf ini te Cyl ind er s
Some o f the prob lems enc oun te red i n cy l inder expe r i ments we re s i m ilar
to those found for slab s . The leng th s of the test cyl inders were
a l way s great er than the d iame t er b y a fac tor of at l east thr ee , and
insula t i ng caps were used to m i n i mi s e the effect of heat transfer along
the leng th of the cy l inders . Us i ng a s i mi l ar ana ly s i s to that for
slabs ( Sec . 5 . 4 . 4 and App . B ) the end-e ffe c t heat transfer was found to
b e neg l ig i b l y small ( 0 . 2% decrease in thaw i ng t i me ) for the worst
si tuat ion use d in thawing runs . The test cyl inders th erefore
appr ox i ma t ed inf in i te cyl inder s very close l y .
Apart from the prob lems at the sur fac e , air voids that oc curred in the
mater ia l were no la rge r or more common than th ose found for slab s , so
the ir e ffec t wou ld not be ex pec ted to be any mo r e s ign i f ican t than the
effec t of the in ternal vo ids for slab s . Th i s was d i scussed in
Se c . 5 . 4 . 4 . Vo ids a t the surfa c e of th e cy l i nder s and imperfect
contac t predom inan t ly a f f ec ted the sur face h eat transfer a nd were
accounted for by the me thod d i sc ussed in Se c . 5 . 5 . 3 . A consequenc e was
that the geome t r i c and thermo dynami c c en t r e of the cy l inder may not
have co inc ided. As surface voidage was ev enly d is t r i b uted across the
cyl inder sur fac e s , averag i ng e f fects mean tha t th e c entral ax i s of the
cyl inders shou ld coinc ide closely w i th th e thermodynami c c en tre . It
w i l l b e shown below that e v en i f the thermodynamic c en t r e was m i sp laced
s l i ghtly , the thaw i ng t i me i s only min ima lly a lt ered .
Err ors due to inhomogen e i ty created by the pr esen ce of th ermo coup l e

w i r e s and heat c onduc tion a lo ng th ese wires were of s i m i la r magn i t ud e
to tho se fo und for slab s , and wer e s i mi lar ly ins igni f ic an t . Er rors in
plac emen t of centre th ermocouples were assessed b y th e same me th ods
used for s l ab s . Cen t r e ther moc oup l e p l acemen t was mor e d i f f i c u l t than
for slab s so a greater var i a t i o n in t emperature was ob served between
thermocouples . As shown in Sec . 5 .4 .4 qu i t e large err ors in
thermo coup l e plac eme n t c an o ccur w i thout s i gn i f icantly affec t i ng
pred i c t io n o f thawi ng t i me or c entre tempera ture pro f iles . P l a cement
of thermoco uples n ear the thermodynamic c entre was the refore eas i ly
ass es sed and d i d not s igni f icant ly increase the ove ra ll error . The
breakpoin t analy s i s ou t l i n e d in Sec . 5 . 4 . 4 was u se d t o increase the
Expe r i mental Pr ocedure and Data Col l ec t ion 86
prec is ion of thawi ng t i me pred ict ions whe r e centre thermoco uples were
poor l y pos i t ioned . For reasons d i scus sed in Sec . 5 . 5 . 3 the fastes t
chang ing ind i v idua l surface temperature measurement d id not n ec es sar i l y
r ep r es en t the ave r age h ea t transfer cond i t ions , and slower changes
could be due to placement below the sur fac e as well as lower h values
i n par t i c u l ar reg ions . Hen ce app l i cat ions of th e techn i q ues of
Se c . 5 . 5 . 3 p robab ly l e d to ex per i menta l ly measured surface t emperatures
nearer to the amb ien t temperature than th ose r epresen t i ng th e av erage
heat transfer cond i tions . Pr edic ted surface temperatures usi ng the
average h va lue would therefore be expec ted to l i e further fr om the
amb ient me d ium t emp erature than the me asured data.
The effec t of the heat capac ity of th e rubb er insulat i on and a l so of

the p i pe wall ma ter ial was greater than that d i sc ussed in Sec . 5 . 4 . 3
for s l ab s , because the rubber and p i pe wal l mate r ia l c ou l d not be
prehea ted to the amb ient thawing temperature due to it be ing
pe rman en t l y att ache d to or part of each cyl i nder . The heat t ak en up by
the rub ber and wa l l ma ter i a l was less than 3 .0% of the total h eat
t r ansfer to e ach cyl i nder . Fur th er , th e es t ima te of the sur fac e heat
transfer coeff ic ient to the Ty lose sur fac e was determined in such a way
that on l y heat t r ansferred throug h the insu l at i ng l ayer s was t aken i nto
account . Hence the ma in e ffect of heat tak en up by the rubber and p i p e
wal l mat er ia l wou l d b e to d i stor t t o some ext e nt th e me asur ed Ty l ose
surfac e temp erature early in the thawing proc es s when the rubber and
wal l temperatures wer e chang i ng most .
No r ep l i cate runs were co nduc ted for c yl i nder thawing due to

l i mi t a t ions in t i me , so d irect measuremen t of th e exper i mental er ror
was no t made . The error s for cy l i nder thawi ng were o f the same order
of ma gn i tude as in the s l ab expe r i men t s , excep t for measuremen t and
control of th e sur face heat transfer coeff ic ient . The ex per i me n ta l
error w a s there fore expected to b e sl ight l y gre a t er tha n for s l ab s .
Exper i me n tal Pr ocedur e and Dat a Coll e c t ion 87
5 .6 THAW I NG O F SPHERES
5 .6 . 1 The Equ ipment
Ho l l ow me tal b a l ls were used to mo del spher i c al geome t ry . The th ree

s iz e s u sed were approx ima te l y 0 . 05 m, 0 . 1 m and 0 . 1 25 m i n d iame ter .
The me tals wer e sta inless steel , c opper and mi ld steel respect i ve ly .
Each of the sphe res was made fr om t wo hemi spheres for ease of
constru c t i on . Each hemi sphere was pack ed w i th Ty lose and two sur face
thermo coup les wer e i nser t ed a long i so thermal pa ths around the
c ircumferenc e . Th e two halves were then welded or soldered together
wi th a s i ng l e the r mo couple in th e c entre po si t ion . Th e d i s rup t i on to
the surface of each sphere cau sed by the joint between the two
hemi s pheres a f f ected 3 . 5% to 4 .0% of the sur fac e are a . However the
j o int s were of s i mi lar therma l res i s tanc e to other parts of the
sur fac e . The d i s rup t ions and prob lems cau sed by voids and i mper f ec t
contact are only i mport ant bec ause of th e ir e f fect on the heat t ransfer
b ehav i our of the spheres an d are d i scus sed in Sec s . 5 . 6 . 3 and 5 . 6 . 4 .
A bolt was soldered or welded to the surface of each bal l to enab le a

connect ion to be made to the sa mp l e ho l der and o sc i l lator . B ecau se
both the bolt and the spheres were me tal and only 0 . 04 % to 0 . 2 % of th e
tota l sur fac e are a was affected, the e f f ec t on h eat trans f er was
con s i d ered neg l i g ib l e . A f in i shed sphere and the samp l e holder are
shown in F i g . 5 . 1 2 .
The same imme r s i on thaw i ng tank ( F i g . 5 . 8 ) used for infinite c y l inder

exper i men ts was used for spheres . Osc i l la t ions o f the samp l e s was u sed
for th e reasons ou t l ined in Se c . 5 . 5 . 1 .
Sea l i ng t he ou ts i d e of each sphe r e a l ong the j o i nt between the

hemi spheres to prevent l iquid i ngress was a problem, espec i a l l y wh ere
the thermocoupl e w i res en tered the meta l she l l s . Sl ight water i ngress
l e d to changes in the Ty lose near the l eak , and often r esulted i n
dens i t y changes and h e nce spl i t t i ng of the sphe res on fr eez i ng . To
prevent th i s prob le m and to g i v e var i a t ions i n surface heat t ransfer
coeff ic i ents ( Se c . 5 . 6 . 3 ) l ayer s o f s i l i c one rubber ( Dow Corn i ng 31 10
RTV ) were use d to coat the spheres after cons tru c t ion . The rubber was
E x p e r i me n t a l Pr oc edure and Dat a Co l l e c t i o n 88
Fig . 5. 1 2 The Samp l e Osc i l l a t o r a n d S ph e r e Shapes U se d in th e L i qu i d
Imme r s io n Ta nk .
Exper imental Pr ocedur e and Dat a Collec t io n 89
app l i e d i n a l i qu i d form and th e spher es were r ot a t ed unt i l the rubber

had cured to m i n i m i s e variat ions i n the rubber th ickness . I n sp i te of
the i s prec au t io n someome loca l ised var i a t io n of rubb er th i ckness d id
occur . By ap ply ing mu l t i ple lay ers of rubber th is variat i o n was no t
large and was random l y d i str i buted . Th e e f f ec t on the sur face heat
transfer coeff ic ient is d iscussed in Sec . 5 . 6 . 3 .
5 .6.2 D iame ter Control and Measurement
The cons t ruc t ion of th e spheres in two ha lves , the f l ex ibi l it y of the
ho llow me tal she lls use d and the d i stor t ion in shap es due to water
i ngress and the co nsequ e nt densi ty chang e , mea nt that the spheres were
not cons tant in d iame t er . Some variat ion in d iameter occurred w i th
bo th p os i t ion ar ound the spher e and whe ther the spheres wer e in th e
frozen or un frozen sta t e . Measured v a r i a t i o ns in d iame ter ab ou t the
mean value were ± 1 . 0 mm ( 1 . 8 % ) for the sma llest sphere , ±3 . 0 mm (2 .7%)
for the me d ium s i z ed sphere and ± 2 . 0 mm ( 1 . 6 % ) for th e large sphere.
Th e sphe re vo lume was measur ed by d i splac eme nt of l iqu i d and conf i rmed
that the average values were accurate .
5 .6 .3 Measuremen t and Control of Surface Heat Transfer Coeff ic i en ts
The met a l bal ls had l ow r es i st anc e to hea t t rans f er , so mos t of the

change in h was due to the lay ers of s i l i co ne rubber use d to coat and
sea l the sur face . Some var i a t ion was ach i ev e d by vary i ng the numb er of
lay er s o f rubber a dde d .
The same prob lems w i th therma l contac t and voids tha t were observed
wi th inf i n i t e cyl inder s ( Sec . 5 . 5 . 3 ) occur r ed for spheres. In
add it ion , exac t cont rol of the rubber c oa t i ng th ickness was not
poss i b l e and irregu l ar i t i es in the met a l j o in t bet ween th e s phere
halves a ffec ted heat t ransfer . Therefore some var i a t i o n i n the surface
heat t r an sfe r coeff ic i en t ove r th e sur f ace was exp ected . Es t imates of
h based on sur fac e t emperature me asureme n t a nd t h e methods for r a d i a l
geomet ry o f Cleland & Earle ( 1 97 9 a ) d id no t p rov i d e con s i s tent and
r e l iab l e r esult s . For these reasons , the heat penetrat ion method
( Charm 1 9 63 ) was u sed to me asure h us i ng the c en t r e temperature
pro f i l e s fr om independent heat i ng and c ool i ng exp e r i ments tha t involved
E xper i mental Procedur e and Data Co l l ec t i on 90
no change of phase . As d isc ussed for the i n f in i te c yl inder geome try in

Sec . 5 . 5 . 3 th i s me thod averages any random surf ace v ar i at ion i n h . The
only poss ible sourc e of sy stema t i c variat ion was the j o i n t bet we en
hemi spher es . The j o i n i ng mater ia l was metal l i c in nature and there fore
had n egl i g ible add i t io nal r e s i s tance to h eat transfer compared w i th th e
o the r par ts o f the met a l sur face .
Howev er , there were more sourc es of error i n measur i ng and control l i ng

th e sur face h eat transfe r coe f f ic i en t for sph eres than for inf in i te
cyl inde r s . A total o f 3 2 runs were used t o est i ma te the t e n d i ffer ent
h va l ues u sed in thaw i ng experi ments . Var i at ions of measur ed h va l ues
between rel icate runs i nd icated that the measurement unc erta i n ty in the
mean values of h was ab ou t ± 1 1 . 0% .
5 .6 . 4 Ana lys i s of Heat Transfe r in Sphe res
For sphe r ical geomet r y there a r e of c our se no probl ems w i th end he at

transfer effec t s . There we re error s due to inhomogenei t ies on the
spher e sur f a ce at the j o i nt between hemi spheres , unevenn ess in the
rubber coat ing , at tachme n t of the bolt to al low connec t io n to the
samp l e o sc i l la tor and th ose d ue to a ir vo ids and i mperfe c t cont ac t .
The ex tent to wh ich these factor s a ffec ted temperatures r ecorded by the
sur face and cen t r e thermo coupl es cou l d not be eas i l y assessed but would
be s i m i la r to that for i n f i n i te c yl inders . The major e ffect was on
measured sur fac e temperatures wh i ch was d i scussed in Sec . 5 . 6 . 3 . The
pos i t io n of the actual th ermod ynamic cen tre was probab ly not great ly
a f fec ted by non-homogenei ty of sur face cond i t ions if they were randomly
d istr i b ut e d . Therefore th e measured centre temperature and thawi ng
t ime wer e onl y sl i gh t l y decreased i n accuracy by the se effec ts .
For spheres , the thermodynamic centre and th e geome t r i c c en tre co i nc ide

at a s i ng l e p o in t so that on l y one thermocouple cou l d be placed at th i s
pos i t ion . Er ror s due to th e i nhomogen e i ty created by presence of
thermocouple w ir e and placemen t o f thermocoup l e s wer e s i mi la r to tho se
found for i n f in i te c y l i nder s , and s i mi larly had ins ign i f ican t e ffec t on
p red i c t io n of tha w i ng t i mes . However , in spheres it was not poss ible
for the centre th ermo co uple to be inse r t e d along isoth ermal r eg ions .
Hea t conduc t ion wi l l onl y b e s ign if i cant a l o ng th e w i r e , no t a l ong the
E xper imental Pr oc edur e and Da t a Co l lec t i o n 91
insu l a t ion . As the cross -sec t ional area o f the w ir e ( 3 .6 x 1 0 -7 m2 ) i s

only 0 . 0 0 4 % o f the total surface area o f the smaller sphere and th e
thermal conduc t iv i t y of th e w ire i s abou t 200 t ime s tha t of Ty l ose ,
then up to 0 . 8 % of the to tal heat flow may occur through the wires .
Overa l l , the e ffec t of heat conduc t ion a long the c entra l th ermoc oup l e
w i r e o n thawi ng t i me was cons idered to be small .
As se s smen t of sur face and c entre th ermo c oupl e plac eme nts and est i ma t i on
of thaw ing t i me from exper i men tal runs was ma de in th e same way as that
u s ed for inf ini t e cyl inder s ( Sec . 5 . 5 . 4 ) . The coa t i ng of rubbe r u sed
on the spheres was far less than that used for i n f i n i te cyl inder s , so
th e ef fec t of th e heat t aken up by the rubbe r and me t a l she l l s on the
over all hea t trans fer was ins ign i f ican t . The volume of water that was
abl e to pene tra t e each sphere ar ound th e th ermo c ouple leads was
ex tr eme ly sma l l and only affec ted the Ty lose in the imme d iate v ic in i ty
o f th e l eak . The maj or result was some loca l i sed expans ion when the
Ty lose was fr oz en . Th is affec ted the d imens ions and phy s i c al i n teg r i t y
of the j o i nt s . An avera ge d iame t er valu e for th e s phe res based o n b oth
froz en and un fr ozen s t ates was use d . Sph eres in wh ich th e j o i n ts
b ecame v i s ib l y damaged wer e remade be fore fur ther u se .
Ov era l l , ex per i men tal er ror for spheres was o f a s imi lar ma gn i tu de to
that for thaw i ng o f inf ini te cyl inder s .
5 .7 TH AW ING OF REC TANGU LAR BR ICKS
5 .7 . 1 The Equ ipme n t
The l i q u id imme r s i o n thaw i ng tank was use d . Both me tal and

polypropy l en e box es wer e const ruc ted ( Fi g . 5 . 1 3 ) . All box es h ad a bo l t
a t t ached t o the l i d t o hold them onto the sample osc i llator i n th e same
way as that us e d for spher es . The fac e of e ach box fur thes t f rom the
geome t r i c centre was chosen to b e the l id . Th i s surfac e has the l eas t
e ffec t o n heat t ransfer i n the rectangular b r i ck and the bo l t a f f ec ted
less than 0 . 1 % of th e total surface are a , so i n all cases th e effect of
the bo l t was insign i f i cant .
E xp e ri mental Pr ocedur e and Dat a Co l lec t i o n 92
Cons t ruc t ion of the me t a l box e s , from shee ts of 1 . 2 mm th i ck mild

stee l , r equ ired some ove r lapp ing of the me tal to al low at tachment o f
the l i d b y screw s as shown in Fi g . 5 . 1 4 d . For me t a l boxes the ma j or
resi stanc e to heat transfer at the sur fac es i s th e l i quid f i lm h eat
t ransfer coeff ic i en t . Also the over l app i ng o c curred for less than 25%
of th e lid ar ea . Therefore th e d oubl e me tal lay ers at any ov er lap s
r esul ted i n n eg l ig ible add i t ional heat t rans f er res istan ce . By we ld i ng
and bend ing corner s , all edges of the me tal boxes ( F i g . 5 . 1 4 b ) c losely
app rox i ma t ed a sha r p corner ed b r ick shape ( Fig . 5 . 1 4 a ) excep t for the
l id .
The other boxes were ma de from polyp ropylene plas t i c sh eet ( 5 . 0 mm

th i c k ) wi th a l l the j o in ts screwe d tog ethe r ( F i g . 5 . 1 4 c ) . Th e presence
of th e screws altered the heat trans fer res i s tanc e of less than 0 . 4 % of
th e sur fa ce a r ea depend i ng on the box. Th e ef f ec t of th i s was
insign i f i c ant and the cor ners approx imated c losely to the id eal t y pe of
j o in t shown in Fi g . 5 . 1 4 a .
Thermoc ouples were pos i t ioned a t the geome t r i c c entre o f each brick and
at four to s i x d i f feren t p l ac es on the sur fac e . Whe re po s s ib l e ,
surface th ermo cou ples were pos i t ioned a t the c en tre of th e b r ick faces .
5 .7 . 2 D i mensi onal Measure men t and Cont ro l
The d imens ions of each rect a ngular b r i ck wer e measur ed in bo th the

froz en and unfrozen s tate s . Wa ter i ngress a round the thermoco uple
leads en try po in t i n the l i d o f some boxes resul ted in some l ocal
densi ty changes and henc e d i me ns ional var i ab i l i ty . Dens ity change
dur i ng phase change was a s l ight prob l em for the min ced lean bee f
b r i ck s . Al low i ng for th ese factor s , plus b ox cons t ru c t i o n and
measurement imprec is ion, th e d i mens ions were accurate to ±1 . 0 mm for
a l l the Tyl ose and m i nced l ean bee f rect angular br i ck s . The e f f ec t of
wat e r ingress on heat transf e r is d iscussed in Sec . 5 . 7 . 4 .
E xper iment al Pr oc edure and Dat a Collect ion 93
5 .7 .3 Measurement and Control of Surface He at Transfer Coe ff ic i e nt s
The metal a nd po lypr opylene b r i ck s gave two d i f fer ent surface heat
transfer coeff ic ient values . To further alter the sur fac e heat
transfer coe f f ic i en t , rubb er shee t s were g lu ed to e ach fac e of the
rectangular b r i c k s in a s i mi la r manner to that use d for i n f in it e
cyl inder s . On e l ay er o f rubbe r was p u t on th e metal boxes and two
lay ers on the poly propylene box es . I n th is way fou r d i fferen t v alues
of h were obt a ined for the rect angul ar b r i ck geometry .
I n a rectangular b r ick shaped obj e c t heat transfer at any po i n t on th e

sur fac e c an be treated as one-d i mens iona l un t i l the t i me that th e h eat
penetra t ion fronts from one or both of the o ther two d i mens ions reaches
th e point . Th i s means tha t the methods us ed for the measurement of h
i n slab s can be ap p l i e d at some pla c es on the surfaces of recta ngular
br icks for shor t t i mes . In Sec . 5 . 4 . 3 it wa s shown that th e four
me thods u sed for slab s we re equally accurate . Th erefore the mo st
conven i en t o f these me thods to use for shor t t imes , tha t ba sed on
Goodman ' s heat balanc e integral t echn ique ( Cl e land & Earle 1 9 7 6 a ) , was
the f ir s t me thod cho sen to de term i ne h .
The analy t ical p roduc t solu t i o n for he at conduc t ion i n three d ime ns io ns
wi th the th ird k ind of boundary cond i t i on and constant therma l
prope r t i e s ( Newrnan 1 9 36 ) was th e se cond me thod use d . A s i mi lar
comp ut er p rogram to that us e d to es t i ma t e h from sur face temperature
pro f i les for radial geome t ry ( C l e la nd & Earle 1 9 7 9 a ) was u se d . The
pr ogram took v a l ues of t i me , sur fac e tempera tur e and p o s i t iona l
coord inates for the pos i t i o n of th e th ermoco uple where th e me asurements
were mad e , and u s ed an i tera t i v e loop t o pred i c t th e sur fac e heat
transfer coeffic ient needed to a t tain tha t temperature , at th at t i me ,
and i n that pos i t i on .
Both method s are o nly appl i cable for t imes b e fore the onse t of phase
change . As th i s t i me i s v er y shor t for thaw i ng expe r i men t s , separate
hea t i ng and cool i ng runs were c ar r i e d ou t w i th each rectangular bri ck
i n the unfroz en s t at e . There was no s i gn i f i can t var ia t ion i n es t i mated
h values betwe en bricks of the same wal l ma ter i a ls , betwe en analy se s
us i ng d i f fe rent thermo c ouples i n each b r i ck , or as amb i ent med ium
E xpe r i me ntal Pr ocedure and Da t a Co llect ion 94
tempera ture change d . The d i sagreemen t of the two methods was

sta t i s t i c a lly ins ign i f icant at the 95% level of s ign i f icanc e .
Consequ en t ly , avera ge values o f h for e ach of th e four comb ina t i ons of
wall mater i a l and numb er of rubber sh eets use d , were calculated from
the r epl icate es t i ma t io ns .
Er ror s due to incons is tenc ies in heat transfer on each of the surfaces
of each rec tangular b r i ck wer e ma de n egl i g i b l e by us i ng th e l iqu i d
immer s ion tank , osc i l lat i ng the samples , and us ing th e rubber sheets to
a l te r th e sur f ace hea t transf er res ist anc e . The mean pred ic ted h va l ue
for poly propylene boxes had 9 5% conf idenc e bounds o f ± 1 . 5 % ( no ru bber )
and ±2 . 1 % ( wi th two she ets of rub ber ) . For the me tal boxes th e resul t s
wer e l ess acc urate th an those for th e po lypropylene box es becau se the
sur fac e heat tr ans fer coeff ic ients were larger and cons equen tly th e
t i me for each heat ing or cool i ng expe r i men t was sh ort er than for the
poly propy lene b r i ck s . The values of h were th erefore based on less
data . The 95% co nf idenc e bounds for th e mean values of ±7 . 5 % ( no
rubber ) and ±4 . 4% ( w i th one rubber she et ) for th e me tal b rick s , reflect
th i s t r end .
As for the slab ex per i ment s , th e h values for runs w i th minc ed lean
beef wer e assumed to be th e same as tho se measur ed for the Ty l ose
brick s . M i nc e lean beef undergoes s i g n i f icant dens i ty changes dur i ng
phase change and has a f ibrous mo i s t n a ture comp ared wi th th e dry
gel-l i k e nature of Ty los e . Th erefore a ir v o i d s w i th in the minced lean
b ee f were less l ike l y and i t was poss i b l e that the contac t r e s i s tanc e
was d i f fe r en t for the two mater ials . Henc e the assump t i o n o f equal h
v a lues may introduc e some extra uncer ta in ty for the m in ce l ean beef
exp e r i me n ts .
5 .7 . 4 Analy s i s of He at Transfer i n Rectangular Br ic k s
Error s i n exper i me n ts f o r rec tang ular b r i ck s aros e from s im i l a r sources

to tho se for o th er shapes . Vo ids a nd i ngress o f water oc curred to the
same ex tent as in spheres and wou ld n o t be ex pected to b e a ny more
s ign i f icant for rec tangu l ar br i ck shapes than the rad ial c a se .
S i m i la rly , any inhomogene i ty caused by the presence of thermoco uple
w ir e s w ou l d have a n egl ig ible e f f ec t .
E xper ime n tal Pr ocedur e and Dat a Co llec t io n 95
Pr ob lems had been found wi th imper fec t ther ma l conta c t for inf in i t e
cyl i nders and spheres . Si mi lar behav iour was no t ob se rv e d f o r th e
r ect angul ar br i cks . Therefore sur fac e tempe ratures and surface h eat
transfer could be analy sed in a si mi lar manner to that u sed for slab s
wi th out add i t ional er ror .
Su itable isothermal re gions for thermocou pl e l e ad locat ion do no t oc c ur

i n r ectangu l ar b r ic k shap ed ob j e c t s . Thermo coup l es were intr oduced
through reg ions as near to i soth erma l as poss ible to m i n i mi s e
conduc t ion a lo ng th e w ir es . He a t f l uxes a lo ng th e w i res wer e the re fore
s i m i l ar to those that oc curred for spheres . The volume of the brick
shapes u sed were much la rger than th e sma l l est sphere so the e f f ec t of
hea t transfer along wir es was ins ign i f ican t .
Error s i n placement o f thermocouples were ass es sed in the same w ay as

for oth er shapes . Because sur fac e hea t t ransfe r cond i t ions wer e
equ iva l en t on eac h fac e , the geome tr i c and the rmod ynam i c centres o f the
recta ngular b r ic k s c o i nc ide at a s i ngle point and , s i mi larly to a
spher e , on ly on e thermocoupl e c ou l d be plac ed there . As shown for
other sha p es (Se c . 5.4 .4) the error in plac emen t of the centre
th ermocoup l e cou l d be ea s i l y ass es sed b y th e br eakpo in t ana lys i s and
do es not s ign i f ican tly a ffect the ac curacy w i th wh ich thawing t i mes
c ou l d be measured .
As was the c ase for spheres , th e volume of the rubber coa t i ng and box
wal l mat er ial for the r ectangular br i ck s was suff ic ien t ly smal l
compared w i th the volume o f the Ty lose b r i c k i tse l f t o mak e the effect
o f the heat ab sorbed by the rubber and wal l ma t er ia l un impor tant .
For thawi ng of rec t angular b r i c k s the ov erall e x pe r i mental error was

smaller tha n for tha w i ng of inf ini t e cy l inder s and spheres ( bec au se h
cou ld be measured mo r e acc urately ) , and abou t the same as that for
s l ab s .
Exper imental Pr ocedur e and Da ta Co l le c t i o n 96
b
F i g . 5 . 1 3 Ty p ic a l R ectangular Br i ck Sh apes .
( a ) poly propylene box
( b ) meta l b ox wi th on e l ay er of rubbe r
( c) poly p rop y l e n e box on the sa mp l e osc i l lator ( p . 9 7 ) .
Exp er imen ta l Pr ocedur e and Data C o l l ec t i o n 97
-
-
Fi g . 5 . 1 3 Ty p i cal R ect angular Br i ck Shapes .

( a ) po lypropy l en e box ( p . 96 )
( b ) me t al box w i t h on e layer of rubber ( p . 9 6 )
( c ) po lypropylene box o n t h e sa mp l e o sc i l l a tor
c d
F i g . 5 . 1 4 Schema t i c D i agrams o f Box Cor ner Ty pes .

( a ) i dea l corn e r , ( b ) met a l b o x corner
( c ) poly prop y l e n e box cor ner , ( d ) metal box cor n er w i t h l i d .
E xpe r i mental Procedure and Data Col l ec t io n 98
5 .8 H EAT TR ANSFER IN TWO- DIM ENSIONA L IRREGULAR SHAP ES
5.8.1 The Equ ipme n t
A n i n f i n i t e numb er o f two-d i mens ional ir regular shapes are poss ible .

The ma in concerns in cho osing exp er i mental shapes were to b e ab l e to
( a ) a ccurately control and desc r i b e th e shap e , ( b ) control and me asure
th e sur face heat trans f er condi t ions and ( c ) preven t heat transf er i n
the th ird d i mens io n . It was cons idered that these cou ld be bes t
ach ieved by us i ng e xperi mental techn iques s i mi l ar to those u sed for
thaw i ng of i n f i n i t e cy l i nder s ( Sec . 5 . 5 ) .
Th e shapes were cons truc ted from 0 . 45 m to 0 . 50 m l e ng ths of 0 . 1 m and

0 . 1 5 m nominal d iame ter polyv iny l chlor i d e ( P VC ) plas t i c p ipes . These
p i pes wer e heat ed un t i l th e wa l ls became so ft and pl i ab l e . They were
then mou lded leng thw i se around sma ller d iameter p i pes and a l lowed to
coo l . Th e ne w shape ha d , as c l o se ly as was poss ib l e , a cons i s t en t
cross-se c t ional shape along the l eng th of the p i p e . The c r oss-se c t i o ns
o f the var i ous shapes produ ced are g i ven in F i g . 5 . 1 5 to 5 . 2 1 .
Hea t transfer along the l eng th of each ob j e c t was m i n i m i s ed in a

s i mi l ar mann e r to th at used for inf ini t e c y l inders .
The i r r e gular shap ed obj ec t s were f i l led w i th Ty lose or minced l e an

bee f fr om on e end to a mid-po i nt of the i r he ight . Thermocoup l e s were
pos i t ion ed at f i v e or s ix lo cat ions throu gho ut th e obj e c ts at th is
c entral leve l . Th i s was don e b y d r i l l i ng sma l l ho l es i n th e P VC p ipe
wall j u s t large enough for a s i ngle thermo couple lead. By inser t ing
the coppe r and const antan leads through sepa r a te ho l e s and reconn ec t i ng
and tens ion i ng th em w i th in the obj e c t as shown i n Fi g . 5 . 22 , the
ther mocoup l e j unc t ion was accurate l y pos i t ioned . The th ermo c oup l e
leads were held in place and the holes i n the p ipe wal ls were se aled
wi th a small amoun t of epoxy r es in . Pack i ng o f the ob j ec t w i th Ty l ose
was then completed and the poly styrene foam end c ap s were placed i n
pos i t io n . Th e loca t io n s of th e thermocouples for each shap e are
i nd i c at e d on Fi g . 5 . 1 5 to 5 . 21 . A f i lled t es t samp l e i s shown i n
F i g . 5 . 23 .
E xper imental Pr ocedur e and Dat a Co llect ion 99
ONE -DIMENSIONAL GRID
TWO - DIMENSIONAL GRID
S c ale A [cm]
0 1 2
S c ale B [cm]
1 2
F i g . 5 . 1 5 Cross - sec t io n and F ini te Elemen t Me thod Gr i ds For the

Two - D i me ns iona l Ir regular Shapes Numbers On e and Fi v e .
Sca le A appl i e s for Shape No . 1 . Sca l e B appl i e s for Shape
No . 5 . * - nodes , * * - nodes c orrespond ing to th ermocouples
pos i t ions , - e leme nt bounda r i e s , - - p l an es o f symme t ry .
MASSEY UNIVERS itY,

U B . A r' Y
Exper i mental Proc edure and Da ta Co l l ec t ion 1 00
Scale [cm]
4
Fig . 5.16 Cross-sec t io n and Fi n i te El e me n t M e th o d G r i d For the
Two- D i mens i o n a l I r r e gu l a r S hape Nu mbe r Two .
* - n od e s , * * - n od e s c o r r e s p o nd i n g t o t h e rmo c o up l e s
pos i t ions , - e l emen t boundar i e s .
Fig . 5 . 1 7 Cross-se c t ion and Fi n i te Eleme n t Me thod Gr i d For th e

Two-Di men s ional Irr egular Shape Number Thr ee .
* - node s , * * - nodes c orrespond ing t o thermo co uples
po s i t i ons , - e l e men t bounda r i e s .
E x per imental Pr oc edure and Dat a Co l l ec t i on 101
Scale [cm]
2
Fig. 5 . 1 8 C r o s s - s e c t i on and F i n i t e E l e me n t M e th od G r i d F o r t h e
T w o - D i me n s i o na l I r r eg u l a r Sh a p e N u mb e r Fo u r .
* - n od e s , ** - n o d e s c o r r e s p o nd i ng to t he r mo c o u p l e s
p os i t i o n s , - e l e me n t b ou n d a r i e s .
S c ale [cm]
F i g . 5 . 1 9 Cross-sect ion and F i n i te Elemen t M ethod Gr id For the

Two-D i mens ional Irregular Shap e Number S i x .
* - nodes , * * - nodes corre spond i ng t o thermocoupl e s
pos i t i ons , - e l ement boundar i e s .
Expe r i mental Pr ocedure and Da ta Co l l ec t i on 1 02
S c ale [cm]
-'--
'----- -L
F i g . 5 . 20 C r oss-se c t ion and F i n i t e El eme n t Method Gr id For th e

Two-Di me ns iona l I r re gular Shape Nu mb er Se ven .
* - nod es , ** - nodes c or respond ing to th ermoc o up les
po si t ions , - e l emen t boundar i e s .
S c ale [cm]
L___ _L __�'--- -�--�
Fig . 5 . 2 1 Cr oss-se c t i o n and Fi n it e El eme n t Me thod Gr i d For th e

Two- D imens i o nal Irr egu l ar Sh ape Nu mber Ei ght .
* - nodes , * * - nodes correspond ing t o th ermo co uples
pos i t ions , - e l emen t boundar i e s .
Exper imen t al Pr ocedur e and Dat a Co l le c t ion 1 03
c D E
F i g . 5 . 2 2 Sch ematic Di agram Show i ng the Me thod of The r mocoup l e

Ins ert ion and Pos i t ion ing W i th in the Mu l t i -Di mens i o na l
Irr egular Shapes . Not to sca l e .
A - object wa l l , B - epoxy res i n , C - insulated co ns tantan
lea d , D - the rmocoup l e j unc t i on , E - i nsul ?. t c d coppe r l ead .
Fi g . 5 . 23 The Sa mp le Osc i l la tor and Two- D i mens ional Ir r egular Shap e

Freez i ng and Thaw i ng Equ ip ment U se d in the L i qu id Immers i on
Tank .
Experi mental Procedure and Data Co l l ec t i on 1 04
The l i qu id imme r s i o n t ank was use d . Bec ause b o th fr eez ing and thawi ng
expe r i men t s were ca rr i ed ou t , th e tank cont a ined 29% calc ium ch l or i de
b r i ne . Ac c urate temperature control across th e tempe rature range - 4 0 °C
t o 5 0 °C was ach ieved. The test samp les wer e osc i l lated to m i n i mi s e
l oca l v ar i a t ions o f the sur fac e he a t trans f er coe ff ic i e nt .
5 .8 .2 D i mens i o nal Me asur emen t and Co ntrol
The r i g id nature of the PVC p i pes mea nt tha t no var i a t i o n in shape or

s iz e was me asured dur i ng ex p er i men t s . I f any densi t y change of the
Ty lose or m i nced lean beef occurred dur ing phase chang e , it resu lt e d i n
l e ng thwi se cha nge i n vo lume wh i c h was absorbed by compres s io n of the
poly styrene end cap s .
There was some variat ion in th e cross-se c t i onal shap e of each ob j e c t

a l o ng i ts l eng th . Cross-sec t iona l prof i l es fr om each end o f the obj ec t
wer e drawn and averaged to es t i ma te th e f i nal shap e and s i z e for e ach
obj ec t ( F i g . 5 . 1 5 to 5 . 2 1 ) as acc urate l y as pos s i b l e . V ar i at i ons f rom
the mean shap e were l e ss than ±1 . Omm in d i me ns ions and less than 1 . 0 %
i n per i me t er and cross-sec t ional a r ea .
The charac ter i s t i c th ick ness for th e i r regu lar shap es is def ined as
e i th er the minimum th i cknes s measur ed throu gh the the rmodynam i c centre
or double th e minimum d is tanc e from the the rmo d ynami c c en tre to th e
sur fac e . For al l th e shapes i t was found tha t on l y one th ermo dynamic
centre ex i s t e d , because the surface cond it ions were u n i form a n d th e
geome t r i e s u sed were re l a t i ve l y uni form in sh ape . Th e cha rac t er i st i c
th icknesses determined fr om each def in i t ion were equa l . The pos i t i o n
o f th e the rmod y nami c c en tre w a s found by ana ly s i s us i ng the f in i te
e lement me thod (Se c . 4 . 2 ) for typ ical phase c hange cond i t i o ns .
5 .8 .3 M ea suremen t and Contro l of Surface He at Transfer Coe f f ic i ents
For the i r r egul ar shapes s tud i e d there wer e no sat i sfactory me thods to
est ima t e th e sur fa c e heat transfer coeff ic ient d ir ec t ly from
exper i men ts for each shape . The two-d i mens iona l irregu l ar shapes were
r emou lded from PVC c y l inders for wh ich surfac e he at transfer
Experimental Pr oc edure and Dat a Co llection 1 05
coe f f ic i en t s c a n b e de t erm ined ( Sec . 5. 5 .3) . As l ong as the l i qu i d

f i l m heat transfer cond i t ions are equ ivalent at all par ts o f the
sur fac e and th e P VC wal l th i ckness i s cons t a nt ov er th e who l e surfa ce ,
then th e surface heat tr ansfer coeff i c ient wou ld be expected to be
approx i ma t e l y th e same as that for th e equ iva l en t P VC cy l ind er . U se o f
the l i q u i d i mmer s io n sy stem plus osc illat ion of th e tes t sa mples
ensure d that th e l i qu i d f i l m heat trans f er coeff ic i e nt wa s constant to
all surfaces of all th e objects . Th e PVC wall th ick ness was th e sa me
for th e remoulded sh apes as for th e orig ina l cyl inder s and d i d no t vary
s i g n i f icantly at d i fferent pos i t ions on the surface of th e i r r egular
shapes . Smal l random var i a t ions in wa l l th i ckness d id occur d ue to
chang es in th e degree of curv ature of the PVC and heat shr i nk age . The
ins i d e pe r i meter s o f th e irregular shapes we re measured to b e w i th i n 1 %
of the or ig inal c y l i nder wall perime ter for the 0. 15 m cy l i nder s and
wi th i n 2% for the 0.1 m cyl inder s , for all th e irregu l ar shapes .
Therefore var i a t i o n i n the PVC wa ll th ick ness due to st re tch ing dur ing
the mould i ng proc es s ha d n egl i g i b l e ef fec t on h eat trans f er .
Separat e heat i ng and coo l i ng experiments w i th an unmou lded P VC c y l inder

we re u sed to es t ima te h for th e oth er ( irregula r ) shapes i n a s i m i l ar
manner to that use d in infinite cyl i nder thawi ng ex per i ments
( Sec . 5 .5 .3 ) . Th e curved sur fac es o f both the irr egul ar shap es a nd the
cyl i nder gave the same prob lems with voids and imperfect th erma l
contac t a t th e sur fac e , ex p er i en ced for inf i n i te cy l inde r and s phere
thaw i ng . It was assume d that th e effec t o f th ese fac tor s were th e sa me
for the irregular shapes as for the cyl ind er shapes so tha t the
est imated surface heat transfer coef f ic ien ts were s t i l l r ep resenta t i v e .
B e cau se Ty l ose pa ck i ng cond i t ions and the occur r ance and d i s tr i bu t i on
of the surface voids we re s i mi lar i n both cases , there i s no r eason to
expec t th i s assump t i on t o be i nva l i d .
To alter the surface heat transfer coeff ic ient two lay er s of sheet
rubber were g lued onto the sur fac e of a ll the irregul ar l y shap ed
obj e cts der i v ed fr om the 0. 1 m PVC p ipes . The chang e in exposed
sur fac e a r ea as mor e packa g i ng mate r i a l is add ed is sl i gh t l y d i f f er e nt
for a c y l inder and an i rregular shap e , so very small d i f ferenc es in h
values are poss i b l e , but these were w i th in the toleran ce o f the
measureme n t system. The e ffec t of the rubber and the abov e prob lems
Expe r i mental Procedure and Data Col l ect ion 106
w i th i mperfec t c on tac t are d isc ussed f u l ly i n Sec . 5 . 5 . 3 .
Th e heat penetra t io n me thod , bas ed on cyl ind er c en t r e t emperature

prof i les , showe d no stat i s t i c al ly s i gn i f i c an t d if ferenc es b e twe en
r ep l i cates wi th in the 26 runs used to es t i ma te the thr ee d i f f erent
values of h ( for the 0 . 1 5 m PVC c y l i nder , the 0 . 1 m PVC cyl inder and
the 0 . 1 m P VC cyl inder p lu s two l ayer s of rubb er ) at the 95% leve l of
con f i d enc e . The unc erta i n ty in the mean values had 95% conf idence
bounds of ±1 2 . 7 % . ±7 . 1 % and ±2.8% for the abov e three va lues
respec t i ve l y . Th e va lues of h were d i f ferent fr om those for the 0 .1 m
and 0 . 1 5 m PVC cyl inders u sed in thaw i ng ( Sec . 5 . 5 ) because p ipes of
d i fferent th i ckn es ses were u sed .
The sur face heat trans fer coe f f ic ient for the minc ed l e an bee f
expe r i men t s was assu med to be the same as that de termine d for the
Tylose exp e r i me n ts w i th th e same shap e . As d iscu ssed in Sec . 4 . 8 . 3 for
rectangula r b r i cks , th i s poten t ia l ly l ead s to in creased ex pe r imenta l
uncer ta inty for the minced lean beef experiments b ecause th is
assu mp t ion abou t h may no t b e va l i d .
5 .8 .4 Analy s i s o f Heat Tr ansfer i n Two- D i mens ional Irregular Shapes
Experiments for i r r e gular shapes are subj ec t to the same e rror to thos e
for regu l ar shapes . Vo ids in the Ty lo se and inhomogenei t y cau sed by
thermoc oup l e wires had s i mi lar e ffects to those found in the i n f in i t e
cyl inder expe r i men t s , and wer e s i mi lar ly ins ignif ic ant .
Error i n the rmocou ple placemen t was not a major sourc e of unc er tainty
due to th e way the le ads were po si t ion ed and he l d in p l ace .
D i smantl i ng of th e obj e c t s showed that the thermo couple j unc t i o ns
rema ined wi th i n a 2 mm rad ius of th e recorded pos i t io n ov er a numb er of
runs . However , the me thod used to i nse rt th e thermocouples d id l e ad to
error s du e to heat conduc t ion a lo ng the w i res as they were not
i nt roduc ed along isoth ermal p aths . Ty pically , four th ermo co uples were
used to measure in terna l t emperatures for each obj ec t . On l y o ne of
these was located in close prox imity to th e thermodynamic c en tr e .
Conduc t ion along e ach thermocoupl e wou l d b e l es s than th e 0 . 8% o f the
total heat flow calc ulated for the centre thermocouple i n the sma llest
Exper imental Pr ocedure and Da ta Co llect ion 1 07
sphere u se d for thaw i ng ( Sec . 5 . 6 . 4 ) . The vo lume and sur fac e ar ea for
these two -d ime ns ional i r re gular shap es wer e l a rger that tho s e for the
sma l l es t spher e . Though up to four thermocoup l e w i res conducted heat
towar ds the cen tre , because all but one of th ese were pos i t ioned well
away from th e thermod ynamic c entre and t he ob j ec t vo lu me and sur f ace
ar eas were larg e , the e ffec t of heat co nduc t ion a long th e the rmo couple
w i res was cons idered ins i gn i f ican t . On ly 0 . 0 2 % to 0 . 0 3% of th e sur fac e
ar ea w i th in the c en tra l 1 00 mm l eng th of the p ipes was a ffected by th e
introduc t ion of th e th ermo c ouple w i r e throug ht the wa l l s . Th i s is
insign i f icantly sma l l .
Hea t transfer a long the l eng th of the ir regularly shap ed obj ec ts will
be of th e same ord er of magni tud e as that for th e equ i va l ent
cyl indr i c a l shapes due to th e insu lat ing cap s , th e h igh rat io of leng th
to th i ck n ess u sed a nd th e cen t ral pos i t io n used for temperature
mea surement . In Sec . 5 . 5 . 4 th is was shown to b e ins ign if ican t .
Th e prob l em wi th i mpe rfec t contac t of the Ty lose w i th th e P VC wa l l ,

noted for in f i n i t e cyl inder experiments , occurre d . For i n f in i te
cy l i nders it was ana ly sed in the same manne r by us i ng c entre
t emperature prof i les only to determine an ave rage h for each obj e c t .
The e f f ec t of sur fac e inhomogenei ty , due to the imperfec t contac t , may
have b een larger for i r regular shapes i f the presenc e of voids was no t
even l y d i str ibu ted ov er th e sur fac e . There was no ev i den ce o f th i s so
the approach use d for i n f i n i t e c y l inders when cons ider ing accuracy of
sur fac e temperature p rof iles was adop ted .
For i r r e gular shap es the pos i t ion of the the rmodynamic c en tre is not
k nown , and in f ac t it may mov e dur i ng a ny fr eez ing or tha w i ng run
( Fl eming 1 9 7 0 ) . For th is r e ason , th e pos i t ion of one the rmo couple was
located as c lo se as poss i b l e to th e pred i c t e d thermody nami c c entre of
the obj e c t s , as de t ermined by a f in i te e lement analy s i s ( Se c . 4 . 2 ) for
typ ic a l ex per i men ta l cond i t ions . Th i s may no t be the ex ac t
thermo dy namic c en tre so when the temperature p r of i les were analy se d ,
the b r e akpo in t ana lys i s d i scuss e d i n Sec . 5 . 4 . 4 was u se d t o increa se
the prec is io n o f th e exper ime n ta l ly determined thawing t i me where
n ec essary . Th i s ana lys i s i s as app l i cabl e to irregu la r shape s as it i s
to regular shapes . When c o ns ider i ng loc a t ions o f oth er the rmo co uples
Exper i ment a l Procedure and Da ta Col l ec t io n 1 08
i t was no t i mpor t an t where th ey were pos i t ioned as long as the pos i t ion
was acc urat e l y k nown . A r ange of a l terna t i v e posi t ions we r e u sed to
prov ide a numb er of ty p ical t emperature profi les f r om th rou ghout each
ob j ec t .
For the two-d ime ns ional i r r e gular shape exper iments an iden ti c al
p rocedure to that u sed for thaw i ng o f regu l ar in f ini te cyl inder s was
adopted . Al thou gh the unc erta inty in measured sur fac e heat t ransfer
coe ff ic ients was lowe r than for th e inf in i te cyl inder th aw i ng
exper ime nt s , the inab i l i ty to control h to th e same value for all the
sh ap es introduced ex t r a unc er ta inty . The re i s a lso an add it iona l er ror
in measur ing and control l i ng the geometry so the ov e ra l l ex per i mental
error was es t i mated to b e of sl ight l y gre a t er magn i tude than tha t for
i n f i n i t e cyl inder thaw ing .
5 .9 H EAT TRANSFER I N TH REE- DIMEN SIONAL I R R EGU LAR SHAPES
5.9 .1 The Equ ipment
On ly thr e e d i fferent thr ee - d i mens ional obj e c t s were inv e s t igated due to
l i mi t a t ions in t i me a nd r es ourc e s . Each was rela t i v e l y un i form in
shap e , though i r regular compar ed w i th slab s , inf in i te c y l i nder s ,
spheres , inf ini t e rods or r ect angular br i ck s .
The f ir s t shap e was th e fru stum o f a sq uar e pyramid shown in - Fi g s . 5 . 2 4

and 5 . 28 . I t was const ruc t ed from po l yp r opy l e ne plast i c she et in
exac t ly the same manner as that used for rec t angular b r ick shap es
( Sec . 5 . 7 . 1 ) . The o ther two irregula r thr ee - d i mensiona l shapes w ere an
ov o i d ( eg g ) shape and an f i sh shap e smoothed to ob tain a comp letely
convex sur fac e . To prov id e in forma t ion ab ou t sur fa ce he at t r ansf er
cond i t ions , two s i mi l a rly s i z ed r egular spheres were use d . Casts of
each shape wer e made . For th e eg g shap e , a t wo-d imens i ona l
cross - sec t i onal p r of i le was d rawn and a b lo ck o f wood turned i n a l a th e
t o th i s shap e . The ful l wooden egg was se t i n p l ast er o f par i s so that
t wo iden t i c a l ha lves c ou ld be mou lded. The plaster prov ided a flat
surfac e t o form a f l ange so the two ha lves c ou l d b e j o in e d t ogether .
An albacore tuna was f r oz en and th en c u t i n half leng th w i se down the
b ac kbone . A n ega t i v e p l as t er o f par i s cast was then made o f one hal f .
Experimental Pr ocedur e and Dat a Co llec t i on 1 09
From th i s posi t i ve f i sh shaped cas t s were r econs t ructed . Th e spher i ca l

plaster of par i s c as t was ma de in the hollow metal h emi spheres u se d to
make the 0 . 1 28 m d iame t e r sphere for thaw i ng of r egul ar shapes . The
me tal sphere was not su itab le for mou ld ing d ir ectly .
The c as t s were use d to vacuum he a t mou l d t wo ha lves for each ob j ec t

from C A B ethyl a c etate p last i c sh eet . The f i sh , eg g and two sphere
mou l d s const ruct ed were a l l of compa rab l e s iz e and curv a ture so that
the vac uum mould ing of the plast i c gave s i mi lar th ick nesses of p last i c
over e ach of the moulds . Th e cas ts ha d no conc ave sect ions so that
b r i dg ing of the pla s t i c between r i dges on th e cas t was no t a problem
and the plas t i c mou l d c lo se ly resemb l ed and f i t ted the or ig ina l cast .
Each pla s t i c half mould was f i l le d w i th Ty lose . Thermocouples were

introduced to v ar i ous pre- de termined po in ts i n a s i mi l ar manner to that
used for two-d imens ional irregular shapes . Holes were d r i l led in the
plas t ic for the ind i v i dua l copper or const an tan w ir e l e ads . The w i res
wer e j o i n ed and tens io ned in the approp r iate place in the shap es and
th e ho l es sea l e d by epo xy r es i n . Six the rmocouples ; two on the
surface and four located i nt ernally , wer e use d for each shape , ex cep t
for th e two sph eres wh ich each had thr ee sur fac e thermoc oup les a nd one
at th e geome t r i c cen tre . One the rmo coup le was always plac ed as c lose
as po ssible to the thermodynamic c entre est i ma ted by f i ni te e l ement
ana ly s is . The f i l led halves of th e plas t i c objects were j o ined
toge th er and th e plas t ic fl anges he l d toge th er w i th a so lven t g l ue and
sc rews . In th is way th e obj e c t s were totally sealed aga ins t l i quid
i ngres s .
The thr ee shapes are shown i n Fi g . 5 . 25 to 5 . 28 . Al l the shap es had a

bo l t att ach ed throu gh th e flange to allow conn ec t ion to th e samp l e
osc i l lator . The l i q u id imme r sion tank was u se d .
5 .9 . 2 D i mensiona l Control and Measurement
The measuremen t s o f the moulded p l as t i c ob j ec t s wer e t ak en d irec t ly

from th e wood or plas ter cas ts . The wooden egg c los ely fo l lowed th e
mathema t ical re lat ionsh i p for a n ovo i d b ecau se i t was tur n e d to fit a
spec i f ic p rof i le . S i mi larly , th e mou lds for the spheres and the
Exp er i mental Procedur e and Dat a Col l ec t ion 110
frustum of the square pyramid were uni form or flat s ided and cou ld be
accurate ly measur ed . Th e f i sh shape was natura l l y der i v ed and
irregular i n a l l r espects excep t for a leng thw i se plane of symme try
betwe en the two ha lves . To acc urate ly mode l i t , th e plaster ca st was
cu t and the c ross-s ec t i ons at th ir t een evenly d i s tr i b uted po i n ts a long
th e l eng th of th e ob j e c t mappe d . The sh ape of the f i sh sur f a ce was
then i n t erpolated between these c ros s-se c t i o ns . I t was found that each
of th e cross - sec t ions was c lo s l y appr ox i mated if a fur ther v er t i c a l
ax is of sy mme try was assume d . Hence only on e qua rter of the f i sh wa s
mode l le d . U s i ng these methods and be cau se the plas t i c mou l d c l ose l y
resemb le d t h e o r i g inal casts the error in de termin ing the sur face shap e
and c r i t i c al d imens ions was cons idered to b e ±2 mm a t any point for
both the f i sh and th e egg , ± 1 . 0 mm for the spheres and ±0 . 5 mm for the
py rami d .
The charac ter i s t i c th ick nes s was de termined from the grids shown in
Fig . 5 . 2 4 to 5 . 27 onc e th e the rmodynam i c c entre was p i npo in t ed by
f i n i t e e lement analy si s for typ ical phase change cond i ti ons . The
measuremen ts taken of f th e cas t s wer e conf irme d by some measurements on
the ac tual test obj e c t s . There was n o obse rv ab l e d i fferenc e in s iz e or
shape as the obj ec ts c hanged from th e fr oz en to th e un fr ozen s t a tes .
5 . 9 .3 Co n trol and Measurement of Sur fac e Heat Trans fer Co ef f i c ient
The polyp ropylene pyrami d was i den t i c a l in all respects to the

polypr opy l en e rect angu l ar br i ck sh apes cons t ruc ted prev iously for water
imme rs ion thawi ng ( Sec . 5 . 7 ) a nd for b r i n e immer sion freez ing ( Cl e land
1 977 ) , excep t for th e irregula r i t ies in sh ap e . Th e sur fac e heat
transfer coeff ic ient ha d been found to be equa l in b o th th e rectangular
b r i ck freez i ng e xper i men ts us i ng b r in e ( Cl e l and 1 977 ) and the thaw i ng
exper i ments us ing wate r . The sa me h v a lue was assume d t o hold for the
po lyp ropy l e ne pyram i d and no fur the r experi ments re l at i ng to i t we re
under tak en . The er ror i n the value of h for the poly propylene pyramid
sh ou l d be of th e same order as tha t for tha w i ng of the po l yp ropy l ene
rectangular b rick s ( 1 . 5% ) . The samp l e was osc i l lated in a s i mi la r
manner t o tha t used for rectangular b r i ck s .
E xper imental Pr ocedur e and Dat a Co l le c t i o n 111
For th e p last i c mou ld shapes, h cannot be measured d irec t l y w i th ou t

substan t i a l d i f f ic ulty . Henc e the analagou s regula r spher i c al shap es
construc t e d fr om the same plas t i c mater ia l , and th e me thods of
Se c . 5 . 6 . 3 , were use d to measure h. Twe lve separate heat ing and
coo l i ng runs w i thout phase change , b oth ab ove and be l ow th e pha se
change t emp erature rang e , for the two sphere shap es were undertak en .
Non e o f the d i ffer enc es bet ween runs , be tween v a lu es for the two
spheres or th e corre lat ion of h w i th temperature were s tat i s t i c al ly
s i gn i f i cant at th e 95 % conf i denc e leve l . The err or in the average
value determ i n ed by the va riab l i lty of r e p l i c ates was ±21 % . It was
assumed that th e h v a lu e de termined in th i s way accura te l y r ep re sented
h for the egg and f ish shapes as wa l l th ick nesses were essen t i a l ly the
same for all t es t ob j ect s , and th e degre es of curv a ture were
ap p rox ima t e ly equiva lent . Some plas t i c th ickness variation was no te d ,
e ven between th e two spheres moulded from i de nt ic a l cas ts , d ue to
fa c tor s tha t were no t controllab l e . Dur i ng mould ing the plas t i c tended
to sp re ad ou t th inly over some r eg ions and accumu l ate at ot her parts .
The effec t was rela t i ve ly randomly d i s t r i buted excep t nea r the flanges
for each ha l f wh ere the plas t i c was a lway s th i ck er . Henc e , the re was
in p rac t i c e some v io lat ion of th e assump tion th at ex te rna l heat
t r ansfer was un i form on a l l sur faces of th e test ob j ect s . No pract i ca l
way t o avoid th is p rob lem was found , so i t was dec ided t o carry ou t th e
exper iments wi th the moulds as th ey wer e , and acc ep t the consequ e nt i a l
l o s s of ac curacy in calculat io ns for wh ich a cons tant h value was
assume d .
5 .9 . 4 Ana ly s is of Hea t Tr ansfer for Three-D i mensional Ir regu la r Shapes
Sou rces of error for th e three-d i mens ional i r r egular shap es were
simi l ar to th ose for o th er sh apes . Pr ob lems wi th vo ids , inhomogene i t y
d u e to thermo co uple w i r es , heat conduct ion along thermo coup l e w i r es and
error s in p lac emen t of thermocoup l es wer e s i mi l ar to those for
two - d imens ional irregular shapes and were cons equen t ly c ons idered
n eg l i g ib l e . Becau se a the rmocoupl e c ou l d no t neces sari l y be lo cated
exac tly a t th e thermo dynamic c en tre ( but usu a l ly c lose by) , th e
b r eakpo in t ana ly s i s was u sed to accurate l y de t e rm in e ex p er i menta l
freez ing a nd thaw i ng t i mes .
E xpe r i me n tal Pr oc edure and Dat a Co llect ion 112
The three-d i mensiona l sh apes mean t tha t end he at transfer e f fec ts were
no t a prob lem. On ly the pyramid shap e was a ffected by the prese nc e o f
a bo l t inser t e d through the wa l l . As was th e ca se for rectangu l ar
brick thaw i ng , the p resenc e o f th is bolt was found to be ins ign i f ican t .
D i srup t ions due to th e modu l ar nature o f the p l as t i c mou lds a f f ec t ed
hea t trans f e r . The flange reta ined on each hal f of th e plas t i c mou lds
a l lowe d a s trong j o i n to be ma de a nd i t a lso a l lowe d th e att achme nt to
the sample osc i l la tor w i thou t fur ther d isrup tion to the obj e c t sur fac e .
The f la nge for the plas t i c mou l ded shapes ran in a l e ng thw i se
c ircumferenc e around each shap e . It therefore af fec ted part o f th e
sur fa ce area but the reg ions on th e sur face c l oses t to the
thermod ynam ic cen tre were only s l i g htly a f fec ted . The e f fec t of the
flange on the sur fac e h eat transfe r was cons idered unavoi dabl e . As has
bee n ind ica t e d , a lower d e gree of ac c uracy in th ese expe r i me n ts was
acc ep ted .
Imperfect co ntac t was a s i mi lar p rob lem for th e pla s t ic mou lded shapes
to that wh ich occ ur r ed for inf ini t e cyl inder s , spheres a nd the
two-d ime ns iona l ly ir regular shapes . As b e for e , it was cons i dered that
the e f fect was equa l ly fr equ en t for a l l sh apes a nd rand om l y d i s tr i bu ted
ov er th e surface so that th e ef fec t on surface or ov erall h eat transfer
was not sign i f i cant and cou l d b e acc urate l y ac coun t e d for by an a v erage
sur fac e heat transfer coeff ic ien t . Fi n i te e lement pred i c t i o ns for the
p las t i c shapes ( Sec . 8 . 4 ) tend to show tha t surface he at trans f er
cond i t io ns were no t un i form and that alter nat i v e me ans to con trol and
measur e h wou l d be need ed i f ex peri men ts wi th l e ss unc erta in t y were
con s i d ered esse n t i a l . In sp i t e of these problems , the shape o f the
temperature p rof i l e for a th ermocoup l e s i tuated near the thermo dyna mic
centre ( pred ic ted by f i n i te eleme n t analy s i s assuming un i form surface
h ea t t r ansfe r cond i t ions ) , sugges ted tha t th e non-un i formi t i es at the
sur fac e had not mov e d the th ermo dynamic centre much , and that thaw ing
t i me s cou l d be de term i ned from th i s th ermocoupl e by the br eakpo in t
analy s i s .
For three-d ime ns ional i r regu lar shap es the unc er taJnty assoc iated w i th
contro l l i ng the sur fac e hea t transfer cond i t ions by u se o f the plast i c
mou ld ing could not b e assessed . However the error i n me asur i ng h was
large and ther e are furth er s ign i f icant error s in measur i ng and
E xp e r imen tal Pr ocedure and Dat a Co l lec t io n 113
model l i ng th e shapes o f each ob j e c t accurat e l y . Other s ou r ces of

uncer t a i n ty a r e of the same order o f magn i tude t o those in th e o th er
exper i men ts . Co nsequ e nt l y , the ov era l l ex p er i menta l err or f or the
thr ee -d i mens ionall y i r r e gular shapes mou lded fr om plas t i c was larger
than for o th er shapes . Th i s mu st b e cons i dered wh en compa r i ng freez i ng
and thaw i ng t i me pre d i c t i o n me thod s w i th the e x per imental data. The
excep t io n was th e polypr opy l ene pyram i d sh ape for wh i ch the ov era l l
exper i mental error was o f th e same order o f magn i tude a s occurr ed for
the thaw i ng of rec tangular b r i c k s as the ex per i menta l t echniques use d
were a l mo s t i dent i ca l .
Exper imental Pr ocedure and Da t a Co l lec t io n 114
Fi g . 5 . 2 4 The Pyramid Three-Di mens ional Irregu l ar Sh ape F in i t e El ement

Me thod Gr i d .
Only a q uadrant o f th e shap e i s mod e l l e d . T h e x , z and y , z
fac e s a r e p lanes of symme t ry . On ly the boundar y sur face
grids are shown . The x , y face i s also a b oundary surface.
Sca le - in the x d irec t ion 1 d iv is ion = 0 . 005 m , in the y
d ir ec t i o n 1 d i v is ion = 0 . 008 m and i n th e z d ir ec t ion 1
d iv i s ion = 0 . 0 1 6 m .
Exper imental Pr ocedure and Dat a Co l lec t io n 1 15
ONE - DIMENSIONAL GRID

, ___. � � � � � � ---- � � •2
a
TWO -DIMENSIONAL GRID
S c ale [ c m ]
1.__
--L.
_ _J_
_ t_____j
0 1 2
F i g . 5 . 2 5 The Sphere Three- D i mens ional Irregular Shape F in i te Ele me nt

Me thod Gr ids .
( a ) and ( b ) the one- and two-d imens ional g r i d s
* - nodes , * * - nodes correspond i ng t o the rmocoupl e
pos i tions , - e lement bou ndaries , � - p lan es of symme t ry ,
A - ax i s o f rotat iona l sy mme t ry .
( c ) th e thr ee-d imens ional g r i d ( p . 1 1 6 ) .
E x pe r i mental Proc edure and Dat a Col l ec t i on 1 16
Fig . 5 . 25 The Sphere Three-d imens ional Irr eg ular Shap e Fi n i t e El eme n t
Me thod Gr ids .
( a ) and ( b ) the one- and two - d ime ns ional g r i d s ( p . 1 1 5 )
( c ) the thr ee - d i mens iona l gr i d . On l y a n oct ant i s mode l l ed .
Th e x , z and y , z faces are planes o f symmetry . Scale for the
thr ee-d imens iona l gr i d is 1 d iv is ion - 0 . 00635 m .
( 1 ) only the boundary surfaces are shown.
( 1 1 ) an exploded v i ew o f the ful l spher e gr i d ; each o f the
thr e e she l ls o f e lements are shown.
Exper imental Proc edure and Da ta Co l lect ion 1 17
TWO - DIMENSIONAL GRID
2 4
THREE- DIMENSIONAL GRID
F i g . 5 . 2 6 The Egg Thr ee-D i mens iona l Irregular Shape F in i t e El ement

Me thod Gr ids .
( a ) th e two-d imens iona l g r i d . * - nodes , ** - nodes
corre spond ing to thermocoup l e pos i t ions , - e l eme nt
boundar ies , A - ax i s of ro tat ional symmetry .
( b ) the three-d i mens iona l gr i d . On l y a quad rant i s mode l l ed .
The x , y and x , z faces are planes o f symme try . Only the
b oundary sur fac e gr i d is shown . The fu l l g r i d is an
e longated , doub l e vers i o n o f the sphere thr e e- d imens ional
g r id ( F i g . 5 . 25 c ) . Sca l es : in th e x d irect ion 1 d i v is ion
0 . 0 2 55 m, in the y and z d ir ec t ions d i v i s ion = 0 . 0085 m.
E x per i mental Procedure and Data Co l l ec t i on 1 18
z
Fi g . 5 . 2 7 The Fi sh Three-D i mens ional Irr egular Shape Fi n i te El eme n t

Method Gr i d . On l y a qu adra nt i s mode l led . The x, y a nd x , z
faces are planes of symme try . On ly the bounda ry sur fac e gr i d
i s shown . The fu l l gr i d i s a d i s t or ted versio n o f th e egg
three-d i mens ional grid ( F i g . 5 . 26 b ) . Scales : in th e x
d irect ion 1 d iv is ion 0 . 0 60 m , in the y d ir ec t i on 1 d iv i s ion
= 0 . 007 m and in th e z d ir ec t io n 1 d iv is ion = 0 . 006 m.
( a ) v iewe d fr om th e t ai l , ( b ) v iewe d from the he ad .
Exper ime ntal Pr ocedure and Dat a Co l lectio n 1 19
b
F i g . 5 . 28 The Sa mp le Osc i l lator and Three- Di mens iona l Irregu lar Sh ap es
Use d i n the Liquid Imme r s i o n Tank .
( a ) pyrami d
( b ) sphere
( c ) egg ( p. 1 20 )
( d ) f i sh ( p . 1 20 ) .
Exper imental Pr ocedure and Dat a Co l lec tion 1 20
• •
d •
F i g . 5 . 28 The Sample Osc i l lator and Three-Di mens ional Irr egular Sh apes
Used in the Liquid Immers ion Tank .
( a ) pyramid ( p . 1 19 )
( b ) sphere ( p . 1 19)
( c ) egg
( d ) f i sh
121
6 EXP ER IMENTAL DESIGN A ND R ESULTS
6.1 INTRODUCT ION
To inves t i gate the accuracy of methods for pre d i c t i ng freez i ng and

thawi ng t imes for food , exper iments must be conduc t ed for a wide range
of cond i t i ons cover i ng those that occur in prac t i ca l freez i ng and
thaw i ng si tuat ions . In Chap . 3 f i ve obj ec t i ves for the p r es e nt wor k
wer e defi ned . The f i rst two of these re lated to data coll ec t i on so
that pred i c t ion methods could be ass essed :
( 1 ) to co l l ec t thaw i ng data for the bas i c s l ab , infi n i t e cyl i nd er ,
s phere and rec tangular b r i ck shap es
( 2 ) to collect fre e z i ng and thaw ing data for other ( i rregular ) shapes .
I t was dec i ded to cons i der each shape separa tely and to l i mi t the range
of freez ing and thaw ing cond i t ions to si tua t ions descr i bed in Tabl e
3.2. Essent i al l y , th i s meant that the study was l i mi ted t o homogeneous
mater i als and constant cond it ions . Even aft er these restr i ct i ons on
the range of cond i t ions are appl i e d , seven important factors affec t i ng
freez i ng or thaw i ng t ime can b e iden t i f ied ( Tabl e 3 . 3 ) .
Pham ( 1 983 ) used d imen s i onal analys i s to show that the six factors
other than shap e can be related by seven d imens ion l ess group s t o the
freez i ng or thaw ing t i me . These are the Four i er numb er , the B i ot
numb er , the Stefan number , the Plank number and three other
d imens ion l ess numbers . The Four i er numb er :
(6 . 1 )
t akes account of the obj e c t s i ze , the phase change t ime and the thermal
proper t i es of the mater ial in the state i t wi l l be i n after the phase
change p rocess has occurred . The Biot number :
hD hD
B i - - for fr eez i ng , B i for thawi ng
- -
(6 . 2 )
ks kl
i s the rat i o of i nt ernal t o external resi stances to heat transfer . The
Stefan number :
(6 . 3 )
Exper i menta l Des ign and Resul t s 1 22
accounts for the amb ient med i um temperature and re lates the heat
transfer after the phase change process to that due to latent heat
release or absor p t i o n i t se l f . The Plank number ( Cl e land & Earl e
1 976b ) :
C l ( T i n- T i f ) Cs ( T i f- Ti n )
Pk = for freez i ng , Pk for tha w i ng (6.4)
=
�H �
t ak es account o f the in i t ial superheat i ng or subcoo l i ng and relates i t
to the lat ent heat . F i na l ly , three other numb ers wh i ch take account o f
the f i nal the thermodynamic centre , T f i n • the i n i t ia l
temperature at
freez i ng temperature and o ther therma l propert i es of the food are :
C s ( T i f - Tf i n ) C l ( Tf i n - T i f )
N1 = for freez ing , N 1 = for thawi ng ( 6 .5 )
� �
cl kl
N2 = -- and N 3 = -- ( 6 . 6 ) and ( 6 . 7 )
cs ks
I n s i tua t ions where i t i s assumed that all l at ent heat i s released at a
un i que phase change temperature the entha l py change i n the phase change
temperature reg ion , �H . is defined as the latent heat of free z i ng or
thaw i ng , whe reas the entha lpy change between 0 °C and - 1 0 °C is used i n
all other cases . Th is def i n i t ion ensures that � inc ludes the maj or
phase change effect yet i s s imi l ar l y de f i ned and equa l l y re l ev an t for
both fr e e z i ng and thaw i ng analyses . For freez ing , the very s i m i l ar
defi n i t i o n of � as the entha lpy change from T i f t o - 1 0 °C has been used
( Cl e land 1 9 7 7 ) . Th i s def i n i t ion l eads to � values only 1 . 0 % d i f f erent
from � from 0 °C to - 1 0 °C and is therefore treated as be ing equ ivalent
i n th i s s t udy . Th i s def ini t ion is a lso commensura te wi th an
a l terna t i ve used by Hung & Thompson ( 1 9 83 ) where � was tak en as the
entha l py change from T in to T fin ·
Both Hayak awa et a l ( 1 9 83 a ) and Succar & Hayakawa ( 1 9 84 ) per forme d

numer i ca l l y bas ed screen i ng exper iments that showed tha t for s l ab and
i n f i n i t e c y l i nder freez i ng over a range of typ i ca l l y encount ered
cond i t ions only f i ve parame ters , descr ibed in t erms of Bi , St e and Pk
abov e , had a stat i s t i c a l l y s i gn i f icant e ffect on the freez ing t i me
( Fo ) . Nei ther the thermodynami c centre t emperat ur e nor the rat i o o f
t h e unfroz en to the frozen thermal propert i es (N1, N2, N3) were
s i gn i f i cant . Simi lar r esul ts would b e expected for thawi ng . Cleland &
Earl e ( 1 9 8 4 b ) show that the effect o n freez i ng t ime o f d if f er ent f i na l
thermodynami c centre t emperatures can be accurate l y related to the
Exper imental Des i gn and Results 1 23
Stefan number in a s i mple manner . For these reasons , and those

out l i ned in Sec . 2 . 2 . 3 only freez i ng to a s i ngle f i nal thermodynamic
centre t emperature of - 1 0 °C and thawi ng to 0 °C were i nv es t i ga t e d
exper imenta l l y .
Mos t foods , frozen o r thawed induc tr i a lly ar e predominantly aqueous in

compos i t ion and consequently the in i t ia l freez i ng temperature , T i f ' and
the r a t i o s of the thermal proper t i es , N 2 and N 3 , d i ffer on ly s l i ghtly
for d i f f erent foods ( Tabl e 6 . 1 ) . For th is r eason on ly one t y p i cal
phase change mater i a l ( Ty lose ) was used and the changes in N2 and N3
were not cons i dered of maj or prac t i cal import anc e . Some runs w i th a
food mat e r i a l , minced l ean beef , were per formed to see if any
not i c eab l e effec t due to N2 or N3 could be observed . A study
encompass ing a range of mater ials ( C lel and & Ear l e 1 98 4 a ) showed l i t t l e
dev iat ion b etween pre d i c t ions for the d if ferent food mater i a ls used ,
con f i rm i ng th i s reason i ng .
The f u l l f unc t i onal dependence of the phase change t i me to a g i ven

end po i n t temperature , on the cond i t ions cons i dered in th i s work and the
therma l p roper t i es i s therefore g i ven by :
Fo = f ( Bi , Ste , P k , geometry ) (6 .8 )
The var i ab l es that were man i pu lated in order to inves t i gate th i s
relat ionsh i p were the s i z e , D , the sur fac e heat transfer coeff ic ient ,
h , the amb i ent med i um temperature , T a , the i n i t i a l t emperatur e , T in and
the obj e c t shap e . To isolate the e ff ec t of geometry the other four
var i ab l es wer e var i ed i ndependently for a var i e t y of d i f f eren t shapes .
Tab l e 6 . 1 shows t yp ical values of these var i ab l es for common free z i ng
and thawing processes . An exper i mental des i gn was s ought in wh i ch
these var i ab l es were var i ed over as w i de a range as poss i bl e w i t h in the
the l i mi t a t ions of the exper i mental equ i pmen t .
Orthogonal exper imental des i gns i n t erms of Bi , Ste and Pk wer e not
f eas i b l e b ecause of phy s ical l imi t at ions in contro l l i ng the f our
var iables , espec ially h and D , to p re-selected values . The obj e c t s i ze
and the surface heat transfer coeff ic i en t s wer e , in mo s t cases ,
determi ned more by con s i derat i ons such as the ava i l ab il i ty of the
appropr i at e types of conta i ner and the i r wal l mater ial , than by cho i ce
to give a spec i f i ed Biot numb er . var i at ion in Bi was there fore
E xp er i men ta l Des ign and R esults 1 24
d i f f i cu l t t o ach ieve and ev enly spaced l ev e ls requ ired for an

or thogonal des ign were not prac t i cab l e . Consequently i t was dec ided to
vary the Biot number as widely as poss i b l e by using d if ferent
comb i nat ions of conta iner s ize and wal l mat er ia l s . The add i t ion of
i nsulat i ng rubber lay er s for some shapes gave some control and
var i ab i l i ty of h .
A t each level o f Biot numb er Ta and T in ' and hence Ste and P k , wer e
a l so var ied to cover as w i de a range and comb inat ions of cond i t ions as
poss i b l e . The bas i s for the experimenta l des i gn in these cases wer e
e i ther part or ful lfactor ial des igns wi th two or three l evels of T a
and T i n ' I t was dec ided not to at temp t t o control these two var i ab l es
exac t ly to the pre - se l ec ted l ev e ls ; p rov ided a va lue c lose to the
prese l ec ted level was ob tained, i t was cons idered sa t i sfac tory .
6.2 THAW ING OF SL ABS
For exper iments u s i ng Tylose i t was chosen to var y h and D to g i ve

seven approx i mate l y even ly s paced levels of Bi . At each o f the ex treme
values , exper iments at a central l evel of both Ta and T in were
performed . At each of the f i ve i ntermed iate Bi levels a fac tor ial
des i gn w i th Ta and T in each at two l ev e ls plus one centrepoint was
conduc t ed and some other runs at int ermed iate l evels were made . Evenly
spaced l evels of 1 / St e , corrosponding to Ta values of ab ou t 5 °C , 1 3 °C
and 45 °C , and Pk wi th values of T i n o f abou t - 1 0 °C , - 20 °C and -30 °C
were used , with h vary i ng fr om 1 3 . 2 W m- 2 oc - 1 to 1 7 2 . 7 W m - 2 oc - 1 and
D from 0 . 026 m to 0 . 1 05 m r espec t i ve l y . Th i s des ign was cons i dered to
g i ve a sat i sfactory data base for assessment of thaw i ng t ime prediction
methods .
The resu l t s of the f u l l set of 3 5 slab thawi ng exper iments i nc lud ing
r ep l i cates to est i mate the exper imental error are shown in Tab l e 6 . 2 .
Typ i cal thaw i ng t emperature / t ime p ro f i l es are shown i n Fi g . 6 . 1 . The
rep l i cates were p er formed as independent ly from each o ther as pos s ible
to g iv e a true i nd icat i on of var iab il i ty due to experimental
t echn i qu es . The only var i able that could not be measured independent l y
from the other slab exper iments was the sur face heat transf er
coef f ic i en t . Any add i t ional uncerta inty i ntroduced by errors in
Exper imental Des i gn and Results 125
measurement , and due t o systema t i c error , cou l d not b e quan t i f ied from
the s pread of r ep l i cates .
S i x thaw i ng exper iments wer e conduc t ed w i th mi nced l ean beef for a

repres ent a t i ve range of cond i t ions to check that exper i ments wi th
Tylose gave resu l t s cons i st en t w i th those for rea l foodst u ffs , and that
N 2 and N 3 wer e not parameters s i gn i f i cant ly affec t i ng p red ict ion method
accuracy . Results for the m i nced l ean beef exper i ments are g i v en i n
Tab l e 6 . 8 and F i g . 6 . 1 7 i s a t y p i c a l t emperature/t ime p ro f i l e .
6.3 THAW I NG OF I NFINITE CYLI NDERS
For i n f i n i t e cyl inders the range of Biot numb ers that cou ld be
cons i dered was phy s i ca l ly l i mi ted by the cyl inder d i ameter s and p i pe
wal l mat er i a ls and th i ck nesses used . By use of both meta l and P VC
wal led cyl i nders and the add i t ion of rubber insulat ion a range of h
from 1 9 . 0 W m- 2 oc - 1 to 1 1 3 . 0 W m -2 oc - 1 was obtained in the l i qu id
i mmers ion system . In comb inat ion wi th d i fferent cyl inder d iameters
th i s gave s i x app rox imate l evels in B i from 1 .8 to 26 . 0 . At each l ev e l
a s im i lar des i gn t o that used for s l abs was s e t up to cover a w i de
range of amb i ent and i n i t i a l t emperature cond i t ions .
The 3 4 exper i menta l resu l t s for thawi ng inf i n i t e cyl i nders of Tyl ose
are g iven in Tab l es 6.3, and a typical thaw i ng curve is shown in
Fig. 6 . 2 .
6.4 THAW ING OF SPHER ES
Th irty-fi ve thaw i ng runs wer e conduc ted w i th Ty lose s pheres . A s i m i l ar

des ign to that used for inf ini t e cyl i nder tha w i ng was used . The metal
wall ed spheres plus
rubber coat ing gave surface heat t ransfer
coeff i c ients from 41 . 9 W m- 2 o c- 1 to 2 46 . 2 W m -2 oc- 1 . For the three
sphere d iame t ers used . there were s i x l eve l s o f the Blot number in the
range 5 . 9 t o 57 . 0 .
F i gure 6 . 3 g ives a typ i ca l thaw i ng t emper ature/ t i me pro f i l e wh i l e the

full set of result s are g iv en i n Tab l e 6 . 4 .
Exper imenta l Des i gn and Results 1 26
6.5 THAW I NG OF R ECTANGU LAR BR ICKS
The thaw i ng t ime of a rectangular b r i ck shaped object dep ends on its

geometry a s wel l a s the three parame ters Bi , S t e and Pk . The shap e o f
a rec tangular br ick i s defi ned b y t h e rat io of each of the two l o nger
s i de l eng ths to the shor test (S1 and S2) . The shortest s i d e l eng th i s
equa l t o the character i s t i c d imens ion ( D ) so the two shape f actors , S1
and S2, can b e i ntroduced . The exper iments were des igned to cover a l l
the f i ve fac tors ( B i , Ste , P k , S1 and S 2) as w i de ly as was pract i cab l e .
For each o f twelve d i fferently shaped and s i z ed boxes a 22 factor i a l

design i n S t e and P k p lus a centrepo int ( corr espond i ng to v a l ues o f T a
of 5 °C , 1 3 °C and 45 °C , and T in of - 1 0 °C , -20 °C and - 30 °C ) was
per formed . The f i ve runs for each b r i ck wer e d i v ided between two
l eve ls of the Biot numb er ( ar i s i ng from the boxes both wi th and wi thou t
rubber sheets glued to the surfac e ) . The geome t r i c fac tors , S1 and S2,
were var i ed from 1 to 4 , th i s range cover i ng p rac t i cal appl icat ions .
The results for the 68 thaw i ng exper iments conduc ted are shown i n Tabl e
6 .5. A typ i ca l thawing c urve i s shown i n Fig . 6 . 4 . Four tha w i ng runs
wer e made w i th two d i fferent rec tangular b r i ck shapes u s i ng mi nced l ean
b ee f . These r esul ts is g i ven in Tabl e 6 .8 and a typ i ca l
temperature/t ime p ro f i l es i s shown in Fig . 6 . 1 8 .
6 .6 TWO-D IM ENSIONAL IRR EGU LAR SHAPES
E ight d i f f er ent t wo - d imens ional obj ects were used ; f our were
constructed by d i stort i o n of a 0 . 1 m d i ame ter PVC p i pe , and four from a
0 . 1 5 m d iame ter PVC p i pe . S i x of the obj ec ts were irregular i n shap e ,
wh i l e two were c y l i nd r i c a l ( one for each pipe s i ze ) . Figs. 5 . 1 5 to
5 . 2 1 show the cross- sect ional geome tr i es for these obj ec ts . For e ach
shape at l east four freez i ng and four thaw i ng runs were conducted .
For freez i ng three l eve l s o f the Ste fan number ( correspond i ng to values
o f Ta of abou t - 20 °C , - 28 °C and -35 °C ) and four l e vels o f the Plank
number ( correspon d ing t o T i n values o f abou t 4 °C , 1 0 °C , 20 °C a n d 30 °C )
were use d . A compl e t e fac tor i a l des i gn was not poss i b l e . The
comb inat ions of Ste and Pk used for i nd iv i dual exper i ments wer e chosen
Exper imental Des i gn and Results 127
s o that the Ste and P k levels were not stat i s t ically corre l ated over
the full data set . For thaw ing a s i mi l ar des i gn to that used for the
regular shapes was app l i ed for T a and T in · The three values of h for
each comb inat ion o f p i pe wal l th i ckness and rubber l ed t o e leven
d i f ferent l e vels of Biot number .
A tota l of 83 exper i ments wer e per formed w i th Ty los e . The results are
g i ven in Tab l e 6 . 6 and F ig s . 6 . 5 to 6 . 1 2 shown ty p i ca l temperatur e / t i me
pro f i l es at d i fferent pos i t ions w i th in each shap e . A s well , e i ght runs
were conduc ted wi th m i nced l ean beef for two of the irregular shap ed
obj ects . Tab l e 6 . 8 g i ves the results of these exper i ments . Fig. 6 . 1 9
shows typ i ca l temeperatur e / t i me pro f i l es for the minced l ean bee f runs .
6 .7 THR EE-D IMEN S IONAL IRR EGULAR SHAPES
E i ghteen ex per i men ts were conduc ted w i th the three three-d ime ns iona l
i rregul ar Ty lose obj ec ts chosen for s t udy . The shapes ar e shown i n
F i g s . 5 . 25 t o 5 . 27 . A n add i t iona l s i x runs wer e per formed usi ng two
s pher es . The exper imenta l des ign used was s im i lar to that u sed for
two-d imensional i r regular shapes . Each shape was b oth fr ozen and
thawed over a range of amb i ent and ini t ia l temperatur es . The B i ot
number was comp l e t e ly p re-set for each shape b y the mat e r i a l and size
o f construc t ion for each obj ec t . Tab l e 6 .7 g i ves the ful l s et o f
results . F i g s . 6 . 1 3 t o 6 . 1 6 show t y p i c al t emperature/ t i me pro f i l es .
E xperimental Des i gn and Resul t s 1 28
Tabl e 6 . 1 Typ i ca l Cond i t ions in Food Freez i ng and Thawing Proc esses
Free z i ng Thaw i ng
D ( m) 0 . 00 1 to 0 . 5 0 . 0 0 1 to 0 . 5
h (W m
-2 o c -1 ) 7 to 600 2 to 1 0 000
Bi 0 . 05 to 60 0 . 0 1 t o 1 000
( o
T c) -1 5 to - 40 5 to 50
a
Ste 0 . 1 2 to 0 . 3 5 0 . 07 to 0 . 9
( o
T. c ) 0 to 40 -1 0 to - 3 5
1n
Pk 0 to 0 . 6 0 . 0 6 to 0 . 3
( o
T c ) -1 0 to -30 0 to 1 0
fin
Nl 0 . 05 to 0 . 25 0 . 0 1 to 0 . 1
N2 1 . 7 to 2 . 0 1 . 7 to 2 . 0
N3 0 . 27 to 0 . 3 5 0 . 27 to 0 . 3 5
Exper imenta l Des i gn and Resul t s 1 29
Tab l e 6 . 2 Exper i mental Data For Thaw i ng of Sl ab s o f Ty lose
Run D h T T. t
X a 1n exp
Number
-2 oc - 1 ) ( hr s )
(m) (W m ( oc ) ( oc )
T1 0 . 0260 13.2 12.8 -20 . 9 4.69

T2 0 . 02 60 24 . 5 5.2 - 29 . 4 5 . 63 *
T3 0 . 05 25 13.2 5.2 -1 1 . 4 1 9 . 32
T4 0 . 0260 2 4 .5 45 . 9 -8.3 0 . 90
T5 0 . 05 25 1 3 .2 46 . 1 -28 . 6 3 . 89
T6 0 . 0525 1 3 .2 12.8 -20 . 5 10 .33
T7 0 . 0 2 60 50 . 4 4 .6 -26 . 3 3 . 49
T8 0 . 0 525 24 .5 5.2 -1 0 .7 1 3 . 20
T9 0 . 1 000 1 3 .2 45 . 9 -8 . 3 7 . 82 *
T10 0 . 1 0 20 1 3 .2 43 . 0 -1 3 .7 8 . 83
T1 1 0 . 0770 18.2 46 . 2 -26 . 8 5. 1 1
T1 2 0 . 0 525 29 . 5 1 2.8 -20 . 9 6 . 26 *
T1 3 0 . 0770 37 . 3 5.2 -30 . 2 1 8 .49
T1 4 0 . 0525 50 . 4 5.1 -25 . 0 9. 41
T1 5 0 . 02 60 78 . 1 5.2 -1 2.3 2 .5 1 *
T1 6 0 . 1 000 24 . 5 1 2.8 -9 . 4 1 6 . 92
T17 0 . 0 525 50 . 4 46 . 0 -1 0 . 6 1 .64
T1 8 0 . 0770 37 . 3 46. 1 -2 4 . 7 3 . 72
T1 9 0 . 1 000 24.5 45.8 -32 . 5 6 .75
T20 0 . 02 60 78 . 1 12.4 - 27 . 7 1 42
•
T21 0 . 0525 50 . 4 1 3 .4 - 20 . 2 4.68

T22 0 . 05 25 50 . 4 1 3.4 -24 . 1 4 . 65
T23 0 . 0525 50 . 4 1 3.4 -23 . 6 4 . 60
T2 4 0 . 0525 50 . 4 13.4 -2 3 . 6 4 . 50
T25 0 . 0525 78 . 1 5.2 -28 . 9 7 .58
*
T26 0 . 1 050 37 . 3 5.2 -1 0 . 4 29 . 3 3
T27 0 . 0 770 50 . 4 45.7 -1 3 .5 2 . 99
T28 0 . 0 280 172.7 43 . 0 -31 .o 0 . 43
T29 0 . 05 25 78 . 1 1 3 .3 -22 .5 3.91 *
T30 0 . 1 050 78 . 1 5.2 - 28 . 8 23 . 62
T31 0 . 0770 78 . 1 5.0 -1 4 . 2 1 4 . 39
T32 0 . 07 70 78 . 1 45 . 7 -9 . 4 2 . 61
T33 0 . 1 000 78 . 1 46 . 2 -28 . 2 4.59
T3 4 0 . 0770 78 . 1 1 2.9 -2 1 . o 7 . 25
T35 0 . 1 0 50 1 72 . 7 1 3.4 -23 . 8 1 0 .61
*
ind i cates a run i n wh ich edge heat transfer was c a l c ulated to b e
greater than 1 . 0 % .
Experimental Des i gn and Results 1 30
Tab l e 6 . 3 Exper i mental Data For Thaw i ng of Inf i n i t e Cyl inder s of Ty lose
Run D h T T. t
r a 1n exp
Numb er
oc ( oc ) ( oc )
-2 -1
( m) (W m ) ( hr s )
C1 0. 158 23 . 5 43 . 3 -1 4 .0 7.34
C2 0 . 1 58 23 . 5 21 . 1 -20 . 6 1 2 . 43
C3 o. 1 5 8 23 . 5 5.1 -28 . 4 34 . 4 1
C4 0 . 1 56 90 . 7 43 . 2 -1 1 9
• 5.31
C5 0 . 1 56 90 . 7 1 3.0 -1 3 . 6 1 2 . 30
C6 0 . 1 56 90 . 7 5.1 -27 . 9 23 . 7 4
C7 0. 1 56 43 . 5 40 . 3 -21 . 2 6 .09
CB 0 . 1 56 43. 5 1 1 .9 -27 . 4 1 5 . 40
C9 0 . 1 56 43 . 5 8.2 -26 . 9 19 .21
C10 0 . 1 56 43.5 5.3 -1 4 . 9 25 . 70
c1 1 0 . 1 06 1 13 .0 43 . 3 -1 0 . 7 2 . 47
C1 2 0 . 1 06 1 1 3.o 8 .5 -20 . 2 7 . 94
C1 3 0 . 1 06 1 1 3 .o 5. 1 -28 . 8 1 1 . 36
C1 4 0 . 1 03 37 . 4 43 . 3 -30 . 5 3 . 26
C1 5 0 . 1 03 37 . 4 1 3 .0 -1 4 . 5 7 . 25
C1 6 0 . 1 03 37 . 4 5.3 -1 0 .6 1 3 . 89
C17 0 . 1 03 25 . 1 40 . 3 -1 0 . 6 3 .7 9
C18 0 . 1 03 25 . 1 1 8 .7 -1 4. 1 6 . 63
C1 9 0 . 1 03 25 . 1 1 3.2 -1 4 . 4 8 .84
C 20 0 . 1 03 25 . 1 5.3 -31 . 2 1 6 . 73
C21 0 . 1 03 1 9 .5 43 . 9 -26 . 9 4 . 33
C22 0 . 1 03 19.5 1 8.3 -1 4.9 7 . 54
C23 0 . 1 03 1 9 .5 5.8 -1 3. 1 1 8 . 20
C2 4 0 .05 1 46 . 5 44 . 0 -1 0 .6 0 . 87
C25 0 . 051 46 . 5 8 .5 -1 1 9
• 2 .93
C26 0 . 05 1 46 . 5 5.1 -10.0 4 . 22
C27 0 . 05 1 27 . 9 40 . 3 -1 1 8
• 1 . 30
C28 0 . 05 1 27 . 9 18.9 - 26 . 5 2 . 49
C29 0 . 05 1 27 . 9 1 3 .2 -1 8 .5 3 . 00
C30 0 . 05 1 27 . 9 5.3 -28 . 0 5 . 96
C31 0 . 05 1 1 9 .0 43 . 9 - 28 . 1 1 .64
C32 0 . 05 1 1 9 .0 1 4 .6 -18.2 3 . 76
C33 0 . 05 1 1 9 .0 9 .6 -28 . 2 5 .03
C34 0 . 05 1 19.0 5 .8 -1 2. 1 7. 15
Exper imental D e s i gn and Resu lts 131
Tab l e 6 . 4 Exper i ment a l Data For Tha w i ng of Spheres of Ty l ose
Run D h T T. t
r a 1n exp
Number
-2 -1 ( hr s )
(m) (W m oc ) ( oc ) ( oc )
S1 0 . 1 28 246 . 2 43 . 3 -9.7 2 . 26
S2 0 . 1 28 246 . 2 21 . 1 -25 . 3 3 . 92
S3 0 . 1 28 246 . 2 1 3 .0 -1 9 .7 5 . 42
S4 0 . 1 28 74.8 44 . 0 -15. 1 2 . 66
S5 0 . 1 28 74.8 18.3 -1 8 . 8 4 . 78
S6 0 . 1 28 74.8 1 1 .9 - 23 . 1 6 . 39
S7 0 . 1 28 74.8 5.3 -26 . 5 1 1 . 33
S8 0 . 1 28 51 .6 43 . 3 -27 . 9 2 . 76
S9 0 . 1 28 51 . 6 22 . 0 -1 8 . 8 4. 31
S10 0 . 1 28 5 1 .6 1 4 .5 -20 . 3 5 . 81
s1 1 0 . 1 28 51 .6 5.1 -1 5 . 5 1 2 . 26
S1 2 0 . 1 28 41 . 9 43 . 6 -20 . 3 3. 13
S13 0 . 1 28 41 . 9 1 2 .0 -33 . 0 7 . 63
S1 4 0 . 1 28 41 .9 5 .5 -1 7 . 1 1 2 . 82
S1 5 0.1 12 76 . 0 43 . 9 -1 4.5 1 . 89
S1 6 0.1 12 76 . 0 8.0 -13 .9 5 . 96
S17 0. 1 1 2 76 . 0 5.3 -28 .0 7 . 87
S18 0.112 59 . 4 43 . 6 -27 . 1 2 .02
S1 9 0.1 12 59 . 4 1 4 .5 -1 6 . 6 4 .05
S20 0.112 59 . 4 5 .0 -18.2 9 . 02
S21 0. 1 1 2 45 . 7 43 . 6 -30 . 2 2 . 43
S22 0.1 12 45 . 7 8.9 -32 . 9 7. 18
S23 0. 1 1 2 45 .7 5.5 -1 7 . 4 9 . 67
S24 0 .056 1 37 . 2 18.3 -1 6 . 9 0 . 86
S25 0 . 05 6 1 37 . 2 1 1 .9 -1 3 . 4 1 . 15
S26 0 .056 1 37 . 2 5 .3 -2 3 . 5 2 . 08
S27 0 . 05 6 87 . 0 43 . 6 -1 4 . 2 0 .58
S 28 0 .056 87 . o 22. 2 -20 . 3 0 . 87
S29 0 . 05 6 87 . 0 1 4.5 -1 4 . 8 1 11•
S30 0 .056 87 . 0 7.0 -2 2 . 8 1 . 88

S31 0 . 056 87 . 0 5.0 -24 . 7 2 . 33
S32 0 .056 57 . 5 43 . 6 -22 . 8 0 . 67
S33 0 . 056 57 . 5 22 . 3 -1 4 . 9 1 06•
S3 4 0 . 05 6 57 . 5 12.1 -21 . 7 1 . 58
S35 0 . 0 56 57.5 5.5 -1 6 . 3 2 . 67
Exper i mental Des i gn and Results 132
Tabl e 6 . 5 Exper i mental Data For Thaw i ng of Rectangular Br i ck s of Tyl ose
Run D D D h T T. t
X y z a 1n exp
Numb er
oc ( oc ) ( oc )
(m) -2 -1
( m) (m) (W m ) ( hrs )
81 0 . 075 0 . 075 0 .075 41 . 0 43 . 2 -28 . 5 1 . 67

82 0 . 0 75 0 . 0 75 0 . 075 41 . 0 5.2 -1 1 .9 6 � 86
83 0 . 075 0 . 075 0 . 075 23 . 7 39 . 1 -1 0 . 5 2 . 05
84 0 . 0 75 0 . 0 75 0 . 075 23 . 7 2 1 .5 -25 . 3 3 . 22
85 0 . 07 5 0 . 075 0 . 0 75 23 . 7 l5 . 1 - 23 . 7 4.07
86 0 . 0 75 0 . 075 0 . 0 75 23 . 7 5.8 -29 . 9 8 . 07
87 o. 104 0 . 1 25 0 . 1 52 41 . 0 45. 0 -1 2 . 0 3 . 50
88 0 . 1 04 0 . 1 25 0 . 1 52 41 . 0 1 3.8 -23 . 3 8 . 35
89 0 . 1 04 0 . 1 25 0. 152 41 . 0 5.2 -26 . 5 1 5 . 98
81 0 0 . 1 04 0 . 1 25 0 . 1 52 23 . 7 39. 1 -30 . 8 4 . 92
B1 1 0 . 1 04 0 . 1 25 o. 152 23 .7 5.7 -1 2 . 4 1 7 .65
81 2 0 . 05 2 0 . 078 0 . 20 2 41 .0 1 3.8 -22 .5 3 . 45
81 3 0 . 052 0 . 0 78 0 . 202 41 .0 5.3 -26 . 4 6 . 88
81 4 0 . 05 2 0 . 078 0 . 20 2 41 . 0 5.2 -1 2 . 4 6 . 84
81 5 0 . 0 52 0 . 07 8 0 . 20 2 23 . 7 39 . 1 -1 1 . 6 2 . 05
81 6 0 . 05 2 0 . 07 8 0 . 202 23.7 21 .5 -3 2 . 0 3 . 42
81 7 0 . 081 0. 1 5 1 0 . 1 51 41 . 0 46 . 1 -31 . o 3.16
81 8 0 . 08 1 0. 151 0. 151 41 .0 1 3.8 -21 . 8 7 . 09
81 9 0 .081 0. 1 51 0. 1 5 1 41 . 0 5.2 - 29 . 4 1 3 . 49
820 0 . 08 1 0. 151 0.151 23 . 7 39 . 1 -1 0 .7 4.10
82 1 0 .081 0. 1 5 1 0 . 1 51 23 .7 5.7 -1 2 . 9 1 5.81
822 0 . 054 0 . 1 27 0 . 20 1 41 .0 45 . 6 -1 2 . 1 1 .84
823 0 .054 o . 1 27 0 . 20 1 41 . 0 5.2 - 28 . 3 8 .59
82 4 0 . 0 54 0 . 1 27 0 .201 23 . 7 21 .6 -18 .7 4 . 45
825 0 .054 0 . 1 27 0 . 20 1 23 .7 15. 1 -1 7 .7 5 . 72
826 0 .054 0 . 1 27 0 . 20 1 23 . 7 5 .7 -10 .5 1 0 .66
827 0 . 0 60 0 . 20 1 0 . 20 1 41 . 0 5.3 -32 . 0 1 1 92
•
828 0 . 0 60 0 . 20 1 0 . 20 1 41 . 0 5.2 -31 . 0 1 1 . 50

829 0 . 060 0 . 20 1 0 . 20 1 23 . 7 43 . 3 -1 1 . 9 3.1 3
83 0 0 .0 60 0 . 20 1 0 . 20 1 23 . 7 21 .5 -1 6 . 9 5 . 46
831 0 . 0 60 0 . 20 1 0 . 20 1 23 . 7 1 3 .9 -1 7 . 2 7 . 44
832 0 . 0 60 0 . 20 1 0 . 20 1 23 . 7 5 .7 -1 1 . 8 1 3 . 82
833 0 . 1 09 0 . 1 56 0 . 207 28 1 . o 42 . 9 - 30 . 0 3 . 60
83 4 0 . 1 09 0 . 1 56 0 . 20 7 281 . 0 24 . 5 -1 1 . 8 5 . 29
835 0 . 1 09 0 . 1 56 0 . 207 79 . 1 1 3 .2 - 23 . 8 9 . 63
836 0 . 1 09 0 . 1 56 0 . 207 79 . 1 10.0 - 27 . 9 1 1 . 80
837 0 . 1 09 0 . 1 56 0 . 207 79 . 1 5.4 -1 2 . 1 1 7 .00
83 8 0 . 1 58 0 . 1 59 . o . 1 64 28 1 . 0 42 . 9 -1 2 . 0 4 . 53
83 9 0 . 1 58 0 . 1 59 0 . 1 64 28 1 . 0 1 2 .8 -27 . 9 1 0 .5 4
840 0 . 1 58 0 . 1 59 0 . 1 64 28 1 .0 5.6 -31 . 4 1 9 .05
841 0 . 1 58 o . 1 59 0 . 1 64 79 . 1 41 . 3 -30 .0 5 . 75
842 o . 1 58 o . 1 59 0 . 1 64 79. 1 10.0 -21 . 7 1 4 . 70
843 0 . 1 5 8 0 . 1 59 o. 164 79.1 5.4 -1 1 . 6 20 . 8 6
• • • cont inued
Tab l e 6 . 5 cont inued • • •
1 33
Run D D D h T T. t
X y z a 1n exp
Number -2 -1
( m) (m) ( m) (W m oc ) ( oc ) ( oc ) ( hr s )
844 0 . 08 1 0 . 093 0 . 1 96 28 1 . 0 42 . 9 -9 .5 1 .65

845 0 . 08 1 0 . 093 0. 1 9 6 281 . 0 20 . 4 -1 2 . 0 2 . 89
846 0 . 081 0 .093 0 . 1 96 28 1 . 0 9 .3 -1 1 . 0 5 .52
847 0 . 08 1 0 . 093 0 . 1 96 281 . 0 5 .6 - 1 0 .6 7 . 40
848 0 . 081 0 .093 0 . 1 96 79. 1 41 . 3 -29 . 2 2 . 35
84 9 0 . 08 1 0 . 0 93 0 . 1 96 79 . 1 1 3 .2 -1 2 . 1 5 . 07
850 0 .081 0 . 093 0. 1 96 79 . 1 5.4 -29 . 2 9 . 25
85 1 0 . 082 0 . 1 54 0 .233 28 1 . 0 42.9 - 29 . 5 2 . 49
852 0 . 082 0 . 1 54 0 . 233 28 1 .0 12.8 -1 3 .0 5 . 97
85 3 0 . 082 0 . 1 54 0 . 23 3 28 1 . 0 5 .6 -8 .5 1 0 . 39
854 0 . 082 0. 1 5 4 0 . 233 28 1 . 0 5.1 -1 0.9 1 1 39
•
855 0 . 082 0 . 1 54 0 . 233 79 . 1 41 .3 -1 1 . 4 3 .05

856 0 . 0 82 0 . 1 54 0 . 23 3 79.1 20 . 7 -22 . 8 5.18
85 7 0 . 082 0 . 1 54 0 .233 79 . 1 5.4 -19 .7 1 2 . 79
858 0 . 079 0 . 079 0. 1 56 28 1 . 0 43 . 3 -29 . 0 1 . 55
859 0 . 07 9 0 . 0 79 0 . 1 56 281 . 0 9.3 -10.0 4 . 39
860 0 . 079 0 . 07 9 0 . 1 56 28 1 . 0 5.6 -22 . 0 6 . 02
861 0 . 0 79 0 . 07 9 0. 1 56 79 . 1 20 . 7 -1 1 . 0 2 . 97
862 0 .079 0 . 07 9 o. 1 56 79 . 1 1 3.2 -21 . 5 4 . 29
863 0 . 079 0 . 07 9 o . 1 56 79 . 1 5.4 - 28 . 9 7 . 92
864 0 . 0 86 0 . 3 03 0 . 306 28 1 . 0 1 4.6 -22 . 7 6 . 44
865 0 . 086 0 . 303 0 . 30 6 28 1 . 0 5 .6 -1 1 5 • 1 1 93
•
866 0 . 086 0 . 30 3 0 . 306 79 . 1 41 .3 -1 0 . 3 3 . 45

867 0 . 086 0 . 30 3 0 .306 79 . 1 1 3 .2 -2 3 . 5 8 . 43
868 0 . 0 86 0 . 30 3 0 . 306 79 . 1 5.4 -27 . 4 1 5 .99
Exp e r i menta l D es i gn and Resul t s 1 34
Tab l e 6 . 6 Exper i menta l Data For Freez ing and Thawing of Two- D i mens i onal
I r r egular Shapes of Ty lose
Run Shap e D h T T. t
a 1n ex p
Number Code
-2 oc - 1 ( oc ) ( hr s )
(m) (W m ) ( oc )
11 o. 1 5 25 28 . 0 21 . 1 -1 5 . 2 9 .95
12 0 . 1 5 25 28 . 0 20 . 8 -1 6 . 6 1 0 . 60
13 0 . 1 525 28 . 0 1 3 .7 -1 3 . 7 1 3 . 79
14 o . 1 5 25 28 . 0 13 6 • -17 . 2 16.1 2
15 0 . 1 5 25 28 . 0 5.6 -1 6.1 26 . 23
16 0 . 1 5 25 28 . 0 - .7
1 9 18.1 9 . 83
17 0 . 1 5 25 28 . 0 -23 . 6 2.8 6 .77
18 0 . 1 5 25 28 . 0 -25 . 0 33.6 7 . 88
19 0 . 1 52 5 28 . o -27 . 0 19 .4 7.34
110 0 . 1 5 25 28 . 0 -30 . 6 2 .7 5 . 82
11 1 0 . 1 525 28 . 0 -33 . 9 19 .4 5 . 45
112 0 . 1 5 25 28 . 0 -3 8 . 5 23.9 5. 18
113 2 0.1 1 15 28 . 0 40 . 6 -1 2 . 1 5 . 40
11 4 2 0.11 15 28 . 0 20 . 3 -31 . 3 9 . 98
115 2 0. 1 1 15 28 . o 1 3.7 -21 . 9 1 3 .28
116 2 0.1 1 15 28 . 0 1 3 .6 -1 7 .2 13. 1 1
117 2 0.1 1 15 28 . 0 5.6 -31 7• 24 . 9 8
118 2 0. 1 1 15 28 . 0 -19 .7 31 .8 9 .53
119 2 0.1 1 15 28 . 0 -23 . 7 4.3 6.31
1 20 2 0. 1 1 15 28 . 0 - 25 . 1 34.9 7 . 30
121 2 0.1 1 15 28 . 0 -26 . 9 20 . 0 6 .70
122 2 0. 1 1 15 28. 0 - 38 . 6 1 .8 3 . 96
1 23 3 0 . 1 370 28 . 0 20 . 3 -1 1 .2 10. 17
124 3 0 . 1 370 28 . 0 1 3 .7 -19.9 1 4 . 47
1 25 3 0 . 1 370 28 . 0 8.4 -1 9 . 4 1 8 .69
126 3 0 . 1 370 28 . 0 5 .6 -18.4 27 . 32
1 27 3 0 . 1 3 70 28 . 0 -1 9 .8 1 9 .5 9 .31
1 28 3 0 . 1 370 28 . 0 -26 . 9 20 . 1 7. 13
1 29 3 0 . 1 370 28 . 0 -30 . 5 32 . 8 6 . 90
130 3 0 . 1 370 28 . 0 -38 . 5 13.4 4 . 63
131 4 0 . 0 9 90 28 . 0 20 . 1 -21 . 5 8 .98
132 4 0 . 0990 28 . 0 1 3 .7 -3 2 . 5 1 2 . 28
1 33 4 0 . 0 990 28 . 0 8.4 -1 3 . 2 1 6 . 86
134 4 0 . 0 990 28 . 0 5 .6 -9 . 5 21 1 9 •
1 35 4 0 . 0 9 90 28 . 0 -1 9 . 8 18.1 7 .82
136 4 0 . 0990 28 . 0 -27 . 1 1 9 .9 6.17
137 4 0 . 0 990 28 . 0 -38 . 6 19.1 4 .0 4
• • • cont inu e d
Tab l e 6 . 6 cont inued • • •
1 35
Run Shape D h T T. t
a 1n exp
(o (o
Number Code
-2 oc- 1 c c)
( m) (W m ) ) ( hr s )
1 38 5 0 . 1 050 34 . 2 21 . 1 -1 5 . 7 5.1 3
1 39 5 0 . 1 0 50 34.2 13 .6 -1 2.7 7.19
1 40 5 0 . 1 050 34.2 8.5 -1 2 . 6 9 .35
141 5 0 . 1 0 50 34 . 2 5 .6 -32 . 5 1 5 . 17
1 42 5 0 . 1 050 34 . 2 -1 9 . 8 3.3 4.51
1 43 5 0 . 1 0 50 34 . 2 -27 . 2 1 .3
9 3 . 78
1 44 5 0 . 1 0 50 34 . 2 -30 . 6 3 .1 3.01
145 5 0 . 1 0 50 34 . 2 - 39 . o 32. 4 2.71
1 46 5 0 . 1 0 50 20 . 3 5.3 -28 . 1 1 8 . 83
1 47 5 0 . 1 0 50 20 . 3 -2 2 . 2 1 4 .9 6 . 27
1 48 5 o . 1 0 50 20 . 3 -34 . 1 1 9 .7 4.1 2
149 6 0 . 0850 34 . 2 40 . 4 -29 . 8 3.19
150 6 0 . 0 85 0 34. 2 20 . 2 -20 . 1 5 . 23
15 1 6 0 . 0850 34.2 1 3 .7 -20 . 9 7 14
•
1 52 6 0 . 0 850 34.2 5.5 -9 . 7 1 3 .08

1 53 6 0 . 0850 34 . 2 -19 .6 31 . 4 5 . 01
154 6 0 . 0 850 34 . 2 -26 . 9 20 . o 3 .5 5
155 6 0 . 0850 34 . 2 -30 . 6 22. 0 3.21
1 56 6 0 . 0 85 0 34.2 -39 . 1 2.3 2 .05
157 7 0 . 09 1 0 34 . 2 . 20 . 2 -31 . 6 5 . 24
158 7 0.091 0 34 . 2 13.7 -21 . 4 7 . 32
1 59 7 0 . 09 1 0 34 . 2 8.4 -29 . 4 9 . 06
1 60 7 0 .091 0 34 . 2 5.6 -28 . 4 1 3 . 60
161 7 0 . 09 1 0 34 . 2 -19 .8 2 .6 4 . 30
1 62 7 0.091 0 34.2 -26 . 9 20 . 6 3 . 82
163 7 0 . 09 1 0 34 . 2 -30 . 1 1 2.8 3.17
1 64 7 0.091 0 34 . 2 -38 . 8 28 . 4 2 .58
1 65 7 0 . 09 1 0 20 . 3 32 .5 - 28 . 7 4 . 55
1 66 7 0.0910 20 . 3 8.1 - 26 . 6 12.18
1 67 7 0 . 09 1 0 20 . 3 5 .3 -1 1 .6 1 6 .8 1
1 68 7 0 .091 0 20 . 3 -21 . 3 1 9 .9 6 .5 6
169 7 0 . 09 1 0 20 . 3 - 29 . 9 3.3 3 . 77
1 70 7 0 .09 1 0 20 . 3 -3 4 . 1 20 . 4 3 .87
171 8 0 . 0475 34 . 2 40 . 6 -1 1 9
• 1 . 76
1 72 8 0 . 0 4 75 34.2 20 . 6 -1 1 . 4 3 .01
173 8 0 . 0 475 34 . 2 1 3 .7 -20 . 2 4 . 43
174 8 0 . 0 4 75 34 . 2 5.6 -1 5 . 1 7 .99
1 75 8 0 . 0 475 34 . 2 -1 9 .7 14.4 3 . 40
176 8 0 . 0 4 75 34 . 2 -27 . 1 19.4 2 . 65
177 8 0 . 0475 34.2 -38 . 7 1 8 .3 1 .70
178 8 0 . 0 4 75 20 . 3 1 5.6 -1 2 . 1 4 . 70
179 8 0 . 0475 20 . 3 8. 1 -1 1 .2 7 . 69
1 80 8 0 . 0 475 20 . 3 5.3 -27 . 6 1 1 . 77
181 8 0 . 0 475 20 . 3 - 22 . 1 2.9 3 . 87
1 82 8 0 . 0 475 20 . 3 -29 . 6 33 . 7 3 . 48
1 83 8 0 . 0 4 75 20 . 3 -34 . 1 34 . 5 3.11
Experi mental Des ign and R esu lts 1 36
Tab l e 6 . 7 E xperimental Data For Fr eez ing and Thawing of

Three-D imens iona l Irregular Shapes of Tylose
Run Shape D h T T. t
a ln exp
Number
-2 -1
( m) (W m oc ) ( oc ) ( oc ) ( hr s )
TI1 Pyrami d 0 . 0825 41 . 0 21 . 0 -1 3 . 5 4.52

TI2 Pyramid 0 . 0825 41 .0 9 .8 -1 5 .6 7 . 65
TI 3 Pyramid 0 . 0 82 5 41 . 0 5.6 -28 . 2 1 2 . 28
TI 4 Pyram i d 0 . 0825 41 . 0 -25 . 6 35.8 3 . 62
TI5 Pyramid 0 . 0 825 41 . 0 -29 . 2 5.1 2 .70
TI6 Pyramid 0 . 0825 41 .0 -38 . 0 19 .8 2 . 48
TI7 Sphere 0 . 1 270 51 . 4 12.8 -1 1 9
• 5 . 94
TI8 Sphere 0 . 1 2 70 51 .4 5 .6 -20 . 9 11 .14
TI 9 Sphere 0 . 1 270 51 . 4 -21 . 1 20 . 5 3 . 03
TI 1 0 Sphere 0 . 1 2 70 51 .4 -2 2 . 5 36 . 7 3 .55
TI 1 1 Spher e 0 . 1 270 51 . 4 -37 . 9 4 .0 1 . 83
TI1 2 Sphere 0 . 1 2 70 51 .4 -3 8 . 1 30 .7 1 . 99
TI13 Egg 0 . 1 70 0 51 . 4 30 . 1 -1 4 . 9 5.62
TI1 4 Egg 0 . 1 7 00 5 1 .4 1 2.8 -28 . 6 1 1 . 46
TI 1 5 Egg 0 . 1 700 51 . 4 5.7 -1 2 . 0 2 1 . 22
TI1 6 Egg 0 . 1 70 0 51 .4 -2 2 . 6 20 . 6 5 . 76
TI 1 7 Egg 0 . 1 700 51 . 4 -29 . 1 34 . 9 4 . 55
TI 1 8 Egg 0 . 1 700 51 . 4 -38 . 6 19 .6 4. 1 1
TI 1 9 F i sh 0 . 1 200 51 . 4 1 4.7 -1 3 . 0 8 . 29
T I 20 F i sh 0 . 1 200 51 .4 10.8 -1 3 .7 1 0 . 48
TI21 F i sh 0 . 1 200 51 . 4 5.6 - 28 . 4 18 .76
T I 22 F i sh 0 . 1 200 51 .4 -21 . 9 5.9 4.13
T I 23 F i sh 0 . 1 200 51 . 4 -29 . 1 34.4 3 .65
T I 24 F i sh 0 . 1 20 0 51 .4 -3 8 . 5 1 6 .3 2.81
Exper i menta l Des ign and Resu l ts 1 37
Table 6 . 8 Exper i mental Dat a For Freez ing and Thaw ing of Slab s and
Mult i -D i mens ional Shapes of M i nced Lean Beef
Run Shap e 1 D D D h T T. t
X a 1n exp
Number & Code
y z
( m) (m) ( hr s )
M1 Slab 0 . 024 13.2 5.8 -1 9 .1 8 .58

M2 Slab 0 . 0 24 50 . 4 26 . 9 -1 5 .6 0 . 84
M3 Slab 0 .047 18 .2 8 .0 -27 . 1 1 2 .07
M4 Slab 0 . 047 78 . 1 15.8 -24 . 4 2 . 85
M5 Slab 0 . 075 24 . 5 43 . 2 -29 . 0 5.21
M6 S l ab 0 . 0 75 17 2. 7 9.3 -1 6 . 9 8 . 94
M7 Br i ck 0. 152 0. 1 53 0 . 1 54 41 .0 27 . 0 -28 . 4 7 . 22
M8 Br i ck 0 . 1 52 0 . 1 53 0 . 1 54 41 .0 8.4 -1 5 .0 1 8 .01
M9 Br i ck 0 . 076 0 . 077 0 . 300 41 .o 1 3. 0 -22 . 3 5 . 23
M1 0 Br i ck 0 . 0 76 0 .077 0 . 300 41 .0 5.8 - 23 . 9 9 . 32
M1 1 2D1 3 0 . 1 370 28 . o 21 .0 -27 . 1 1 0 .07

M1 2 2D1 3 0 . 1 370 28 . 0 8. 1 -1 3 . 2 1 9 . 50
M1 3 2D1 3 0 . 1 370 28 . 0 -29 . 1 1 8 .8 6 . 27
M1 4 201 3 0 . 1 3 70 28 . 0 -30 . 2 24 . 5 6 . 33
M1 5 201 8 0 . 0 475 20 . 3 1 3.9 -1 1 6
• 5 . 05
M1 6 2D1 8 0 . 0475 20 . 3 6 .5 -1 6 . 3 8 . 75
M1 7 2D1 8 0 . 0 475 20 . 3 -23 . 3 3. 1 3 . 43
M1 8 2DI 8 0 . 0 4 75 20 . 3 -37 . 8 32 . 2 2 . 59
1 201 two-d imens ional irregular , code numbers f r om Tab l e 6 . 6 .

E xper imental De s ign and Results 1 38
10
T.
0
'8
0 Tc
-
-
� -10
�
! -20 Legend
A
B
.........••
-30 �------r---�--�---.--,
0
F i g . 6 . 1 A Typ ic a l Tempe rature / T i me Prof ile For Tha w i ng of Slab s o f

Ty lose . Run T2 4 , D x 0 . 0 5 25 m, h 50 . 4 W m -2 oc -1 ,
= =
Ta 1 3 . 4 °C , T in
= - 2 3 . 6 °C . A e x per imentally measured
= -
temp era tures , B - temp era tures pred ic ted by the fu l l f i n i te

elemen t me thod formu la t ion . Resu l t s for al l th e nu me r i ca l
me thods are a l l v ir tua l ly identic a l .
20
·
··
··
r.
··
··
··
· ··
··
10 ··
··
·
··
··
·
u
··
..
·
··
.e..,
·
·
·
··
·
··
··
�
·
�
-
0 0
�
�
a.
� Legend
A
-10
�--········
-20 �------�--r---��---,
0 2 4 6 8
Time (hrs)
F i g . 6 . 2 A Typ i cal Temperature/ Ti me Prof i le For Thaw i ng of In f ini te
Cyl inders of Ty lose.
Run C22 , Dr •0 . 1 03 m, h a 1 9 .5 W m - 2 oc- 1 , T a - 8 . 2 °C , =
T i n a - 1 4 . 9 °C . A - exper i me n tally me asured t emper a tu r es ,

B - t emperatures p red icted by the f i n it e d i fferenc e me thod .
Resu l t s for th e f ini t e d i f f erence me thod a nd b oth f i n i t e
eleme n t me thod formu la t io ns are a l l v ir tually iden t i c al .
Exper imental De s i gn and Resul t s 1 39
20
10 T.
u
�
CD 0
"-
�
-
0
"-
CD
a. -10
E Legend
.,!
A
-20 B
..........•
-30 �----�--�
0 2 4 6 8
Time (hrs}
Fig . 6 . 3 A Typ ic a l Tempe ra ture / Ti me Prof i le For Th aw i ng of Spher es o f
Ty los e . Run S6 , D r = 0 . 1 28 m , h 7 4 . 8 W m-2 °C - 1 ,
T a = 1 1 . 9 °C , T in = - 2 3 . 1 °C . A - exper i me n tally me asured
temper atures , B - temperatures predic ted by th e s i mp l i f ied
f in i te e lemen t method . Resu l t s for a l l the nu mer ica l method s
ar e v ir tua l ly iden t i c a l .
40
u 20
�
CD
"-
�
-
0
Legend
"-
CD A
a.
E �--········
.,! 0
c
--
-20 �------�---r---,
0 2 3
Time (hrs)
Fig . 6 . 4 A Ty p ic a l Temp erature/ Time Pr ofi le For Thaw i ng of Rec tangular
Br i ck s of Tylo se . Run B7 , D x 0 . 1 04 m , D y - 0 . 1 25 m, D z
= •
0 . 1 52 m, h 50 . 4 W m
s
- 2 -1
oc , T a 45 . 0 °C , T in
• - 1 2 . 0 °C .
•
A - exp er i mental ly measured temperatures , B - temperatures

pred icted by th e f in it e d ifferenc e me thod , C - t emperatures
pred i c t ed b y the s i mp l i f ie d f ini t e e lemen t me thod , T •
w
t emperature a t th e surfac e o f th e c en t re o f th e x , z f ace .
Exper i mental De s ign and Resu l t s 1 40
5
'U
�
-5
G)
-
� Legend
-10
� A
G)
a.
B
� -15 ...........
---
c
-20
-25
0 2 4 6 8
Time (hrs)
Fig . 6 . 5 A Typ ical Temperature / T ime Prof i le For Freez i ng or Tha w i ng o f
the Ty lose Two-Dimens ional Ir r egular Shape Numb er On e .
Run 1 7 , h = 28 .0 W m-2 °C -1 , T a = - 2 3 . 6 °C , T in = 2 . 8 °C .
A - e xpe r i mental ly measure d temperatures , B - tempe ratu res
pred ic ted by the full f i n i t e e lement me thod , C - temperatures
pred icted by th e s i mp l i f ied f i n i t e e lemen t me th od. Ca l culated
usi ng the two-d ime ns ional g r i d in Fi g . 5 . 1 5 .
20
10 Legend
'U A
�
G) B
...........
�
::s ..
-
0 0 ---
c
�
G) 3
a.
�
-10
-20 ;------.--�---,
0 5 10 15
Time (hrs)
Fig . 6 . 6 A Typ ical Tempera ture/ Ti me Prof i le For Freez i ng or Thaw i ng o f
the Ty lose Two- D i mens ional Ir r e gula r Shape Number Two .
Run 1 1 6 , h = 28 . 0 W m- 2 oc- 1 , T a = 1 3 . 6 °C , T in = - 1 7 . 2 °C .
A - expe r i ment a l ly measur ed t e mperatures , B - tempe r a tu res
pred icted by the ful l f i n i te e leme n t me thod , C - t empe ratures
pred i c t e d by th e s i mpl i f ie d f in i t e e leme nt method . Ca lcul ated
us ing the t wo-d i me ns io nal grid in Fi g . 5 . 1 6 .
Exper i me n ta l De s ign and Resu l t s 1 41
40
20 Legend
'G' A
t_.,
a»
�
�--········
::::J
-
0 0 £._ __
�
a»
Q.
E
�
-20
-40 4-------r---�--,--.
0 2 4 6 8
Time (hrs)
Fig . 6 . 7 A Ty p ical Temperature/ Ti me Prof i l e For Fr eez i ng or Thaw i ng o f
th e Ty lose two-D i mens ional Irregular Shape Numb er Three.
Run I29 , h = 28 .0 W m-2 °C -1 , Ta - 3 0 . 5 °C , T in = 32 . 8 °C .
=
A - expe r i menta l ly measured temper a tures , B - tempe ratures

pred ic ted by the fu l l f i n i te element method , C - temperatures
p r ed i c ted by th e s i mpl i f i e d f i n i te e l e men t meth od . Ca lcul ated
using the two-d imens ional g r i d in Fig . 5 . 1 7 .
20
10
Legend
'G'
0 A
......_,
a» 0 8
� ..........•
::::J
- c
0 ---
�
a»
Q. -10
�
-20
-30
;---
0 2 4 6 8 10 12--.----r---r--�---,--�
Time (hrs)
F i g . 6 . 8 A Typ ical Temp erature/ T ime Prof i le For Freez i ng or Thaw i ng o f
the Ty los e Two-D i me ns io nal Ir r e gular Shape Number Fou r .
Run I 3 1 , h 28 .0 W m- 2 °C -1 , T a = 20 . 1 °C , T in = - 2 1 . 5 °C .
•
A - exper imenta l ly measur ed t emp era tures , B - t emperatu res

pred icted by the full f in it e e leme n t me th od , C - t empera tures
pred i c t ed by the s i mpl i f i e d f ini t e e lemen t method. Ca lcu l at e d
us ing th e t wo-d i mens ional grid i n F i g . 5 . 1 8 .
Expe r i me nta l Des ign and Resu lts 1 42
20
10
(]'
0
-
G)
-
3
0 Legend
e
G) A
! -10
B
...........
c
---
-20 ;-------�--r--�
0 2 4 6 8
Time (hrs)
Fig . 6 . 9 A Ty pical Temperature /Ti me Pr ofi le For Fr eez ing or Thaw i ng of
the Ty lo se Two- Di mens ional Irregular Sh ape Numb er Five .
Run 139 , h = 3 4 . 2 W m-2 °C -1 , T a 1 3 . 6 °C , T in = - 1 2 . 7 °C .
=
A - ex p er i men ta l ly measured tempe ratures , B - t empe ratu res

pred icted by th e full f i n i te e leme n t me thod , C - temperatures
pred i c ted by th e s i mpl i f i e d f i ni te e l emen t me thod. Ca lcula ted
using the two-d imens ional g r i d in Fi g . 5 . 1 5 .
10
0
Legend
0"
0 A
._
G) -10 B
� ...........
:::J
- c
0 ---
�
G)
a. -20
E
t!!
-30
-40 1-----r--r--T---�--�
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Time (hrs)
Fi g . 6 . 1 0 A Typ ical Temp erature/ Ti me Pro f i le For Fr eez ing or Thawing of
the Ty l ose Two-D imens ional Irregular Shape Number S i x .
Run 156 , h • 3 4 . 2 W m -2 oc- 1 , T a - 39 . 1 °C , T in = 2 . 3 °C .
=
A - ex pe r i mental ly measure d temp er a tures , B - t empe ratures

pre d ic t ed by th e full f i n i te e leme n t me tho d , C - t empe ratures
p r ed ic ted by the s i mp l i f ie d f in i te e leme nt method .
Calc ulat e d us ing th e t wo-d i me ns ional g r i d i n Fi g . 5 . 1 9 .
Exper imen tal De s ign and Resu l t s 1 43
10
?
�
0
�
- Legend
�
Q) A.
-5
! �--········
-10
-15 �------�--r--,�---,--�
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (hrs)
Fig . 6 . 1 1 A Typ ical Temp erature/ Ti me Prof i le For Freez i ng or Th aw i ng o f

the Ty lose Two- D i mens ional Ir regular Shap e Number Sev en .
Run 129 , h = 20 . 3 W m-2 °C - 1 , T a = 5 . 3 °C , T in = - 1 1 . 6 oc .
A - expe r i menta l ly measured tempera tures , 8 - tempera tures
pred icted by th e fu l l f in i t e e leme n t method . Ca lc ulated
us i ng the two-d i mens iona l gr i d in Fig . 5 . 20 .
20
U'
0
0
..._,
�
- Legend
e
G A.
! - 20
9
..........•
-40 4---------�--r--,�--�
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
rme (hrs)
Fig . 6 . 1 2 A Typ ic a l Temp erature /Ti me Pr of i le For Fre ez ing or Thawing of
the Ty l ose Two- Di mens ional I r r egular Shape Number E i ght .
Run I77 , h = 3 4 . 2 W m -2 °C - 1 , T a - 3 8 . 7 °C , T in = 1 8 . 3 °C .
s
A - exper i men t a l ly measur e d t emperatures , 8 - tempe ratures

pred icted by the full f in it e e lement me thod , C - t emperatures
pred icted b y th e s i mpl i f i e d f in i t e e lemen t me thod .
Calculated u s ing the t wo-d i men s io nal g r i d i n Fi g . 5 . 21 .
Exper imenta l De s i gn and R esu l ts 1 44
10
0
0'
0
'--"
Q)
L.
�
-
-10 Legend
e A.
Q)
Q.
E B
.....•...••
� c
--
-20
-30 4------r--�---�---r---.
0 0.5 1.5 2 2.5 3
Time (hrs)
Fig . 6 . 1 3 A Ty pical Te mp e rature /Time Prof i le For Fr eez ing or Thawing o f
the Ty l ose Thr ee- Di mens ional Irregu l ar Pyramid Shap e .
Run TI5 , h = 4 1 . 0 W m -2 °C -1 , T a = - 29 . 2 °C , T in = 5 . 1 °C .
A - expe r i mental ly measured temperatures , B - temperatures
pred ic ted by the fu l l f i n i t e e lement me thod , C - temp e ratures
pred i c t ed by the s impl i f ie d f i ni te e l emen t method .
Calc ulated us ing th e th ree-d i mens ional g r i d i n Fi g . 5 . 2 4 .
- at th e c entre o f the x, y fac e ( base) o f th e py rami d ,
2 - 0 . 07 65 m ( mi d-h e igh t ) above pos i t i o n 1 ( F i g . 5 . 24 ) .
15
10
0'
0 5
'--"
Q)
L.
�
-
c 0 Legend
L.
Q) A.
Q.
B
� -5 ...........
-10
-15 4-------r---�--�---,
0 2 4 6 8
Time (hrs)
F i g . 6 . 1 4 A Ty p i cal Tempera ture/ Ti me Prof i le For Freez i ng or Tha w i ng o f
the Ty lose Thr ee-Di mens ional Ir r e gular Sph ere Shap e .
Run TI 5 , h 5 1 . 4 W m- 2 °C -1 , T a
• 1 2 . 8 °C , T in = - 1 1 . 9 °C .
�
A - experi men ta l ly measure d ·temperatures , B - t empe ratures

pred icted by th e full f in i t e e leme n t me thod , C - t emperatures
pred i c te d b y t he s i mp l i f ie d f ini t e e lemen t me thod .
Calculated u s ing th e two-d imens io na l grid i n Fi g . 5 . 25 b .
Exper imen tal Des ign and Resu l t s 1 45
15
10 ·· ··
··
Legend
V'
�
5 A
G) B
'- .
•
•...•...•••
� •
- c
0 --
E
G)
! -5
-10
-15
0 5 10 15
Time (hrs)
F i g . 6 . 1 5 A Ty p ical Temperature / Ti me Prof i le For Freez i ng or Th aw i ng o f

the Ty lose Thr ee-Di mens ional Ir regu lar Fi sh Shap e .
Run TI 20 , h = 5 1 . 4 W m- 2 oc - 1 , T a = 1 0 . 8 °C , T i n = - 1 3 . 7 °C .
A - experi menta l ly measur ed tempera tur es , 8 - temperatures
pred ic ted by the full f in i t e e lement me thod , C - t emperatures
pred i c ted by the s i mpl i f i e d f ini t e e l emen t method .
Ca lc ulated us ing the three-d i me ns ional g r i d i n Fi g . 5 . 27 .
4 - 0 . 2 1 3 m a l ong th e x ax i s from th e t i p o f th e head shown
in Fi g . 5 . 27 b , 5 - 0 . 08 5 m a lo ng th e x ax i s from th e t i p of
th e head shown in Fig . 5 . 27 b , 6 - 0 . 0 2 1 m a l ong th e x ax is
from the tip of the head shown i n Fi g . 5 . 27 b and o n th e f i sh
sur fac e 0 . 021 m in th e y d irect ion from th e x ax i s .
Exper i mental De s ign and Re su l t s 1 46
30
20
Legend
'0 A
�
10
B
...........
�
- c
--
0 0
...
GJ
! -10
-20
-30
0 2 3 .. 5 6 7
Time (hrs}
Fig . 6 . 1 6 A TY p ical Te mpera ture/ T ime Prof i le For Freez i ng or Thaw i ng o f
the Ty lose Thr e e-D i me ns ional Irr e gula r Egg Shap e .
Run TI 1 6 , h = 5 1 . 4 W m - 2 °C -1 , T a = - 2 2 . 6 °C , T in = 20 . 6 °C .
A - ex pe r i ment a l ly measured tempe ratures , 8 - temperatures
pred icted by the fu l l f i n i te e lement me thod , C - tempe ratures
pred ic ted b y th e s i mp l i f ie d f i n i t e e l eme nt method .
Ca l c u lated us ing the th ree-d i mens ional g r i d i n Fi g . 5 . 26 b .
20
Legend
A
�--········
-30 4-----�--��--�-----,
0 0. 5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Time (lvs)
Fig . 6 . 1 7 A TY p i ca l Temp erature/ Ti me Prof i l e For Thaw i ng of Sl ab s o f
Minced Le an Bee f .
Run M4 , D x = 0 . 047 m, h 7 8 . 1 W m -2 °C -1 , T a
= 1 5 . 8 °C ,
=
Tin - 2 4 . 2 °C . A - ex per iment a l l y measured temperatures ,

=
B - t emperatures predicted by the f in i t e d if fe r enc e me thod .

Exper i me n tal De s ign and Resu l t s 1 47
10
-15 �----.---r--,
0 5 10 15 20
Time (hrs)
Fig . 6 . 1 8 A Ty p i ca l Temp e r a t u r e / T i me Pr o f i l e For Thaw i ng of Rect a ngu l ar
Br i c k s o f M i n c ed Le an B e e f .
Run M8 , D x = 0 . 1 52 m, D = 0 . 1 5 3 m, D z = 0 . 1 54 m ,
y
-2 -1
h 41 .0 W m oc , T
a
= 8 . 4 °C , T
in
= - 1 5 . 0 °C .
A - e xp e r i me n ta l l y mea s u r e d t e m pe r a t u r e s , B - t e mp e r a t u r e s
p r ed i c t e d by the f i n i t e d i f f e r e nc e me t h o d .
40
20 Legend
u
0
A.
�
B
...........
e
::J
- 0 c
0
�
�
a.
�
-20
- 40 4-----�--�---,
0 2 4 8 8 10
Time (hrs}
Fig . 6 . 1 9 A Typ i ca l Temperature / Ti me Prof i le For Freez i ng or Tha w i ng o f
a M i nc ed Le an Beef Two- D i me ns ional Irregular Shap e .
Run M1 4 , t wo-d i mensiona l irregular Shape No . 3 ,
h 28 .0 W m- 2 °C -l , T a - 30 . 2 °C , T in 24 .5 °C .
= =
A - ex per ime n ta l ly measured temperatures , B - temp eratures

pred icted by the ful l f i ni t e e lemen t me thod , C - temperatures
pred icted by the s i mp l i f ied f in i t e e leme n t me thod .
Ca lcu la t ed us i ng th e t wo-di mens iona l gr i d in Fig . 5 . 1 7 .
1 48
7 PR ED ICTION OF THAWING T IMES FOR SLA BS ,

INFINITE CYLINDERS AND SPHER ES
I n Chap . 3 pred i c t ion me thods were c l ass i f i ed into those requ i r i ng on l y

hand calculat ion ( Gr o up I ) and those requ ir ing computer calculat ion
( Gr oup I I ) . The th i r d obj ec t i ve for the p r esen t work se t in Chap . 3
was to assess the accuracy of Group I and Group II me thods for

p red i c t ion of thaw i ng t i mes for regu l ar shapes . Chap ter 7 r ep or ts
resu lts for Gro up I and Group I I me thods ap p l i e d to slab s , i n f in i te
cyl inders and spheres . Chap t er 8 repor ts the r esults o f Group I I
methods ap p l i ed to rec tangu lar b r i ck s as we l l as mu l t i -d imens ional
irregu lar shapes , wh i ls t Chap . 9 cons i ders Group I me thod s f or
mul t i -d imens ional regular shapes .
7.1 VER IFIC AT ION OF A U NIFIED AP PRO ACH FOR SIM P LE SHAPES
Pl ank ( 1 91 3 ) der i ved an equ a t i on for the t i me to freez e or thaw slabs ,

i n f i n i t e c y l inders and spheres . Th is equa t ion sugges t s that the rat io
o f t i mes f or phase change for the three shapes under iden t i ca l
cond i t ions and w i th the same charac ter i s t i c d i me ns ion i s 6:3:2. The
r a t i o ar i se s from cons i dera t ion of the relat ionsh i p be tween vo lume and
sur face area for each shape . However the equat ion requ ires that the
fol low i ng cond i t ions a r e met :
( a ) that phase change o ccurs at a un ique phase change t empera ture
( b ) that the rmal proper t i es are cons tant and
( c ) that sens i b l e heat effec t s ar e neg l ig i b l e compared w i th the l atent
heat .
I n freez ing or thawing o f b io log ical mater i a ls no t a l l these cond i t ions

ar e me t so the 6:3:2 r a t i o i s not nec essari l y cor r ec t . Howe v er tak i ng
the rat io as cons t an t a l lows a s i ng l e phase chang e t i me pred i c t ion
me thod for one of the basic shapes to be equa l l y appl i cabl e to the
other two , wh ich i s a des i r ab l e feature of any predict ion me thod .
Data ar e a va i lable for fr ee z i ng of foods wher e l atent heat i s r e l eased

over a range of t emperatures , therma l propert ies change with
t emperature and sens i b l e h eat effects b o th above and below the fre e z i ng
temperature rang e are s ign i f icant ( Cl e land & Earle 1 97 7 a , 1 97 9a ) .
Pred i c t io n of Thaw i ng T imes 1 49
W i th i n the tol er ance of the data , previous s tudies ( C leland & Ear l e
1 98 2 b , Pham 1 98 4 a ) sugges ted that there was n o ev idenc e that the rat io
was not constant at 6 : 3 : 2 . The pred i c t ions for al l the shapes showed
no trends w i th changes in shape or free z i ng cond i t ions ( Pham 1 98 4c ) .
The hyp o thes i s that the r a t io o f t slab = t cyl = t sph i s cons tant at 6 : 3 : 2
for b o th freez i ng and tha w i ng o f foods and that i t i s indepe nden t o f
env ironmental cond i t ions was tested mo re r i gorou sly b y use of n ume r i ca l
me thod s . The Tylose freez i ng data ( Cleland & Ear l e 1 97 6 b , 1 977 a ,
1 97 9 a , 1 97 9 b ) and the Ty lose thaw ing da t a ( Chap . 6 ) for th e slab ,
inf in i te cy l i nder and spher e shapes were pred i c ted us i ng the three
numer ical methods d i sc ussed in Chap . 4 - the f i n i t e d i fference method
and the two f i n i t e el ement me tho d formulat ions . For each exper ime ntal
run n i ne pred ict ions were made one for each comb i na t ion of the thr ee
numer ical me thods and the three geometry descr i p t ions . Each pred i c t ion
was mod i f ied by the ap prop r i at e rat i o and th e perc entage d i f ference
from the exper i mental t i me calculate d . For exampl e , an inf in i te
cy l i nder exper imen t al run was pred icted by results from slab , inf in i t e
cyl inder and spher e vers ions o f the three numer ical methods mu l t i p l i ed
by 0 . 5 , 1 . 0 and 1 . 5 respec t i vely . The perc ent age d if ferences were
ca lculated from :
pred ic ted t i me - exper i mental t ime 1 00
p ercentage d i fference (7 . 1 )
exper i mental t i me
The r es u l t s for b o th the freez i ng and thaw i ng data are summar i sed in
Tab le 7 . 1 . The f i n i te d i f ference method and the two f i n i te e lemen t
method formu l a t ions gave almost iden t ical resu lts s o only the f in i te
d i f f er enc e r esults are presented . The rat ios of n ume r i cally pre d i c t e d
t i mes :
t slab / t sph ' t slab / t cy l and t cyl / t sph w ere a lso exam i ned for
each set of exper imental runs . The mean va lues and 9 5 % con f i dence
intervals were 3 . 0 2 ±0 . 20 , 2 . 0 1 ±0 . 07 and 1 . 50 ±0 . 0 5 r espec t i ve ly for
freez ing and 3 . 00 ±0 . 37 , 2 . 00 ±0 . 1 5 and 1 . 50 ±0 . 0 7 r espec t i ve ly for
thawi ng .
The mean pred i c t ion accuracy was not s i gn i f icantly affected by the
c ho i c e o f geome t ry descr i p t i on used in the nume r i ca l calcula t ions .
Henc e , on average , the r a t io of 6:3:2 holds for b oth freez i ng and
thawi ng .
Pred i c t ion of Thawi ng T i mes 1 50
Var i a t ions of the 6:3:2 r a t i o fo r ind i v i dual exper i menta l runs aro se
from two fac tors - both the overall change in enthalpy from the i n i t i a l
temperature to a spec i f ie d f inal thermodynam i c c entre temper atur e and
the mean " e ffec t i ve" th erma l conduct i v i ty d i ffer w i th shape . These are
d i rec t l y consequ en t i a l on the d i fferent d i s t r i bu t ion of vo lume w i th
respec t to d i sp lacement from the geome t r i c centre i n the thre e shap es ,
wh i c h in turn a ffec ts the shape of the temper atur e/d i sp l ac ement
pro fi l e . These factor s mean that the t s l ab : t cy l : t sp h ra t io is
depende nt on Bi , Ste and Pk .
For freez ing the dependence of the ratio on Ste and Pk is weak . For
the ranges over wh ich Bi , Ste and Pk v ary in t yp ical free z i ng
operat ions ( Tab le 6.1 ) , there is no need to take account of these
trend s . The ratio can be cons idered constant at 6:3:2 w i thout
introduc ing any s i gn i f icant add it iona l unc ertainty into the
pred i c t ions .
For thaw ing the e f fec t o f Pk is ins ign i f icant because va lues of Pk
typ ically encoun t e r ed are sma l l ( Tabl e 6.1 ). Also thermal conduc t i v i ty
i s h igh and tempera ture d r i v ing forces are large when the sens ible heat
r epresented by Pk is transferred so th i s h eat transfer i s eas i l y
ach ieved. Converse ly , th e sens ible heat represented by Ste is
transferred mor e slowl y as temp erature d i f ferenc es a n d the thermal
conduc t i v i t i es are both lower at th is st age in the thawing process .
Typ i ca l ly i n thaw i ng Ste v a r i es over a wi de range so the Ste e f f ec t i s
larger . The B i e ffec t r e s u l t s from changes in the therma l conduc t i v i ty
wi th temper atur e and v ar i a t ion of the surface temperature and
temperature/d isp lacemen t p rof i l e at the end of the phase change p rocess
as 8i changes .
Al though d i sc ernible i n the numer ical resu l t s , the Bi , Ste a nd Pk

effects were suff ic iently smal l compared wi th the exper i mental
uncer ta inty in the data se t ( Tab les 6.2, 6.3 and 6.4) that they could
be i gnore d in the pr e sent wor k . By u se o f the 6:3:2 r a t io a l l the
slab , i n f i n i t e c y l i nder and sphere data coul d be grouped t og e ther for
analys i s by a un i f ied approach . If mor e accurate thaw i ng d ata were
ava i l ab l e , parame t ers r e la t i ng 8 i , Ste and Pk to shape may be needed t o
g i ve accurate pred i c t ions for a l l three shap es .
Pr edict ion of Thawing T i mes 1 51
1.2 PREDIC T I O N BY NUM ERICAL M ETHODS
A w i de r ange of numer ical so lut ions to thaw i ng prob lems were d i scu ssed
in Chap s . 2 and 4 . The thr ee t i me l ev e l Lees ' f i n i t e d i fferenc e scheme
and f i n i te e leme nt method that ac counted for therma l prope r t i es
con t i nuou sly var i ab l e wi th t emper ature , were shown to be the bes t
numer ical me thods for pred i c t ion of phase change i n foods .
U s i ng the therma l da t a g i ven i n Tab l e 5 . 1 the pred ict ions by the f i n i t e

d i fference me thod and the two f in i t e e l emen t formul a t ions a r e compared
w i th the ex per imen t al slab , i n f in i te cyl inder and sphere thaw i ng t i mes
i n Tab l e 7 . 3 . Ty p i ca l pred i c ted temperature pro f i l es ar e shown in
F i g . 6 . 1 to 6.3. I n a l l cases an evenly spaced 1 1 node gr i d ( w i th 1 0
two nod e l i nea r e l ements for the finite e l eme nt method s ) was u sed .
Numer i c a l ap prox i mat ion error cou ld be reduced by using a more re f ined
grid ( and/or h i gher order e l ements for the f i ni te e l eme nt method ) .
Test ing of d i f ferent grid s i z es was car r i ed ou t for some runs but as
s i gn if ican t ly d i fferen t pred i c t ions d i d not resu l t , the 11 no de grid
was cons i de red sa t i s factory .
The 95% conf idence l i m i ts of the percentage d i fferences ( Eq . ( 7 . 1 ) )

be tween the calculated thaw i ng t i mes and the exper ime ntal r esu l ts for
a l l three shap es are - 9 . 3 % to 6 . 7 % for the f i n i te d i f ferenc e method ,
- 9 . 6 % to 7 . 9% for the ful l f in i te e l ement formu l a t ion ( Eqs . ( 4 . 2 ) to
( 4 . 5 ) ) and -9 . 5 % to 9 . 3 % for the s i mp l i f ied f i n i te e l ement formulat ion
( Eq s . ( 4 . 5 ) to ( 4 .8) ) . These unc erta i nty l im i ts i nc l ude con t r ib u t i ons
from thr ee sourc es - exper imental error , therma l data error and errors
in the app l i c a t ion o f the numer i ca l method s .
Apply ing the cr i ter i a of C l e land & Earle ( 1 984 a ) t o compari sons of the
numer ical pred i c t ions wi th the exper i mental resu l t s showed no trends i n
the data that m i ght suggest maj or systema t ic exper imental o r thermal
data errors . The exper i mental error bounds cou l d no t be determined
accurately but were es t i mated to be between ±5% and ±1 0 % ( Chap . 5 ,
Tab l e 1 2 . 2 ) for the slab , inf i n i t e cyl inder and sphere thawi ng
exper i me nt s . Th i s is of the same order of ma gn i tude as the total
l imi t s for the nume r i c a l pred i c t ions , sug ges t ing that only m i n imal
uncert a i n t y has ar i se n in the ap p l i ca t ion of the nume r i c a l me thods .
Pred i c t i on of Tha w i ng T i mes 1 52
Th is was ex pec ted because relat i vely fine space and t i me g r i ds cou l d be
u sed ( Chap . 4 ) .
Some slab runs had a cont r i bu t ion from edge heat transfer tha t was
es t imate d to exceed 1% ( Sec . 5 . 4 . 4 , App . B ) . The pred i c ted thaw i ng
t imes calculated by the thr ee n umer i ca l methods for these runs when
compared w i th the expe r i mental data agreed to w i th in 1 . 3 % ±8 . 4 % , 0 . 2%
±8 . 8% and 0 . 2% ±8 . 8 % respec t i vely . If edge heat tr ansfer was
s i gn i f icant compared wi th sourc es of random error then the means of
these percent age d i fferences shou ld be not i cab l y off set from the mean
of a l l the other p ercentage d i ff erenc es . I t was conc luded that the
e x tra exper imenta l uncer t a inty in these runs had no t s i gn i f i cantly
i ncreased the overall unc erta i nt y .
Numer ical me thods , i f formulated and impl emen ted correc t ly , are the
c lo s es t to exac t pred i c t ion me thods . Ther e fore as there is no
s i gn i f icant and iden t i f iab l e systemat ic tr end or correlat ion in the
expe r i mental data the error bounds of the nume r i c a l pred i c t ions a re the
best es t imate of the ov erall random ex p e ri menta l error ( due to
uncertainty in control and measuremen t of exper i mental cond i t i ons ) .
Pr e d i c t ions be tter than thos e achieved by the nume r i ca l methods cannot
be expec ted if the same exper i mental and therma l data ar e use d unl e ss a
more exact or soph i s t icated form of the nume r i c a l methods is used
( Heldman 1 983 , Cle l and & Ear l e 1 98 4a ) . Compa r i ng the numer i ca l
pred i c t ions for each shape i n d i v idua l ly ( Tab l e 7 . 3 ) g i ves est i ma t es of
the expe r i mental error for the exper i ments w i th each shape . The
average 95% confi dence bou nds of the observ ed d i fferences for the thr ee
nume r i c a l methods are on average ±7 . 1 % , ±5 . 0 % and ±1 1 . 3 % for slab s ,
inf i n i te c y l i nder s and s pheres respec t i ve l y . As expected the
uncer t ainty for s l ab s and i n f in i te c y l inders i s lower than for s pheres
as b e t t er control and measuremen ts of the exper i mental cond i t i ons ,
espec ially d imens ions and surface heat transfer coe f f i c ients , were
pos s ib l e ( Chap . 5 ) . The above uncerta i nt y b ounds are co nsi sten t w i th
exper i mental variab i l i ty measured by summing that measured i n rep l i cate
exper i men t s , and systema t i c error from other sources not ev i dent from
the rep l i c ates ( for examp l e , measurement of h) .
The mea n p r ed i c t io n error a r i s i ng from cal c u l a t ions by the s i mp l i f i ed

Pred i c t ion of Thaw ing T i me s 1 53
f in i te e lement me thod formu l a t ion was h igher than for the oth er two
methods . Th i s is due to the relat i vely crude way in wh ich variat ions
in the therma l proper t i es are i ncorpor at ed in to th i s method . For th is
method increas i ng the number of nodes and e l ements d id have some
benef i ts and reduced the d i f ferenc e in pred i c t ion compared wi th the
other me thods . I t is debat ab le wh ether the sav ing s in c omputat ion
cos ts j us t i f ies th i s loss in ac curac y as the decr ease in compu ter
memory s i z e requ iremen ts and increase in speed achie ved by us ing th e
s i mp l e formu l a t i on fo r one - d ime ns iona l work i s sma l l .
Centre temperature prof i l es were accurat e ly pred icted by all th e

numer ical methods though , for the reason out l ined ab ove , th e s i mp l i f i ed
f i n i t e e l ement formulat ions per formed l east well in th is respec t .
D i f ferenc es be tween pred icted and exper imental t emperatures were more
l i k ely to have ar i sen from uncertainty in thermocou p l e pl acement rather
than nume r i c a l me thod error . In Chap . 5 i t was shown that th ermo coup l e
placement was a major problem . It d id not affect thaw ing t i me
pred i c t ion ( because the breakpo in t ana ly s i s was used ) , but did g i ve
s i gn i f icantly d i fferent exper imenta l temperature prof i l es from those
expect ed at the c entr e .
A l l three nume r i c a l me thods t ended to predict sur face temperatures

cons i s tent l y lower than tho se measured expe r i mental ly for the i n f i n i te
cy l i nder and sphere expe r i ments . Th is was due to the prob lems w i th
therma l contac t , a ir v o i ds and thermocou p l e p lac ement at the surface
for these shapes . As d i scussed i n Secs . 5 . 5 and 5 . 6 the methods use d
t o es t i mate the average surface heat transfer coeff ic i e nt onl y u sed the
centr e temperature and not the sur face temperatur e dat a . The
exper i ment a l l y de term i ned surface t empe ratur e was t aken from the
thermo cou p l e that exh ib i t ed the mos t rap id change in t emperatur e . Th i s
the rmo cou p l e was not nec es sari l y r epresentat i ve o f the t ru e av erage
surface t emperatur e . Numer ical pre d ict ions made w i th the average
surface heat transfer coe f f i c ient therefore under es t i mated the rate o f
change of t h e expe r i mental values . For the slab shape the surfac e
temperatur e pred i c t ions were cons i st en t l y more accurate as problems
w i th voids were a vo i de d .
For the f i n i t e e lement methods some unex pect e d d e v iat ions of the
Pred i c t i o n of Thawing T i mes 1 54
temperature prof i l es were ob served when e l emen t s wer e near th e l at ent

heat temperature rang e . Th is occurred because of the way the finite
e lemen t methods incorpor ated the therma l proper t i es and was an e f f ec t
of the int egral nature of the f i n i te e l ement method , espec ia l ly wh en
therma l property change w i th temperatur e are rap i d ( Cle land et al
1 98 4 ) .
7.3 PRED ICTION BY SIMPLE FORMULAE
7.3. 1 E x i s t ing Pr e d i c t ion Formulae
In Chap . 2 a large number of s i mple formulae for calculat io n of

freez i ng and thawing t i mes i n slab s , inf ini te cyl inders and /or spheres
were d i scusse d . Many of these formulae were not ex pec ted to be
accurate i n . the s i tuat ions cons i dered in th i s work . So l u t ions that
only take account of the f irst k ind of boundary cond it ion are not
sui tab l e for genera l use as they g i ve poor pred i c t ions excep t where the
surface heat trans fer coe f fic ient is extreme ly h igh . These types of
methods were there for e no t cons i dered any fur ther . S i m i l ar l y so l u t i ons
for the second k ind of boundary cond i t ion wer e cons ider ed imprac t i cal .
Thaw i ng t i mes for the slab , i nf i n i t e cyl inder and sphere expe r i me nta l
data were calculated u s ing the me thods that cons i dered the th ird k ind
o f b oundary cond i t ion and that seemed most l ik e l y to l ead to r easonab l e
pred i c t ion accuracy . The percent age d i fferenc es between th e calculated
r esu l ts and the exper i mental thaw i ng t imes were found (Eq. (7 . 1 ) ) . A
summary of these values i s g i ven i n Tab le 7 . 2 .
Mos t of the me thods t es t ed assume that al l th e l aten t heat is ab sor b ed

at a un i que thawi ng temperature and that the froz en and unfrozen phase
have constant therma l p roper t i es ( thermal conduct i v i t y and s p ec i f i c
heat capac i ty ) . For these methods the thermal conduct i v i ty o f the
comp letely un froze n mat erial was used , and the l at ent heat comp onent
was ob ta ined by sub tract i ng the sens ible heat component from the total
enthalpy change between 0 °C and - 1 0 °C . Excep t where a " mean" thawing
temperatur e was def i ne d , the un i qu e thaw i ng temper ature was t ak en as
the i n i tial freez i ng temperature because th i s is wel l de f ined for mo s t
foods and the r a t e of change o f the i ce frac t io n w i th temperature i s a t
Pred ict ion o f Thawi ng T i me s 1 55
a max imium at th i s temperatur e . The cho ices o f proper t i e s made f i t the

concep t of the analy t ical me thods , are no t amb iguous , and a lso use the
b es t k nown the rmal data for most foods . The thermal p roperty v a l ues
used are g i ven i n Tab le 5 . 2 .
Some methods based on mod i f icat ions to e x i s t ing analy t i c a l formulae

de f i ne the therma l pr oper t i es d i f ferent ly , general l y to mor e c lose l y
approx ima t e the true therma l proper t i es dur i ng the phase change
process . Common ly , the enthalpy change is de f ined to inc lude sensible
heat e ffec t s , and average therma l conduct i v i t i es and mean phase change
temper atur es are used . In each such case the gu i de l ines fo r therma l
proper ty determina t ion sugges ted by the proposer of the pre d i ction
me thod were fo l lowed as c losely as poss ibl e .
Some emp i r ical formulae developed spec if ically for freez ing t ime
pred i c t ion wer e a lso tested . If it was poss i b l e the ana l ogous
emp ir ical formula was deve loped for thaw ing . Generally the methods
that could be adap t ed wer e those wi th a more comple te theor e t i ca l
bas i s . Other formulae were s i tuat ion o r p roduc t spec i f ic and cou ld not
be made app l i cab l e .
Pred ict ion methods that d id not pre d i c t the exper i mental thaw i ng data
wel l wer e l im i ted i n one or mor e of the fol low i ng way s .
( 1 ) Methods developed for semi - i n f in i te slab s cannot be app l ied to
f in i t e shape s if sens ibl e heat e f f ec ts p r io r to phase change are
s i gn i f icant . Th is is because heat transfer is ca lculated to occur
from a greater volume i n the semi - i n f i n i te s l ab than i s ac tua lly
present in the fi n i te geometry ( Geuze e t a l 1 97 2 , C l e land 1 97 7 ) .
( 2 ) Me thods assuming a un ique thaw i ng temper ature ( t ak en as equ a l to
the i n i t ial freez ing t emperature ) lead to overpre d ic t ion of thawing
t i me because much of the latent h eat ( as we l l as subcoo l i ng
sens i b l e heat ) i s ab sorbed over a range o f temperatures l ower than
Tif • There for e the ac tual temperatur e d r i v i ng force for h eat
transfer is greater than tha t used i n calculat ions .
( 3 ) Me thods that used the unfrozen phase thermal conduc t i v i ty dur i ng
the phase change p rocess t ended to overpred i c t the thawing t i me s .
The t ru e mean therma l conduc t iv i ty dur i ng the tha w i ng process is
greater than or equal t o the unfrozen value s o mor e heat t ransfer
P r ed ic t i on of Thaw i ng T i mes 1 56
occurs in prac t i c e than calculated us ing the fully un frozen va lue .

( 4 ) Thaw i ng t i me pred i c t ion me thods ignor i ng sens ibl e heat added to the
thawed reg ion tend to underpre d i c t .
( 5 ) Me thods ignor i ng the sensible heat added to the frozen reg i on
underpre d ict . The extent of the underpredict i on from th i s cau se i s
l ess than that from ( 4 ) .
Numer ical me thods that so lve the govern ing part i a l d i f feren t i a l
equat ion for heat transfer and t a k e accoun t of temperatur e dependent
therma l prop e r t i e s correc t l y model the thawing process phy s i ca l ly and
there for e g i ve pred i c t ions that are not affec t ed by the above f ac tors .
Compar i son wi th the results for the nume r i c a l me thods he lps to i dent i fy
how wel l a pred i c t ion method performs in try i ng to g i ve a phy s i c a l l y
correc t descr i p t ion of these factor s and how they af fect thawing t i me .
I t i s conven ient to u se the corre l a t ion coe f f i c ient (r) compar i ng
percentage d i fferences in the manner of C l e land & Earle ( 1 98 4 a ) .
The methods and resu l t s in Tab l e 7 . 2 were d iv ided i nto n i ne group s .

The Group A methods are a ffec ted b y the f ir st o f the abov e l i mi tat ions
and ar e no t accurate . O ther me thods that so l ve for the sem i - i n f i n i te
slab do no t account for in i t ia l subcoo l i ng and cons equen t l y predict
d i f feren t ly to Gr oup A methods .
Plank ' s ( 1 9 1 3 ) equa t ion ( Group B) was l im i ted by the l a tter four
factors . The compe nsatory natur e of ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) aga ins t ( 4 ) and ( 5 )
means that the mean p re d i c t ion error was + 6 . 0 % . Howe ver , the spread o f
the p r e d i c t ions was l arge ( ±4 3 % at the 9 5 % l ev e l o f conf i denc e ) and the
correlat ion wi th the f i n i t e d i fferenc e method r esu l t s was l ow . Th i s
i nd icates that the compensa t i on was not cons istent between runs w i th
d i fferent cond i t ions , render i ng the equa t ion unre l i abl e . In free z i ng ,
Plank ' s equa t ion cons i s tently underpredicted by 20% to 40% b ecause the
equ i valent prob l ems to f actors ( 2 ) to ( 5 ) a l l l ead to underp r ed i c t i on
for that process .
The analyt i c a l methods due to Rutov ( 1 936 ) , Goodman ( 1 958 ) , Sh ih & Chou
( 1 97 1 ) , Sh i h & T say ( 1 97 1 ) , Huang & Sh i h ( 1 975a , 1 975b ) , Ker n ( 1 977 ) ,
Glas s er & Kern ( 1 97 8 ) , Yan & Huang ( 1 979 ) , Cly ne & Garc ia ( 1 9 80 ) , Cho &
Sunder l an d ( 1 98 1 ) , Sol i man ( 1 98 1 ) and Hi l l & Kuc era ( 1 9 83 ) , and the
Pred i c t ion of Thaw i ng T i mes 1 57
emp i r i ca l methods of Bax ter ( 1 96 2 ) , Tao ( 1 967 , 1 968 ) and Good l ing &
Khader ( 1 97 4 ) , form Group C . They ar e a l l l i m i ted in s imi lar way s to'

Plank ' s equat ion excep t tha t they t ak e ac coun t of the sens i b l e heat in
the unfrozen phase . Al l methods w i t h in th is group gave s i m i lar
p red i c t ion accuracy . The results fo r Goodman ( 1 958 ) shown in Tab l e 7 . 2
are t y p i c a l o f the whole group . The mean d i f ferenc e was h i gher than
that for P lank ' s equa t io n and the spread i s red uced because factor ( 4 )
was t ak en into account . The predict ions are st i l l poor b ecause of the
o th er l i m i t at ions .
Group D ar e the mod i f ied ana l y t ical methods ( semi-analy t i ca l ) tha t are
based on mu l t ipl icat i ve factors to ac coun t for sen s i b l e heat e f f ec ts
( factors ( 4 ) and ( 5 ) ) . They all tend to sub stan t i a l ly ov erpre d ic t
thaw i ng t i mes , and pred i c t ions tend to ha ve a la rge spr ead .
Group E methods u se e i ther a mean phase change tempera ture ( Mo t t 1 96 4 ,

Flem i ng 1 967 ) , an avera ge thermal conduc t i v i t y ( Mel lor & Sepp i ng s 1 976 )
or both ( Mod i f ie d Plank ) to take account of fac tors ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) . Such
me thods s t i l l do not t ak e accoun t of a ll the l i m i t a t ions in a
phy sically rea l i s t i c manner so the spread of p re d i c t ions was s t i l l
l arge .
The Gro up F methods break the phase change p ro cess into three s tages
and at temp t to appro x i mate the heat transfer in each s t age . They
per form b e t ter than Group D because they mod e l the true phy s ic a l
cond i t ions mo r e rea l i s t i cal ly . To rema in s i mp l e these methods use some
avera ging t echn i ques . They tend to overpre d i c t th e thawing t i me s
usual l y b ecau se they do no t t ake accoun t of factor s (2 ) an d (3 )
proper ly .
The emp ir ic a l formulae deve loped for freez ing ( Group G) all tend to
overpred i c t thaw i ng t i mes as the emp i r i ca l corr ec t ion factor s are not
approp r i a t e for thaw i ng . The method of Succar & Hayakawa ( 1 984 ) was
not t es te d as it is poss i b l y unnec es sar i l y complex and y et was not
expected to be mor e accurat e , than the other me thods in th i s group .
The two emp i r i cal methods ( Gr oup H ) spec i f i cal l y developed for thawi ng
t i me pred i c t ion gave the bes t pre d i c t i o n ac curacy . Creed & Jame s
Pr ed ic t ion of Thaw i ng T i mes 1 58
( 1 98 1 ) gave an emp ir i c a l formul a for thawi ng o f slab s o f bone less bee f

based on b oth numer ical pred i c t ions and expe r i menta l thaw i ng dat a . It
gave pre d i c t ion w i th 95% conf idence bounds o f -1 7 .7% to 18.1%. The
me thod i s produc t s p ec i f i c because it does not t ake ac c ount of
d i fferent thermal proper t ies ( k 1 , k s , c 1 , C s , � . T i f ) . A l s o the
pred icted thaw i ng t i me is only va l i d for T i n =-30 °C . Ty lose has th erma l
proper t i es s im i lar to those of b ee f a nd thaw i ng t i me i s on ly weak l y
dependent o n changes in i n i t i a l temperatur e . Therefore the predict ions
have a mean d i ff erenc e of z e ro but a s i gn i f i can t l y gr eater var i ab i l i t y
than wou ld o ccur i f these factor s were t ak en into ac count .
Ca lvelo ( 1 9 8 1 ) p r esen ts an emp ir ical formu l a based on Pl ank ' s equ a t i on

der i ved by regress ion ana l y s i s of n umer ical predict ions for thawi ng o f
bee f s l abs . Though k 1 and c 1 ar e incorpor ated in th e equ a t i on , the
other p rope r t i e s ( �H . T i f ' k s , C s ) do not need to b e spec i f i ed and the
method is therefore product spec i f ic . As Ty los e and beef ha ve s i m i lar
the rma l proper t i es th is method gave accur a te pred i c t ions w i th error
bounds of - 1 1 . 8 % to 1 1 .8% at the 95% l ev e l of conf i de nce . The
corre l a t i on of the p ercentage d i fferences wi th the f i n i te d i f f erence
pre d i c t ions was h i gh , suggest ing that a l l maj or sourc es o f thaw i ng t i me
v ar i a t i on ar e accoun t e d fo r by th i s formu l a . The res i dual pred i c t i on
uncer t ainty , apart from that due to ex per i men tal error , was sma l l in
magni tude and was not s i gn i f ican t l y correlated t o any other ind i v idual
fac tor .
W i th in Group I , on ly th e me thod due to Golov k in et al ( 1 974 ) gave

r easonabl e p r ed i c t i on accuracy . As the pred i c t ions were no bet t er than
those for some other s i mp l er me thods , and because the publ i shed
der ivat ion i s unc l ea r , the method was not cons i dered fur ther .
7.3.2 Improved Pre d i c t ion Methods
Of the ex i s t i ng methods t ested , only three ( Creed & Jame s 1 98 1 , Calvelo

1 98 1 and Pham 1 98 4 a ) gave p r ed i c t ions of r easonab l e accuracy and
re l i ab i l i ty ( mean percent age d i f ference c lo s e to zero a nd a low
standard dev i a t ion of the percent a ge d i f ferences ) . Fur ther , they took
account of most of the sources of var i at ion in thawi ng t i me s and wer e
consequent l y h i gh l y corr el ated wi th resu l ts from nume r i c a l methods .
Pred i c t ion of Thaw ing T i me s 1 59
The b es t methods were those due to Calvelo ( 1 98 1 ) and Creed & James
( 1 9 8 1 ) but both have the d isadvantage that they do not t ak e acc o un t of
d i f fere nt therma l proper t i es for d i fferen t foods tuf fs . Creed & James '
method was also indep endent of i n i t ial temperature . Pham ' s ( 1 9 8 4a )
me thod has the advant age of hav i ng a pre dom inate l y ana ly t ical bas i s .
I t has a low standard deviat ion due to the three stage approach
cons i der i ng all sources of thawing t i me v a r i a t ion but the mean
perc entage d i fference was offset from z ero.
Becau se a l l the e x i s t i ng methods have weaknesses i t seemed worthwh i l e

t o seek a new pre d i c t ion me thod . Emp ir i ca l ly mod i f i ed forms of Pl ank ' s
equat ion s i m i l ar to those found to be u se ful fo r freez i ng ( Cleland &
Ear le 1 98 2 b , Hung & Thomp son 1 9 83 ) were invest igated because of the ir
s i mpl i c i t y and succ ess for freez ing t i me p r ed i c t ion . Also p r ed i c t i on
formulae s i m i lar to those of Calvelo ( 1 9 8 1 ) and Pham ( 1 984a, 1 9 84c )
were inves t i gated to see i f they could be impr oved and made appl i cable
to a w i der range of s i tuat ions . The Creed & James ' ap proach may have
y ie l ded an accurate product - spec i f ic formul a bu t was not cons idered as
su itable for de ve lopment of a general formula compared w i th th e other
me thods .
The fo llow i ng four predict ion formulae were found to be super ior to
o thers t r ied . The i r pred i c t ions are summa r i se d i n Table 7 . 3 .
( a ) Use o f the bas i c form of Calv e lo ' s ( 1 9 8 1 ) solution b ut represent ing
i t in terms of Fo , Bi , Ste and Pk so that all the therma l
proper t ies a r e i nc luded . Analy s i s of the exper imental dat a by
mu l t ip l e non-l i ne ar r egr ess ion gave the fo llow i ng pred i c t i on
equa t ion :
AD
Fo - = 1 . 4 29 1
[ 0 .5 0 . 1 25
+ --
] 1 . 0 2 48
Ste
0 . 27 1 2
Pk
0 .061 0
(7.2)
2V Bi Ste Ste
( b ) Use of we igh ted mul t i ple l i near regress ion to f ind mod i f ie d
formul ae for the shape factors i n Plank ' s equ a t ion i n a s i m i l ar
manner to that u se d. by C l e land & Earle ( 1 9 7 6 b , 1 97 7 a , 1 9 7 9 a , 1 97 9b ,
1 9 82b ) . The best formu l a deve l oped was :
AD p R
Fo - • + -- (7.3)
2V Bi Ste Ste
where p - 0 . 5 ( 0 .7754 + 2 . 2828 S t e Pk )
R - 0 . 1 25 ( 0 . 427 1 + 2 . 1 220 S t e - 1 . 48 4 7 Ste 2 )
Pred i c t i on of Thawi ng T i mes 1 60
Other t erms were stat i s t i ca l l y s i gn i f i cant in thi s model but did

not l ead to wor thwh i le reduc t i on o f the standard de v i at ion o f the
percentage d i f ferences between exper i ment a l and pred i cted thawi ng
t imes . These terms may have been f i t t i ng a systema t i c component of
the exper imental er ror .
( c ) A thr ee stage ap proach s i mi lar to Pham ( 1 98 4 a , 1 98 4c ) . The best
[
pred i c t i on formula of th i s type was :
J
AD 3
Mi i D hD
t
2V
I T 2h
1
--
1 + -
4k i
(7. 4 )
� i
whe re llH 1 C s ( T i fave - T in )
�T 1 T a - ( T in + T i fave > 1 2
k1 ks
�H 2 L
�T 2 T a - T i fav e
k2 0 . 25 k s + 0 . 75 k 1 = 0 . 83 for Tyl ose
�H 3 C l ( T ave - T i fave )
�T 3 T a - ( T ave + T ifave > 1 2
k3 kl
T ave average f i na l temperatur e
= T r i n - ( T f i n - T a ) / ( 2 + 4k l /h/ D )
T i fav e = T i f - 1 . 5 = - 2 . 1 for Tyl ose
Pred i c t ion accuracy was sens i t i ve to the values of the mean
freez i ng temperature , the average thermal conduc t i v i ty i n the phase
change per iod and the average f i na l temperature . To retain the
ana l y t i cal bas i s the val ues of the mean thaw i ng temperature and the
avera ge f i nal temperature were calculated by the methods suggested
by Pham ( 1 98 4 a ) . For accurate pred i c t ions i t was nec essary to
emp i r i ca l l y f i t the value for the mean thermal conduc t i v i t y in the
phase change p er iod The we i ghted val ue for k 2 of 0 . 83
w m - 1 oc - 1 for the phase change per i od , although phy s i cally
reasonab l e , has no bas i s apar t from conven i enc e . Equat ion ( 7 . 4 ) is
c lose ly related to the methods of Pham ( 1 9 8 4a , 1 9 8 4c ) , wh i ch are
both of s im i la r pred i ct ion accuracy for freez i ng . Equat ion (7.4)
was cons i dered to be the emp i r i ca l thawi ng equ i valent of the Pham
( 1 9 8 4 c ) freez i ng approach , rather than the equ i valent of the Pham
( 1 98 4 a ) method as the l at ter has mor e substant ial ana ly t i cal bas i s .
( d ) D irect f i t t ing o f a correct ion t o Plank ' s equat ion gave :
Pred i ct i on of Thaw i ng T i mes 1 61
AD [ 0.5 0 . 1 25 1 �H
*
[ 0 .0244 Pk
+ 0 . 6 1 92 -
j ( 7 .5 )
Ste j
Fo = + 0 . 89 4 1 -
2V B i Ste �H Ste Bi
* 3
where �H =entha l p y change f r om - 1 0 °C to T (J m- )
ave
Equa t ion ( 7 . 5 ) i s s i m i l ar i n form to the free z i ng t ime p r ed i c t i o n
method pro posed by Pham ( 1 9 83 ) . The Pham pred i c t i o n formula has
[ ]
not been publ i sh ed i n the l i te r a t ur e . I t is :
AD 0.5 0 . 1 25
Fo - = + -- [ 1 + 0 . 0 4 /( B i Ste ) + 1 . 2 7 /( Pk St e ) ] ( 7 . 6 )
2V Bi Ste Ste
A l l four poss i b i l i t i es ga v e accurate p r ed i c t i ons and th e p re d i c t i o ns
take account of all maj o r sourc es of va r i at io n in thaw i ng t i me as
i nd i ca t e d b y the h i gh c o r r e l at ion w i th the f i n i te d i ffer enc e method .
Al l the me thods are s i m p l e and have some phy s i ca l bas i s th ough the i r
der i v at ions w e r e no t analy t i cal .
Further r e f i neme n t o f these methods may be poss i b l e . It is unl i k e l:(
that s i gn i f i cant i n crease in p r ed i c t ion a ccuracy cou l d b e ach i eved
w i thou t i n t roduc i ng fur the r terms ( tha t could be f i t t i ng s y s t ema t i c
exper i mental error ) , or emp i r i ca l l y f i t t i ng the e q uat ions s epar a t e l y
f o r e a c h of the three sha pes . F o r a l l four formulae abov e , the s p r ead
o f pr ed i c t ions for each of the three shapes was s l i gh t l y h i gher than
for the n ume r i ca l methods . Th i s i s because the u n i f i ed app roach us i ng
the 6 : 3 : 2 r a t i o i s no t compl e t e l y accurat e . I f data for each shape are
ana l y se d separat e l y , thr ee sl i ght l y d i f f e r en t forms of Eqs . (7.2) to
( 7 . 5 ) , s p ec i f i c for e ach shap e , can be der ived . The p e rc entage
d i f f e r enc es for these sha p e s pec i f i c formulae have s i m i lar s t andard
dev i a t ions to the nume r i ca l me thods for each shap e .
The pos s i b i l i t y must s t i l l e x i s t that a d i f ferent ap proach to any of
tho s e i nv es t i ga t ed cou l d conc e i v ab l y l ea d t o a mo r e a c c ur a te formu l a ,
but th i s i s not cons i de r ed l i k e l y .
Because Eqs . ( 7 . 2 ) to ( 7 . 5 ) were d er i ved for T y l o s e thaw i ng d a t a on l y ,
they are r est r i c ted i n prat i c e to tho se foods wi th therma l proper t i es
s i m i l ar to those of T yl o s e . Th i s i n c l udes a w i de range of med i um to
h i gh mo i st ure foods and is not unduly l i mi t i ng . O ther r anges of
app l i cab i l i ty are :
0.6 < Bi < 57 . 3

Pred i c t ion of Thawi ng T i me s 1 62
0 . 0 85 < St e < 0 . 7 68
0 . 065 < Pk < 0 . 27 2
7 .3.3 Compa r i s o n W i th Freez i ng T i me Pr ed i c t ion Formu l ae
Me thods s i mi l ar in p r i nc i p l e to Eqs . ( 7 . 3 ) to ( 7 .5 ) have been

successfu l ly used for fr eez i ng t ime pred ict ion ( Cl e land & Ear l e 1 98 2 b ,
?ham 1 9 83 ( Eq . ( 7 . 6 ) ) , ?ham 1 9 84 c ) . The ma in advan t ages of th ese t ypes
of me thod ar e the ir s i mp l i c i ty , acc uracy and min ima l requ ir ement for
therma l property data .
Zar i tzky et al ( 1 982 ) use d an ap proach for freez ing s im i lar to

Eq. ( 7 .2 ) , bas i ng it on numer ical ly pred i c ted d ata . The method
pred icted the da t a of C l e land ( 1 977 ) poor ly so mult iple no n-l i near
r egr ess ion was used to der i v e a mor e accurate formu l a of th i s ty pe for
freez ing :
Fo
AD
- = 1 .3179
[ 0 .5 0 . 1 25 0 . 957 6
+ -- Ste
]
0 . 0 5 50 0 . 00 1 7 Bi +0 . 1 7 2 7 Pk
10 (7 .7 )
2V B i Ste Ste
Equat ion (7 . 7 ) has a mean pre d i c t ion error of 0 . 1 % ±7 . 3 % at the 95%
conf i dence level and a corre lat ion coe f f i c ient o f 0 . 61 compared w i th
the f i n i t e d i f ferenc e method pre d i c t ions errors , when tested aga i nst
the freez i ng data of Cle land & Ear l e ( 1 977 a , 1 979a , 1 9 79 b ) . Th i s
compares favourab ly wi th th e pred ict ion acc uracy of the other prov en
freez i ng t i me p red i c t ion formulae ( C l e l and & Ear l e 1 9 82 b , Pham 1 9 8 3 ,
1 98 4 a , 1 98 4c ) .
C l e land & Ear l e ( 1 9 8 4a , 1 98 4 b ) and Pham ( 1 983 , 1 98 4 a , 1 9 8 4c ) showed

that the ir me thods were superior to other rec e nt fr eez i ng t ime
pred i c t ion me thods due to Mascheron i & Ca lve lo ( 1 982 ) , de M i che l i s &
Ca lvelo ( 1 983 ) and Hung & Thompson ( 1 9 83 ) for a l arge comp os i te

freez ing data se t . Cons equent ly , the number of accurate simple
freez i ng t i me p r ed ic t ion me thods for fur ther s tudy was reduced to four .
These were that of C l e land & Ear l e ( 1 982 b , 1 98 4a ) , tha t of ?ham ( 1 98 3 )
( Eq . ( 7 . 6 ) ) , that of ?ham ( 1 98 4 c ) and Eq . ( 7 . 7 ) . The method of ?ham
( 1 98 4 a ) was not cons i dered further as i t performs no bet ter than the
?ham ( 1 984c ) method . S im i lar ly Eqs . ( 7 . 2 ) to ( 7 .5 ) , wh i ch are the
thawi ng equ i valent of the these four freez i ng me thods , wer e the only
s i mp l e thaw i ng t i me pred i c t i on me thods cons i d ered fur ther .
Pred i c t ion of Thawing T i mes 1 63
7.4 SUMM ARY
W i th in the accuracy of the pres ent freez ing and thaw i ng data , it was
val i d to t ak e the ratio of phase change t i mes fo r s l ab s , in f in i te
cyl i nders and spheres to be cons tant at 6:3:2 j ust i fy ing a un i f ied
approac h for freez i ng a nd thaw i ng t i me p red i c t ion fo r these shapes .
The three nume r i ca l methods ( the f i n i te d i fferenc e me thod and two

f i n i te e l emen t me thod formulat ions ) that ac coun ted for therma l
proper t i es cont i n uou sly var iab l e wi th temperatur e , accura tely pred icted
thaw ing t i mes for the three bas i c shapes . The nume r ical methods
pred ic ted temperature profi les dur ing thaw ing as accura tely as cou l d be
expec t ed tak ing into ac coun t the imprec i s ion of some of the measur ed
da t a .
N o p re v iously pub l i shed s i mp l e pred ict ion formu la was both suffic iently
accur ate an d su i t ab l y expr essed fo r i t to be ad op t ed as a genera l
thaw ing t i me pred ict ion me thod . Four improved formulae ( Eqs . ( 7 . 2 ) to
( 7 . 5 ) ) , that ga ve comparab l e resu l ts w i th the nu mer ical methods were
deve loped. Each of these formulae represents a d i fferent conc ep tual
approa ch i n mod i fy i ng th e wel l-known Pl ank ' s equa t ion i n way s tha t had
been previously suc c essful for fr eez ing t i me predict ion .
For both freez i ng and thaw i ng , al l the approaches y ie l ded formu lae that
are of s imi lar acc uracy and s imp l i c i ty . A l l are l i m i ted mor e by the
accuracy of the data from wh ich th ey wer e der i ved rathe r than the
inherent inaccuracy of the ap proach used . Within the l im i ts of the
t es t i ng a ga i ns t exper imental dat a , al l of these approac hes ar e of
comparab l e use fulness . It is u n l i k e ly that s i gn i f i cantly bet t er
me thods can b e deve loped that reta i n the adv antage of s i mp l ic ity .
None of the four approaches can b e recommended as be ing s ign i f i cantly

mor e accurate than the other s for the thr e e bas i c shap es . I f a method
can be eas i ly made compa t i b l e wi th t echniques to account for mor e
comp l e x geome t r y then th i s wou l d b e a u seful f eatur e . There for e , the
cho i c e between the four approaches for thawi ng t i me pre d i c t i o n i s best
de l ayed un t i l a ful l er cons ider a t ion of a r ange of geome tr i c shapes i s
made .
Pred i c t ion of Thawi ng T i mes 164
Tab l e 7 . 1 Summary of Percentage D i fferences Between E xper imental

Freez i ng and Thawi ng T i mes For S i mple Tyl ose Shapes and
Fr eez i ng and Thawing T i mes Calculated By Sl ab , Inf in i te
C y l inder and S phere Vers ions of the F i n i te D i fferenc e Method
Data 1 FDM 2 Corr 3 Mean Std Dev '+ Max '+

Type Vers ion FDM (%) (%) ( %)
s s 1 . 00 0.8 6. 1 -1 4 .6 9.3
c 0 . 98 -0 . 3 5.6 -1 4 . 1 7.4
Freez ing 5 SP 0 . 92 -0 . 8 5.2 -1 3 . 5 6.4
c s 0 . 97 -3 . 1 6.1 -1 5 . 9 5.6
c 1 . 00 -3.6 4.7 -1 4.1 3 .0
Freez ing 5 SP 0 . 93 -3 . 4 4.3 -1 3 . 3 1 .8
SP S 0.71 -2 . 6 5.4 -1 3 . 2 6.1

c 0 . 92 -2 . 8 4 .0 -1 1 8• 2.6
Free z i ng 5 SP 1 . 00 -2 . 2 3.5 -1 0 . -3 4.1
S , C , SP S 0 . 93 -1 . 3 6.1 -1 5 . 9 9.3
c 0 . 97 -2 . 0 5.1 -1 4 . 1 7 .4
Freez i ng 5 SP 0 . 93 -2 . 0 4.6 -1 3 . 5 6.5
Unmod . 1 . 00 -1 . 4 5. 4 -1 4 . 6 9.3
s s 1 . 00 -0 . 8 3.5 -6. 3 6.8

c 0.79 0.4 6.0 -8 . 5 13.o
Thaw i ng 6 SP 0 . 69 1 .3 7.9 -9 . 7 17 .7
c s 0 . 45 -2 . 4 4.1 -9 . 6 4.8
c 1 . 00 -2 . 2 2.4 -6 . 8 3 .6
Thaw i ng 6 SP 0.71 -2 . 4 3.6 -8 . 3 6 .- 1
SP S 0.64 0. 4 8. 1 -1 3 .7 1 3 .7
c 0 . 92 -0 . 2 5.9 -9 . 0 10.4
Thaw i ng 6 SP 1 . 00 -0 . 9 5.5 -9 . 5 9.1
S , C , SP S 0 . 68 -o . 9 5.7 -1 3 . 7 1 3 .7
c 0 . 86 -0 . 6 5. 1 -9 . 0 1 3 .0
Thaw i ng 6 SP 0 .78 -0 . 6 6.1 -9 . 7 1 7 .7
U nmod . 1 . 00 -1 . 3 4 .0 -9 . 5 9.1
1 S = s l ab ( 4 3 freez ing and 3 5 thaw i ng runs ) , C = i n f i n i t e c y 1 1 nd er ( 3 0

freez i ng and 3 4 thaw i ng runs ) , S P = sphere ( 30 freez i ng and 3 5
thaw i ng runs ) .
2 Version of the f in i te d i fference me thod .
' Correlat ion coeff ic ient ( r ) compared w i th the percentage d i ffer ences
for the unmod i f i e d vers ion of the f in i t e d i fferenc e me thod •
.. Std Dev a s t andard dev i a t ion , M i n • m i n i mum , Max • max i mum.

5 Data from C l e land & Ear le ( 1 97 7 a , 1 97 9 a , 1 97 9b ) .
6 Dat a from Tab l es 6 . 2 , 6 . 3 and 6 . 4 .
Pred i c t ion of Thaw i ng T imes 1 65
Tab l e 1 . 2 Summary o f Percentage D i f ferences Between Exper i mental

Thaw i ng T i mes For Ty lose Slab s , Inf i n i te Cyl inder s and
S pheres and Thaw i ng T i mes Calculated By S imp l e Pred i c t i on
Formulae
D at a from Tab l es 6 . 2 , 6 . 3 and 6 . 4 .
Total o f 1 0 4 runs - 35 for slab s , 3 4 for i n f in i t e cy l i nders
and 35 for s pheres .
Group Me thod & Re fer enc e Mean Std Dev 1 Min 1 Max 1 Corr 2
(%) (%) (%) (%) FDM
Neumann ( 1 9 1 2 ) in Carslaw & 69 . 6 11 0.5 - 68 . 8 4 1 1 . 7 -0 . 1 3

Jaeger ( 1 95 9 ) , p . 282
A
Charm & Slav in ( 1 9 6 2 ) 1 73 . o 1 42 . 6 16.5 5 3 6 . 6 -0 . 0 8
Hrycak ( 1 96 3 , 1 9 67 ) 1 68 . 9 1 47 . 0 6.9 3 4 3 . 0 - 0 . 09
B Pl ank ( 1 9 1 3 ) 6.0 21 . 4 - 28 . 0 50 . 5 0 .08
C Goodman ( 1 9 58 ) 13.3 17.6 -1 5 .3 53.7 0.1 4
Nagaoka e t a l ( 1 955 ) 79 . 1 1 5.2 45 . 4 1 22 . 6 0 . 33

Levy ( 1 9 58 ) , Edd ie & 95 . 3 21 . 7 56 . 2 1 60 . 1 0.18
Pearson ( 1 9 58 )
Ear l e & Freeman ( 1 9 6 6 ) 52 . 0 30 . 6 3 .0 1 15.2 0 . 08
D Wa lker ( 1 970 ) 38 . 2 17.9 7.9 86 . 3 0.15
Van i chsen i ( 1 97 2 ) 33 . 7 18.8 -2 . 8 78 . 1 0. 1 4
Van ichseni e t a l ( 1 972 )
Frazerhurst ( 1 97 2 ) 69 . 7 59 . 8 -1 0 . 3 30 4 . 7 - 0 . 1 6
S l a t t er & Jones ( 1 9 7 4 ) 29 . 6 1 7.0 0.3 74.0 0.14
Mot t ( 1 9 64 ) 1 2.3 1 5 .7 -1 8 . 2 49 . 7 0.14

F l em i ng ( 1 96 7 ) 13.4 17.7 -1 6 . 7 48 . 7 0.15
E
Mellor & Sep p ings ( 1 97 6 ) -4 . 0 1 4.4 - 36 . 4 30 . 7 0 . 28
Mod i f i ed Plank -1 9 .9 13.3 - 53 . 1 9.3 0 .22
Cowe l l ( 1 9 67 ) 34.5 19.9 3.4 85 . 5 0 .09

Lotz ( 1 97 4 ) 1 3.8 21 .3 -22 . 0 59 . 3 0 . 09
F
Mascheroni & Ca l v e lo ( 1 982 ) 15.5 1 6. 8 -1 6 . 6 54 . 1 0.1 6
de M i che l i s & Ca l ve l o ( 1 9 83 )
Pham ( 1 9 8 4 a ) 1 4 .7 7.2 0 .6 35 . 0 0 .54
Pham ( 1 98 4 c ) 18.3 48 . 8 -5 1 4
• 1 36 5 • 0 00
•
• • • continued
Tab l e 7 . 2 cont inued • • • 1 66
Group Method & Reference Mean Std Oe v 1 Min 1 Max 1 Corr 2

( %) (%) (%) (%) FDM
C l eland & Ear l e ( 1 982b ) 66 . 4 17.7 29 . 6 1 1 2.4 0.16

G Zar i tzky e t a l ( 1 9 8 2 ) 40 0 1 77 . 9 -64 . 2 208 . 0 -0 . 1 1
Hung & Thompson ( 1 983 ) 92 . 2 26 . 6 14.7 1 34 . 2 0 . 23
Pham ( 1 983 ) 53 . 6 18.4 21 .9 1 00 . 7 0.14
Calvelo ( 1 98 1 ) 0.0 6.0 -1 2 1

0 11. 1 0 . 66
H
Creed & James ( 1 98 1 ) 0.2 9.1 - 20 . 0 21 .9 0 . 52
Khatchaturov ( 1 95 8 ) 12.0 27 4
0 -45.7 86 . 6 -0 . 02
Gol ovk in et al ( 1 97 4 ) 7 .8 10 5
0 -1 3 .6 3 5 . 2 0 . 34
Schwartzberg ( 1 97 7 ) - 86 . 1 4.6 - 94 . 3 -71 . 8 -0 . 07
I
Church i l l & Gup ta ( 1 977 ) - 49 . 5 12.2 -73 . 5 -2 5 . 4 0 . 1 6
Levy ( 1 98 4 ) -35 . 8 9 .3 -6 4 . 8 - 1 7 . 7 0 . 30
Sastry ( 1 98 4 ) -57 . 4 10.7 -7 1 .8 -33 .0 0.31
1 Std Dev standard dev iat ion , Min

= m i n imum , Max
= max i mum.
=
2 Correlat ion coe ff ic ient ( r ) compared w i th the perc entage d i fferences

for the f in i t e d i fference method .
Pred ict ion of Thawi ng Times 1 67
Tab l e 7 . 3 Summary of Percentage D i f ferences Between Exper i mental

Thawi ng T i mes For Tylose Slabs , Inf i n i t e Cyl i nder s and
Spheres and Thaw i ng Times Calculated By the Best Present
Methods
Method 1 Data 2 Mean Std Dev 3 Max 3 Corr ..

( %) (%) (%) FDM
S , C , SP -1 . 3 4 .0 -9 . 5 9.1 1 . 00
FDM s -0 . 8 3.5 -6 . 3 6.8 1 . 00
c -2 . 2 2.4 -6. 8 3 .6 1 . 00
SP -0 . 9 5.5 -9 . 5 9.1 1 . 00
FEM f S , C , SP -0 . 9 4.4 -9 . 2 11 .4 0.94

s -2 . 0 3.6 -7 . 0 6.5 0 . 99
Eqs . ( 4 . 2 ) - ( 4 . 5 ) c -1 . 7 2.5 -6 . 0 4 .6 0 . 97
SP 1 .2 5. 8 -9 . 2 11 .4 0 . 99
FEM s S , C , SP -0 . 1 4.8 -7 . 6 13.1 0 . 88

s -2 . 2 3.6 -7 . 6 6.5 0 . 98
Eqs . ( 4 5 ) - ( 4 8 )
• • c -1 .0 2.6 -5 . 2 5.4 0 . 96
SP 2.9 5.9 -7 . 2 1 3. 1 0 . 98
S , C , SP 0. 1 5.7 -1 0 . 2 15.2 0 . 72
Eq . ( 1 . 2 ) s 0.4 6.0 -7 . 2 15.2 0. 71
c -1 . 6 3 .2 -1 . 1 5.2 0 . 66
SP 1 .5 6.9 -1 0 . 2 1 4 .6 0 . 76
S , C , SP -0 . 2 4.9 -9 . 2 1 2.0 0 . 80
Eq . ( 7 . 3 ) s -0 . 2 4 .5 -1 . 0 10.2 0. 72
c -1 .8 3 .3 -9 . 2 5.9 0 . 61
SP 1 .3 6.0 -9 . 0 12.0 0 . 89
S , C , SP 0.0 5.4 -1 2 . 6 14.3 0 . 80

Eq . ( 1 . 4 ) s 1 .7 6.0 -1 . 0 1 4 .3 0 . 17
c -1 . 1 3.1 -1 . 1 4.4 0 . 64
SP -0 . 5 6.2 -1 2 . 6 1 0.7 0 . 90
S , C , SP 0.3 5.6 -1 0 . 2 10.3 0 .76

Eq . ( 7 . 5 ) s 0. 1 5.2 -8 . 8 11 .1 0 . 72
c -1 . 3 3 .9 -8 . 8 5.9 0 . 69
SP 2.1 6.9 -1 0 . 2 1 4.8 0 . 79
1 FDM f i n i te d i f f erence method , FEM f

= ful l f i nite element method
s
formulat ion , FEM s s i mpl i f i ed f i n i te element method formul at ion .

=
2 S =slab ( 35 runs ) , C i n f i n i te cyl inder ( 3 4 runs ) , SP

= spher e ( 3 5
=
runs ) , data from Tab l es 6 . 2 , 6 . 3 , and 6 . 4 .

3 Std Dev standard dev i at ion , M i n minimum, Max max imum
= = s •
.. Correlat ion coeff i c ient ( r ) compared w i th the percentage d i fferenc es

for the f in i t e d i fferenc e method .
1 68
8 PR EDICTION OF FR EEZING AND THAW ING T IMES FOR

MU LT-D IMENSIONAL SHAPES BY NUMERICAL METHODS
The four th r esearch obj ec t i ve se t in Chap . 3 was to as sess the ac curacy

of Group I I ( numer ical ) methods for pred i c t i o n of freez ing and thawing
t i mes of irregular shap es . Chapter 8 dea ls w i th part o f the th i rd
obj ect ive ( assessment o f the accuracy o f pred i c t ion methods for regular
shapes ) and the fourth obj ec t ive . Resu l ts are r eport ed for nume r i ca l
methods app l i ed t o both regular and ir regular mult i-d imens ional shap es .
8. 1 I NTRODUCT ION
The deve lopment of numer ical methods that solve the govern ing par t ial
d i ffer ent ial equat io n for heat conduc t i on w i th temperatur e dependent
thermal properties for obj ects o f any two or three-d imens iona l geometry
was d i scussed in Chap . 4 . The fini te d i fferen ce me thod is l i mi t ed by
prac t ical cons iderat ions to regular shaped obj ects ( in f i n i t e rods ,
f in i t e cy l i nde rs and rectangular b r i ck s ) , wher eas the fini te e lement
method can tak e account of the more complex , irregular ,
mul t i - d i mens ional geometr ies as wel l as the regu l ar shapes. Thermal
property data used in all the numer i c a l calculations are l is ted in
Table 5 . 1 .
8.2 PR EDICTIONS FOR R EGU LAR SHA P ES
The only exper imental thawing data collected for mul t i -d i mens ional
regular shapes were those for Tylo se r ec tangular b r i ck s ( Tabl e 6 .5 ) .
The full f in ite element method formu lation ( Eqs . ( 4 . 2 ) to ( 4 . 5 ) ) was
not used as comp utat io n cos ts were too h ig h but the s impler f in i te
e lement method formulat ion ( Eqs . ( 4 . 5 ) t o ( 4 . 8 ) ) and the f in i te
d i fferenc e method were appl ied . Table 8 . 1 summar i ses the calcul a t ion
resu l t s .
Because of symmetry only an o ctant o f each rectangular brick was

cons i dered. Wi th in th i s octan t a 9 x9 x9 nod e gri d was u sed in f in i te
d ifference method calc ulat ions . The f in i te element method calculations
used a 7 x7 x7 node grid wi th 21 6 evenly s iz ed , 8 node , l in ear ,
Pred iction of Freez ing and Thaw ing T i mes 1 69
i soparame tr i c , b r i ck shaped e l ements . A f in er gr i d was not prac t i c ab l e

due t o computat ion c o s t and computer memory s i z e l imi ta t i ons .
Tab l e 8 . 1 shows that the s i mp l i f ie d f ini te e l ement method formu l a t ion

had s l i ghtly greater off-set of the mean pred iction error than the
pred ict ions for the f in i te d i fference method . As was the case for the
s imp le s lab , i n f in ite cyl i nder and sphere shap es th is d i fferenc e was
thought to be due to the re l a t i vely crude way in wh i ch var ia t i ons in
the thermal propert i es are incorporated into the s i mp l i f ied f i n i t e
element method . The three-d imens iona l geometry and the coa rse noda l
gr id use d , accentuated th is problem so the d i fferenc e between the
f in i t e d i f feren ce me thod and the s impl i f ie d f ini te e lemen t method is
grea ter than for slab s , i n f in i t e cylinders and spheres ( Tab le 7 . 3 ) .
Resu l t s for the ful l f in i t e element me thod formulat i on w ou l d be

expec ted to b e c l o s e t o the f i n i t e d i f ference method results ( Cl e land
et al 1 98 4 ) . For th irteen repres entat i ve r ectangular b r i c k fr eez i ng

runs the fu ll f i n i te element me thod results were calc ulated as we ll as
the results for the o th er two numer ical me thods . The mean pred i c t i on
errors for these runs were for the f i n i te d i f ference method ,
-5 . 7 %
- 8 . 2% for the s i mp l i f ie d f in i t e e lemen t method and - 6 . 3 % for the ful l
f in it e e lement method respec t i vely . The correlat io n coeffic ients for
the f in i t e e lemen t me thod perc entage d if f er enc es w i th the f ini te
d iffer ence perc entage d i fferenc es for these th ir teen runs were 0 . 9 6 and
0 . 99 for the s i mp l i f ie d and ful l formulat ions respec t i ve ly . Henc e , i f
the ful l f in i te element method had been used for the full se t o f data ,
the results wou l d have c lo sely matched the f in i t e d i f ference method
resul t s .
Pred icted temperature prof i les agreed c lo se ly w i th expe r i mentally

measured prof iles as i l lustrate d in F i g . 6 . 4 . A large par t o f the
d i fference between the pred icted and measured temperatures was probably
due to uncerta inty in thermocoupl e plac ement wh i ch was d i s cu ssed in
Sec . 5 . 7 . 4 . Both the f i n i t e d i fference method and the s impl i f ie d
f in i t e e lemen t method formu l a t ion pred icted surfac e temperatures that
osc i ll ated abou t the experimental values imme diately a fter the phase
change temperature r eg ion . Th i s was due to the d iscre te nature of the
numer ical methods and for the s imp l e f i n i te element method formulat ion
Pred i c t io n of Freez i ng and Thaw i ng T i mes
was magn i f ied by the c oarse element grid used for pred i c t i o ns .
Th e d if f er en ces between pred i c t ed and measure d thaw i ng t imes were not

sta t i s t i c ally correlated wi th any independent var iable in th e
exper i ments and d i splayed comparab l e accur acy wi th nume r i ca l
pred i c t i o ns for freez ing of Ty lose rectangu lar b r i ck s ( C leland & Earle
1 9 79 b , Cleland et al 1 984 ) . Fur the r the 9 5 % conf i dence bounds for the
nume r i cal me thods ar e s i mi lar in magni tude to the es t i mated
exper i men ta l unc erta inty ( Se c . 5 . 7 . 4 , Tab l e 1 2 . 2 ) . Th i s su gges t s that
for the f i n i te d i ff erence me thod and the full f i n i t e e lement me thod
formu l a t io n , mo s t of the d i f f er enc e b etween the pred i c t ions and
ex per imental values was due to exper imental uncerta inty and not errors
in the impleme nta t i on of the numer i cal methods themse l ves . That is ,
the t i me steps and th e space gr id used y i e lded resu l ts neg l i g ib ly
d i f feren t from those that would have been ob ta ined i f f i n er gr i d s had
been use d . The on ly s i g n i f icant inaccuracy a r i s ing from the numer ical
me thods themse l ves was tha t introduc ed by the crude th erma l property
est imat ion i n the simpler fi n i te element me thod formu la t io n ; th is
i nd icates that care shou l d be exe rc i sed i n us i ng it for rec tangu lar
br ick shapes .
8.3 PR ED ICTIONS FO R TWO- DIMEN SIONAL I RREGU LAR SHAPES
The ex per iment al fr eez ing and thawing t i me s for the two-d i mens ional
irr egu lar Tylo se shapes are g i ven in Tab l e 6 .6. Pred i c t ions were
carr ied ou t by both f in i te element me thod formulat ions us ing the gr ids
shown in F ig s . 5 . 1 5 to 5.21 . The gr i d s were pr epar ed from 8 node ,
quadrat i c , i soparame t r i c , rec tangular elements . These e lements allowed
curved b ound ar ies to b e appr ox imat ed by quad ratic func t io ns . The g r i ds
prepared ensured that at leas t f i ve elements ( 1 1 nodes ) e x i s ted betwe en
the thermo dynam i c c entr e and th e ou ts ide sur face of each ob j ec t , i n a l l
d ir ec t i o ns .
The results summar ised i n Table 8 . 1 show that both the finite element
formulat ions gave acc urate pred i c t ions of bo th fr eez i ng and thaw i ng
t imes ( w i th i n tolerances allowed for ex per i men tal error ) , for all the
shapes tested. The 95J conf i den ce b ounds for the p er centage
d i fferences of the full f in i te element formula t io n of -9 .7% to 1 0 .3%
Pr ed i c t i on of Fr eez ing and Thawing Times 171
are of s i mi l ar magni t ude to the es t i mated e xpe r i mental error

( Sec . 5 . 8 . 4 ) ind icat i ng that mo st of the d i f ferenc e was ex pla inab le by
the ex per imen ta l unc e rta inty . Aga i n , the ful l f i n i te e le me nt method
formu lat i o n used suff i c iently sma ll space and t i me i n tervals that
numer ical app rox imat ion error s wer e neg l i g i bl e , bu t th e s i mp l e f in i te
element me thod formu l a t i o n did i nt roduc e s i g n i f icant i nac curacy by
c rude therma l pr ope r t y es t imat ion .
Pr ed icted tempera ture profi les ( F i g s . 6 . 5 to 6 . 1 2 ) genera l ly compared

we l l wi th those measured exper i mental ly . D i fferen ces between pred i c ted
and measured tempera tures may have ar isen due to uncert ainty in
thermo coupl e placement for a l l the thermocouples . Also th e pos sib i l i t y
of air v o i d s , poor contac t and therefore var i at ions in the loc a l
surface heat tr ansfer coe ff i c ient mean t that measured t empe ratures a t
points on o r near the sur face had s i g n i f icant uncer ta int i es assoc iated
wi th them . Th e sur fac e temperatures pred i c t ed b y th e s i mpl if ie d f in i te
element me thod formulat ion osc i l lated s i gn i f icant ly compared w i th the
pred i c t ions for the ful l f i ni te e leme nt method formu l a t io n . Aga in th i s
d ifference was a t t r i b uted t o the crude thermal p roperty es t i ma t i o n in
th e s i mp l e formulat ion and the relat i ve l y sma l l numb er o f quadrat i c
e lements used i n the gr i d s for the pred ict ions .
8.4 PR ED ICT IONS FOR THREE-DIMEN SIONAL IRREGU LAR SHA PES
Tab l e 8 . 2 summar i ses the perc ent age d i f fer en ces between ex p er i menta l
freez i ng and thawing t i mes and th e pred i c t i o ns by the t wo f i n i te
e l emen t me thod formu l a t i ons for the three - d imens ional i r r egula r shapes .
The grid used for the f ir s t shap e ( th e fru stum of a sq uare pyram i d ) is
shown in Fig . 5 . 2 4 . Becau se of the s t ra ight s i des it is b as ica l l y the
same 7 x7 x7 node gr i d use d for the rec t angular bri ck pre d i c t ions , but
was d i s torted to the pyram i d d i mens ions . Be cau se of t he
three-d imens ional i r r eg ular i t y a ful l quadrant of the shape was
mode l l e d . Consequ en t l y th e grid was r a ther coarse wi th onl y three
l inear e lements between surface and centre a long the height of the
pyram i d . The exp er i menta l procedur e for the pyram i d was iden tical i n
a l l respec ts t o that u se d for the r e c t angular b ri ck shape so it was
cons i dered that the ex p er imenta l cond i t io ns wer e control l ed and
Pr ed i c t ion of Fr eez ing and Thawing T i me s 172
measur e d t o th e same leve l o f prec i s i on as in the rect angu l ar br i ck

exper i ments , and that the same sur face heat transfer coe f f i c ient
app l i ed .
The p re d i c t ions have s i mi lar spread t o those for the rec t angular b r i ck
freez i ng and tha w i ng but the mean was off se t by ab ou t 1 0 % . Th e l ow
standard dev iat ion of th e pred i c t i on er ror s suggests that th e prob lem
is sy stema t i c , and no t random. Two po s s ible r easo ns are : ( a ) th e
coa rse gr i d lead ing to s i gn i f i cant pred ict ion inaccuracy and ( b) th e
assump t i on tha t h was the same for th e pyramid and rect angu l ar b r i ck
shap es may not hold .
The amount of offse t was greater for the freez ing runs where B i was low
sugges t i ng that th e second r eason was an important con tr i bu tor
accord ing to the cr i te r i a of Cleland & Ear le ( 1 9 8 4 a ) .
In th e numer i ca l ca l cu l at i ons , freez i ng and thaw i ng were cons i dered

comp l e te when the slowe st coo l i ng or heat ing node reached the des ired
f ina l temperatur e . I f the true thermodynami c c entre of the ob j e c t does
not c o i nc ide w i th a nod e , at th is t i me , th en the obj e c t is not
comp le te ly fr ozen or thawed . Under-pred i c t io n of the t ime for t he
comp lete process w i ll r esult from th is effect . The effec t i s sma l lest
for f in e f ini te e l emen t gr ids , but for coa rse gr i d s t he ext r a t ime
cou ld be sub s t an t i al . Further , l in ear elements mag n i fy the problem
b ecau se th ey use l i ne ar appr ox i ma t io n funct ions betwe en nodes . The
true temp erature prof i le and any loc al max i mum or m i n i mum values of the
t emperatur e wi th in each e l emen t canno t be mode l l e d . Quad r at i c and
h igher order e lements a llow mo re acc urate ap prox ima t i ons to the
temperatur e prof i l e to be ma de and there for e give more ac curate
pred i c t io ns .
F i n i t e e lement method calc ulat ions for the pyramid shape were a ffec ted
in the manner j us t descr ibed, as a coar se gr i d o f l ine ar e l ements was
use d . Also the pos i t ion of the thermod ynam i c c en tre could not be
accurately determined p r ior to grid p reparat ion so the true
thermod ynamic centre was not necessar i ly c lose to a node . Therefore
the ob s erved under-pred i c t ion of freez i ng and thaw i ng t i mes was not
unex pec t e d . Pred i cted t emperatu r e p ro f i les were a dequate cons ider i ng
Pr ed i c t ion of Fr eez ing and Thawing T i me s 1 73
these prob l ems wi th the coa rse gr i d and the e xper imen ta l unc ert a i nty i n
thermo couple pos i tioni ng ( F i g . 6 . 1 3 ) .
Th e o th er three shapes u sed wer e a spher e , an egg and a f i sh shap e .

The sphere runs were use d t o prov ide informa t i o n ab ou t the surface heat
t r ansfer coe f f i c i en t for the o the r two three-d i mens iona l shap es mou l ded
i n p las t i c . The sphere is a regular shape and can be mod e l l e d by a
one- or two-d i mens iona l gr i d rather than three-d imens i onal ly if the
ax i symme t r i c al formulat ion of the finite eleme nt me thod is use d .
Howe v er mode l l ing th e sphere wi th a thr ee-d imens i ona l g r i d al low ed some
mea sure of the ac curacy of the mo dell ing of c urved surfac es by the
f i ni te e lemen t me thod to be made . The thr ee d i fferen t g r i d s shown i n
F i g . 5 . 25 we re used : (a) an 11 nod e , 10 l i near elemen t ,
one-d imens iona l grid ; ( b ) a two-d i mens iona l gr id mode l l i ng a qua drant
of the cross-se c t ion (a c irc l e ) w i th 21 , e ight node , qua dra t i c ,
i s oparame tr i c , e l ements and (c) a 208 node , 27 e lement ,
th ree-d imens io nal g r i d mod e l l ing an o ctant of the sphere . Due to the
l i mi t a t ions in comput a t i on power ava i l ab le and th e h igh data
prepara t ion t i me , the three-d imens ional g r i d was coarse w i th only thre e
2 0 node , quad rat i c , i s oparame tr i c el ements between t h e sur fac e and the
centre . These wer e arranged in three expand ing she l ls so that the
elemen ts were a l l appr ox i mate ly the same s iz e and none wer e t oo h i gh l y
d i storted from the b a s i c r eg ular rectangular b r i ck shap e .
•
The resu l ts generated for th e s ph er e shape us i ng b o th the f i ner one

and two-d imens ional g r i d s w i th the full f in i te element formu l a t i o n were
very s i mi l ar . Th e coar ser thr ee-d i mens ional gr i d resu lts were
sign i f icantly less ac c urate . Th i s was a t t r i b uted to th e coarse grid
rathe r than incorrect i mp lementat ion of the three-d i mens iona l p ar t o f
the p rog ram ( Se c . 4 . 2 . 3 ) . The thre e quadra t i c elements betwe en the
c entre and sur fac e mea nt that the tempe rature p rof i l es c ou l d be
modelled only approx i mat ely . The pos i tion of the thermo dynamic c entre
was k nown exac t ly for the s phere , and quadrati c e lemen ts wer e u sed .
Therefore the problem with the coarse gr i d was less acute than for th e
pyrami d shape pred i c t ions and the amount o f under-pred i c t i on for t he
coarser thr ee-d i mens ional grid , compar ed w i th the f in er one- and
t wo-d i mens ional g r i d s , was less than the under-pred i c t io n for t he
pyram i d shape .
Pred i c t ion of Fr eez ing and Thawing Ti me s 174
For th e sphere shape th e s i mp l i f ied f in i te e lemen t method formu l a t i on

gave comparab l e re sults with the fu l l formu l a t i o n , but wh ere the
e l emen t s iz e was l arge r in the two- and thr ee-di men s ional gr i d s the
resu l t s had a l arger var i a t ion a t t r ib uted to th e less r ep resen t at i ve
incorporat ion of thermal p roper t i es i n to the f i n i te e lement scheme as
we l l as the coar se gr i d . For bo th f in i t e e l ement methods th e fr eez i ng
and thawing t i me pred i c t ion accuracy as well as the pred ict ion of .
temp era ture p rof i l es was s i m i l ar to that ach i eved for th e ful l set o f
sphere thaw i ng data analy se d in Sec . 1 . 2 . Th e experiment al techn iques
wer e s i m i l ar , exc ep t for u se of the p las t i c mould ing , so s i m i l ar
pred ict ion acc uracy was expected .
The egg shap e has one axis of rota t i onal symme try so it cou ld be
mode l l ed b y ei the r a two- o r thr ee - d i mens iona l gr i d . Bo th the f i n ite
e l emen t method gr ids used are shown in Fig . 5 . 26 . The two-d i mens ional
gr i d i s s i mi lar to that u se for th e sphe re shape exc ep t that it was
d i storted to f i t the elliptical shape and a ha lf , r ather than a
qua rte r , of the cr oss - sect ional prof i l e was mode l le d . The
three-d i mens iona l g r i d used was a lso a d istorted dou ble vers i o n of
th e sphere three-d imens iona l gr i d . Th e fu l l qu adran t need ed was
desc r i b ed by 5 4 twenty node , qua dra t i c , i soparame t r i c , r ec t ang ular
e lemen t s . The f i sh shape thoug h irr egu l ar in a l l three d imen s ions was
c lose ly approx imated by a shap e w i th two p lanes of symme try so on ly a
quadran t was mode l l e d . The g r i d i s shown in F i g . 5 . 27 . I t i s th e same
bas i c thr ee-d imens ional gr i d used for the eg g shape but the gr i d po i n t
coord inat e s , espec i a l ly f o r the sur fac e nodes were mod i f i ed t o f i t t he
ac tual shap e .
For the egg and f ish shapes it was assumed that the surface he at
tranfer coeff i c ient was the same as that me asur ed on the mou ld e d
p l as t i c s pheres ( Sec . 5 . 9 . 3 ) . Th e inaccuracy introduc e d by th i s
assump t io n was no t eas i ly asse s se d . Var i a t io ns i n p last i c th i ck ness
and the presenc e o f a ir vo i d s and poor er or be t t er surface con tac t at
the surfac e of these obj e c t s may have contr i b ut ed to the unc ert aint i e s .
Th i s extra e xp er i men ta l unc erta inty , p lus the unc ert a in t y d ue to
d if f i cu l t i es in measur i ng and desc r ib ing these shap es mathemat i ca l ly ,
a s wel l as appr ox i ma t i ng th e shape wi th a coar se f in i t e e lemen t method
g r i d , meant that poorer pred i c t i o ns were expec t ed for the egg and f ish
Pr ed i c t ion of Fr eez ing and Thaw i ng T i me s 1 75
shapes tha n for th e s phere and pyrami d shapes .
For the eg g shap e the me an pred ict ion error was c lose to zero so th e
assump t ion that the sur face he at transf er coeff ic ien t was th e same as
i t was for the sphere se emed reasonab l e . The h igher s t andard de v iat ion
of th e pred i c t ions for th e eg g shape compared w i th the py ram i d and
sphere shapes was ma inly th e result of the ex tra uncerta inty in the
exper i ment s rather than unc ert a inty due to th e implement at i on of the
f i n i t e e lement method . If a f i ner gr id ha d been use d , the f in it e
e l emen t method wou l d hav e introduced no s i gn i f ic an t pred i c t ion
inacc uracy .
Pr ed i c ted temp erature profi les for th e egg shape ( F i g . 6 . 1 6 ) we re a ls o

qu i te acc urate and reflec ted th e accuracy of the freez i ng an d thaw ing
t i me pred ic t i on s . Temperature pro f i les for some surface pos i t io ns may
have been affec t ed by any loca l i sed v ar i a t i on in h. Pr ed i c ted
temp erature prof i l e s were affected by the coarse three-d imens ional
g r i d s u s ed , and there for e d i sp l ayed some o sc i l l atory behav i our . As
exp ected , th is was part i c ularly obviou s for the s i mp l e f i n i te e lement
me thod formu l a t ion pred i c t io ns , for pos i t ions near the ob j ec t sur f ace
and at temp er atures close to the phase change temp erature range
( C le l and et a l 1 984 , Sec . 4 . 2 . 1 ) .
For the f i sh shap e the pred i c t i o ns were cons i s tently h igh by 20% to 4 0 %
b u t th e s t andard dev iat io n o f pred i c t ion errors was compa r ab l e w i th
that for th e egg shap e . The off - se t mean was probably caused by
sy stemat i c err or in the surfac e heat transfer coeff ic i en t . Th e surface
heat trans fer coeff i c ient may not have b een th e same as that for th e
sph er e du e to : ( a ) a th inner plas t i c th i ckness ar i s i ng dur i ng mou ld i ng
and/or ( b ) better therma l conta ct between the Ty los e and the plas t i c
moul d for the f i sh shape than the spher e . As d i scussed in Sec . 5 . 9 . 4
the se factors cou ld not no t be quantat i v e ly assessed as i t was no t
poss ible to measure h d ir ec t ly for the f i sh shape . Howe ver ,
measurement of th e plast i c th ickness showed variat ions of up to 1 5 % of
the average to ta l th i cknes s ove r the surface of th e f i sh shape and
d if ferenc es of up to 1 0% i n the th ick ness b e t ween the f i sh and sphere
shapes . It was unknown whe ther these ob served va r iat ions were
suff i c i en t ly large to cause the d i fferences betwe en the pred icted and
Pred i c t ion of Fr eez i ng and Tha w i ng Ti mes 1 76
me asured fr eez ing and thaw i ng t i me s . Because the f in i te e lement me thod

d i splayed ac curat e pred i c t ions for o the r r egu l ar and irr egul ar shap es
it was cons i dered unl i k ely that these d i f ferenc es were the result of
de f i c i enc i es in the f in i t e e lemen t me thod or p rogram .
Pred ic ted t emp erature pro f i l es for the fi sh shap es ( F ig . 6 . 1 5 )

refl ect ed the acc uracy o f the pred i c te d fr eez i ng and thaw i ng t i mes and
p roblems w i th the coarse element g r i d used . The f in i te e lement me thod
cons i s ten t l y under-pred i c ted th e changes in th e temperature at a l l
pos i t i ons i n the f i sh sha p e . Temperature prof i les for surface
pos i t io ns would have been affected by any local i sed var i a t ion in the
sur fac e hea t transfer coe ffic ient as well as th e pos s ib le systemat i c
error in the h valu e , b u t th e pred i c ted values showed tr ends co n s i stent
w i th a sy stema t i c underpre d i c t ion o f h.
8 .5 F IN ITE ELEM ENT METHO D USER GU ID ELI NES
Some gu i de l ines for appl i ca t ion of th e f inite e l eme nt method were

establ i shed in Sec . 4 . 2 . In the l ight of the tes t i ng ag a inst
ex peri men tal da ta i t i s po s s i b l e to ref ine these. Adher ence to the
guidel ines w i l l lead to p re d i c t i o ns in wh ich the er ror a r i s ing from the
numer ical appr ox i mat ions is negl ig i b l e comp ar ed wi th e xper imenta l and
data unc er t a i n ty . The gu ide l i nes are :
( a ) to use at least 8 to 1 0 nodes and a t l e ast 5 e lements b et we en the
ther modynam i c c entre and the sur fac e ,
( b) to use the full f i n it e e lement formulat io n if compu t at io nal
l i mi tat ions a l low ,
( c ) to ac c urat e ly pred i c t th e pos i tion of the thermodynami c centre
p r ior to gr i d prepa r a t io n so that a nod e can be p os i t i oned
accura tely near i t , and
( d ) to use suff i c iently sma ll t i me steps that the heat balance a grees
to wi th i n 2% ( Sec . 4 . 2 . 2 ) .
In a lmo s t all s i tuat i o ns , u s ing more r e f i n ed gr i d s and smaller t ime
s t ep s than tho se sugges ted h er e , wi l l on l y g i v e smal l i nc r eases i n
accuracy and re l i ab i l i ty o f the p red i c t ions and will probably not
j u s t i fy the i n crease in computat ional cos ts .
Pr ed i c t ion of Fr eez ing and Thawi ng T i me s 1 77
8 .6 SUMMARY
The f i n i te d i f ference me thod use d for reg ular two- and

three-d i mens io na l shapes pred i cted thaw i ng ti mes as ac curate l y as i t
pred icted freez ing t i mes . Th e me thod cou ld be imp lemented w i th
n egl ig ible inacc uracy ar is i ng fr om the numer ical app rox i mat ions u sed .
The sp reads of the nume r i c al me thod pred ict ions were low for a l l da t a ,
b u t mean pred i c t ion error s for some thr ee-d imensiona l irr egula r shapes
were of f-se t from z ero. Th is ind icates tha t systema t i c data er ror s ,
probab ly i n es t i ma t i on of surface heat t r ansfer coe ff ic i ent s , were
impor t ant compared wi th random exp er imental unce rtainty . Pr ed icted
tempera tur e prof i l es conf i rme d these t r end s .
The i mp lemen tations o f the f i n i t e element me thod used for both regular
and irregular mu l t i -d i mens iona l sh ap es do not lead to sign i f i cant
inacc uracy in p red i c t ions p rov ided the gu i d e l i nes in Se c . 8 . 6 ar e
fo llowed . U se of coarse gr i ds and /or the s i mpl i f i e d f in i t e e l ement
method formulat ion d id lead to s i g n i f i cant inac curracy in the
pred ic t ions and there fore wor sened overa ll agreemen t w i th ex pe r i mental
freez ing and thaw ing dat a .
Pr ac t i cal contra int s o n comp uta t i o n power me ans that use r s of the
f in i t e e leme nt me thod w i l l have to wor k c l ose to th e l i mi ts of g r i d and
method re f inement for wh ich p red i c t ion me thod uncertainty is
s ign i f ican t , so ca re mus t b e ex erc i sed in u s i ng these methods .
Pr ed ict ion of Fr e ez ing and Thawi ng T i mes 178
Tab l e 8 . 1 Summary o f Perc entage D i ffer enc es Bet ween E xperi menta l
Freez i ng and Thaw i ng Ti mes For Ty l ose Mul t i - D i mens i onal
Shapes and Freez i ng and Thaw i ng T i mes Ca lcula ted By Numer i ca l
Methods
Shape Type 1 Re ference Method 2 Mean St d Dev 3 Max 3

( %) (% ) (%)
C l e land & FDM -4 . 4 6.6 -20 . 7 9.8

F Ear l e ( 1 9 79 b)
Rec tangular ( 7 2 runs ) -5 . 9 7.1 -2 4 . 1 9.8
Br i ck
Table 6 . 5 FDM 0.6 3.1 -6.0 7.9
T
( 68 runs ) FEM s -6 . 3 3.4 -1 2 . 9 1 .2
Tab l e 6 . 6 0.3 5. 1 -1 1 . 4 1 1 .3
F ,T
( 83 runs ) 4 .2 6. 1 -9 . 1 21 .9
Two Tab le 6 . 6 -1 . o 4.5 - 1 1 4

• 7.6
D i mensional F
Irregular ( 4 2 runs ) 2.6 4.8 -9 . 1 1 2 .0
Tab le 6 . 6 1 .5 5.5 -7 . 1 1 1 .3
T
( 4 1 run s ) 5.8 7 .0 -6 . 7 21 . 9
1 F = freez ing , T = thaw i ng .

2 FDM = f i n i t e d i f ference me thod , FEM = full f i n i te element me thod
f
formulat ion ( Eqs . ( 4 . 2 ) to ( 4 . 5 ) ) , FEM s = s i mp l i f ied f i n i t e e l ement
me thod formulat ion ( Eqs . ( 4 .5 ) to ( 4 . 8 ) ) .
3 Std D e v = s t andard dev iat ion, M i n = m i n i mum, Max max i mum.
Pr ed i c t ion of Fr eez ing and Thawing T i mes 179
Tab l e 8 . 2 Summary of Perc ent age D i f fer enc es Bet we en Exper i menta l
Freez i ng and Thaw i ng T i mes For Ty l ose Three-D i mens i ona l
I r r egular Shapes and Freez i ng and Thaw i ng T i me s Ca l cul ated By
the F i n i te El ement Method
Shape Gr i d 1 Method 2 Mea n Std De v 1 Min 1

( %) ( %) ( %)
Pyramid -1 0.3 6 .7 -18.2 -2.0

3D
( 6 runs ) -1 4 . 5 4 .8 -20 . 2 -8 . 9
-5 .5 6 .8 -1 2 . 1 5.3
3D
-1 2• 12.7 -1 6 . 1 13.9
Sphere 0.6 7 .0 -8.7 13.9

20
( 6 runs ) 7.7 8.3 -1 . 6 18.2
0.4 6.7 -7 . 7 9 .6
10
2 .6 6.5 -4 .9 1 1 .6
5.2 1 3.0 -1 2 . 9 25 . 1
3D
Egg 9.8 14.9 -9 . 4 28 . 8
( 6 runs )
3 .7 1 3 .8 -1 6.1 24 . 7
2D
16.4 1 8 .7 -4 . 1 48 . 4
F i sh 35 . 3 8.9 20 . 8 44.2
3D
( 6 runs ) 33 . 5 1 6.3 8.6 58 . 4
1 1D = o ne-d i mens i o nal , 20 two-d imens ional , 3D three-d imens ional .

2 FEM
f full f i n i t e elemen t method formulat io n ( Eqs . ( 4 . 2 ) to ( 4 . 5 ) ) ,
EM
F s s i mp l i f ied f in i te elemen t me thod formulat io n ( Eqs . ( 4 .5 ) to
( 4 .8 ) ) .
3 Std De v standard de v iat ion, Mi n min imum , Max max i mum.
1 80
9 PREDICTION OF FREEZING AND THAWING T IMES FOR MULTI-DIM ENSIONAL

R EGU LAR SHAPES BY SIMPLE M ETHODS
I n Chap ter 9 Group I ( s impl e ) me thods for regu l ar mul t i - d i mens i onal
shapes are cons i dered . Th i s comp l etes the ana lysis requ ired for the
th ird research obj ec t i ve set in Chap . 3 .
9.1 ANALYT ICAL TR EATMENT OF TH E EFFECT OF GEOM ETRY
For s l ab s , i n f i n i te cy l i nders and spheres the 6 : 3 : 2 rat io of freez i ng

and thawi ng t i mes , wh i ch ar i s es from the value of 2V/ AD , was
success f u l l y used to descr ibe the effec t of the geometry so that s i mp l e
pred i c t i on me thods could be made un i versal for a l l three b as i c shapes .
Rutov ( 1 936 ) and Mott ( 1 9 64 ) proposed the use of the same 2 V / AD ratio
for a l l shap es . The pred i c t ion equa t ion becomes :
2V
t t slab ( 9. 1 )
AD
where t free z i ng or thaw i ng t i me for the mul t i-d imens ional
obj ect of charac t er i s t i c d imens ion D (s)
freez i ng or thawi ng t i me for a s l ab of
th i ck ness D under equ i val ent cond i t ions
A = surface area of the obj ec t
V volume o f the obj ect
D = charac ter i s t i c d imens ion of the obj e c t (m)
l ength o f shortest d imens i on f o r r egul ar
shaped obj ec ts .
For two- and three-d imen s ional regular shapes ( infinite rods , finite
cyl i nders and rectangular b r i ck s ) an al t erna t i ve approach was used by
P lank ( 1 9 4 1 ) and Shamsundar ( 1 982 ) . They made the quasi -st eady s tate
assump t i on and assumed both 4 par t i cular shape for the phase change
front and that the surface was isothermal w i th respect to pos i t i on .
Th i s l ed to geome tr i c factors to mod ify the bas i c s l ab formulae that
t end to 2 V / AD as B i +O but i nc luded a smal l correct i on to the i n t ernal
conduc t ion t e rm , in the r esu l t i ng analy t i ca l formu l a , for o ther B i
val ue s .
Pred i c t i on of Freez i ng and Thaw i ng T imes 181
For a l l two- and three-d imens ional sha p es ( apart from inf i n i te
cy l i nders and spheres ) the sur face i s not i sothermal w i th respect to
pos i t ion unl ess B i +O or B i � � . I n add it ion the phase change front shape
var i es wi th t i me . C onsequent ly the true geome t r i c factors for
mu l t i - d imens iona l shap es ar e in rea l i ty h i ghly dependent on the B lot
number . As B i +O the ratio of 2V/ AD ho lds for a l l shapes . For h igher
Bi values , some parts of the surface ar e more effec t i ve in transf err i ng
heat to or from the centre than others . There fore none of the
analyt i ca l developments based onl y on the area to volume r at io are
successful for freez i ng ( Cl eland & Ear le 1 98 2 b ) . The comp l ex i t y of the
heat transfer in mul ti - d i mens ional obj ects is such that an accurate
geometr i c fac tor is un l i k ely to b e der i ved analy t i ca lly .
9.2 FEAS I BL E GEOMETRIC FACTORS
Al terna t i ve geomet r i c fac tors have been developed , par t ly by f i tt ing to

exper imental data and par tly by cons i der i ng some known l im i t i ng cases .
Cl eland & Earle ( 1 982 b ) de f i ned the equ ivalent heat transfer
d i mens iona l i ty , EHTD , as :
t slab
EHTD = (9.2)
t
The formul a for rec tangu l ar b r i ck shapes :
Bi [ 0 . 625 + 0 . 6 251
(9.3)
+
Bi + 2 � a� J
where sl : rat io of second longest to shor test s i de l eng th
.. D y iD x
61 a rat i o of l ongest to shor test s i de l eng th
- D z /D x
• shor t est s i de l eng th (m)
• second longest s i d e l eng th ( m)
• longest s i de l eng th (m)
was deve loped by f i t t i ng exper imen tal data w i th B i in the range 0 . 5 to
22 . 0 . I t does not conform to the l im i t i ng case that EHTD•AD/2V a s B i +O
but does fit pub l i shed exper i mental data for rectangular b r i ck s
6 62
1
undergo i ng fr�e z i ng . I t covers ranges of Bi , and t yp ically
encount er ed in prac t i ce . Used i n conj unc t ion wi th the freez i ng t i me
pred i c t ion formula for slabs due to C l e land & Earle ( 1 982 b ) it
Pred i c t ion of Fr eez i ng and Tha w i ng T imes 1 82
pred i ct ed the ex per iment al Tylose rec tangu lar br i ck free z i ng data of
C l e l and & Ear l e ( 1 97 9 b ) wi th percentage d i fferenc es wi th a mean of
- 1 . 2% ±1 1 . 4% a t the 95% level of con f i dence .
Pham ( 1 98 4 b ) used the 2V/AD geometr i c factor but mod i f i ed the i n t ernal
conduc t i o n term in the s i mpl e pred i c t i on formula based on Plank ' s s l ab
equat i on by a factor ca lled the " mean conduc t i ng path leng th" , MC P .
MC P is based on the same p r i nc iple as the corr ect ions der i ved
ana ly t i ca l l y by P l ank ( 1 9 4 1 ) and Shamsundar ( 1 982 ) but b ecause it was
developed based on fit to ex per imenta l data it i nc ludes compensat i on
for ef fects such as the non- i so thermal sur fac e , that P l ank and
Shamsundar i gnored . For rec tangu lar b r i ck s the formula deve loped to
[(-1
ca lculate MC P was :
MC P
-- - 1
D
+
[( 1 .5/B, 1 )
-4 +
e1
+
1
-H1 + -)
s2
4
Bi
I] l
-4 0 . 25
(9.4)
For f i n i te cyl inders , an equ ivalent rec tangular b r i c k shape was de f i ned
so that Eq . ( 9 . 4 ) cou ld be used ( Pham 1 984 c ) . Equa t i on ( 9 . 4 ) , comb ined
w i th the slab pred i c t ion me thod of Pham ( 1 9 84 a ) , pred ic ted the Tylose
rec tangular b r i ck freez ing data ( Cl eland & Earle 1 97 9 b ) wi th 95%
con f i dence bounds of - 1 3 . 0 % to 1 3 . 0% and a mean p�ed i c t ion error c l ose
to zero , wh ich is s i m i l ar to the results for EHTD ( Pham 1 98 4 b ) .
MCP and EHTD are essen t i a l l y equ i val ent geome t r i c correc t ions to the
bas i c slab pred i c t ion methods but are i ncorporated into the s i mple
formulae in d i fferent manner s . EHTD i s a d i v i sor and can b e app l ied to
any slab pred i c t ion method by rearrangement of Eq. ( 9 . 2 ) to g i ve :
t slab
t = (9.5 )
EHTD
MC P can be d irectly incor porated into s i mple pred i c t ion formulae where
contr ibut i ons due to ex t ernal and internal r es istance to heat transfer
t
V
[
can b e separated ( such as Pl ank ' s equat ion ) , by the re lat ionsh i p :
External R e s i stance + I nt ernal Res i s tanc e MC P

] (9.6)
« A Term Term -o-
A mor e general form wh i ch allows it to be app l i e d to any slab
[ ] [ -�
pred i c t ion me thod i s :
2V B i MC P Bi
t •
t s l ab - 1 + - -- I 1 + (9.7)
AD 4 D 4
Pred i c t ion of Freez ing and Thaw ing T i mes 1 83
[1 + ] [1 + - ]
The values for the two var i ab l es can be related by the equat ions :
AD Bi B i MC P
EHTD = - I -- (9.8)
2V 4 4 D
[
and
+1 1
J
MC P 4 AD 4
(9.9)
D
=
Bi 2V EHTD Bi
EHTD and MC P de f i ned by Eqns . ( 9 . 3 ) and (9.4) are both accurate
geome tr i c factors for the rec tangular brick shape wi th the intermed i ate
8 and B i va lues that occur in the rectangular b r i ck freez i ng da t a from
wh ich they were developed . For other cond i t i ons they may not be
accurate .
One pos s i b l e app roach for the current work was to seek to ex tend the
MC P and EHTD de f i n i t ions to a w i der range of geome t r i es and
env ironmental cond it ions to enhance the ir versat i l i ty . If th is was
succ essful then there wou ld be l i ttle bene f i t in seek i ng to develop
comp l etely d i f ferent geometr i c fac tors . The re fore the ap p roach taken
was to i nves t i gate the MC P and EHTD conc ep ts in deta i l , and then to
assess whether the ir l ack o f fit to data was suf f i c iently great to
j us t i fy cons i der i ng other a l t ernat i ve geome tr i c fac tor s .
I f both MC P and EHTD can be made accurate for a w i de range of

cond i t i ons and geometr i es then the cho ice be tween the two conc ep ts must
b e made by cons i der i ng other cr i t er i a such as :
( a ) concep tual understand i ng and s i mp l ic i t y
( b ) ease and accuracy of calculat ion for a wide range of obj e c t
geome t r i es .
Because the equa t ions to calculate MC P and EHTD , such as Eqs . ( 9 . 3 ) and
( 9 . 4 ) are par t l y emp i r i cally deve l oped i t i s poss i b l e that the s econd
cr i ter ion a l l ows a d i s t inction to be made .
9.3 VER I FICAT I ON OF THE EFFEC T OF ENVI ROMENTAL CONDIT I ONS

ON GEOMETRIC FAC TORS
As de f i ned by Eqs . ( 9 . 5 ) and ( 9 . 7 ) EHTD and MC P are both re lated to the

ratio of t slab / t . For i n f i n i t e cyl inders and spher es it was found
( Sec . 7 . 1 ) that the dependence of this rat io on B i , Ste and Pk was
suf f i c i en t l y weak for both freez i ng and thawing that the var i a t i on
Pred i c t ion of Freez ing and Thaw i ng Times 1 84
could b e i gnored . For other mul t i -d i mens i onal shapes the B i effect
wou ld b e expec ted to b e larger because the surface is not i sothermal
wi th r espect to pos i t i on and the degree of approach t o a constant
sur fac e temperature is Biot number dependen t . Where mos t of the
resi stance is int ernal ( B i � m ) , sur face area not d irectly adj ac ent to
the thermodynam i c centre w i l l have l i ttle effect on the change in
temperature at the centre . Conv ersely i f mos t of the res i stance is
ex ternal ( B i � ) . then a l l the sur face ar ea of the obj ect is equa lly
e f fec t i ve and no fur ther correc t i on to 2V/ AD i s needed .
Free z i ng and thaw i ng t i mes were calculated for d i fferent B i , Ste and Pk
values u s i ng the f i n i te d i ff erence and f i ni te el ement me thod s .
Calculat ions were made for a range of di fferent i n f i n i t e rod , f i n i t e
cy l i nder and rectangular b r i c k shap es as we l l as for the equ i va l en t
slab shape so tha t the dependence of t slab /t on Bi , Ste and Pk cou ld be
exam i ned .
The f i n i t e d i f f erence method resul ts for free z i ng and thaw ing of two
i nf i n i te rod shap es are shown in Tab le 9 . 1 . These are typ i cal for al l
the shapes , for both free z i ng and thaw ing , and for both the numer i ca l
methods used . For each of the shap es t ested the effect of changes i n
Ste and P k , due t o changes in T a and T in ' wer e far less than the e ff ec t
of changes i n B i for the ranges of cond i t i ons typ i ca l l y encountered i n
prac t i ce . The Biot number effec t must be tak en i n t o account but the
Ste and Pk effects are smal l . The Ste and Pk effects were most
impor tant for thaw i ng , that process changed t slab / t by less
and for
than ±5 % over the full range of Ste and Pk va lues typ ically encountered
in prac t i c e . The i n i t i al approach was to ignore the Pk and Ste
effec ts .
9.4 D EV ELO PMENT O F IM PROVED GEOMETR I C FACTORS FOR MU LT I- DIMEN SIONAL

R EGU LAR SHAPES
The analysis of the p rev ious sect i on conf irmed that for regular
mul t i - d i mens i onal shapes , accurate geomet r i c factors can p robab l y b e
defined solely a s func t i ons o f B i and parameters that descr i b e the
shape , wi thout i ntroduc i ng s i gn i f i cant error into the pred i c t i on
method :
Pred i c t i on of Freez ing and Thawi ng T i me s 1 85
Geometr i c Fac tor = f ( Bi , �1' �2 ) (9 . 1 0 )

The ex i s t i ng formu l ae for EHTD and MC P ( Eqs . ( 9 . 3 ) and (9.4)) w ere
curve- f i t ted to exper imental data for freez ing of rectangular b r i ck
shapes wh i ch were both l i mi ted in range of �1' �2 and B i , and a ffec ted
by exper imental error . To deve lop an improved emp i r i ca l geome t r i c
fac tor bet ter data were consi dered necessary . A n alternat ive data se t
that shows the geome try effect wi thout mask i ng by exper i me ntal
uncerta i nty was deve loped by using numer i ca l pred i c t ion methods for
regul ar mu l ti - d imens i onal shapes .
The numer i c a l ca lculat ions were carr i ed ou t over a wi der range of

cond i t ions than the pub l i shed exper imental dat a . Freez i ng t i mes were
calculated for fre e z i ng of the inf i n i te rod , fin ite cy l i nder and
rectangu l ar b r i ck shap es us i ng the f i n i te d i fferenc e me thod . B i ot
numb er was var i ed from 0 . 0 1 to 1 00 . 0 , and �1 and �2 from 1 . 0 to 10.0.
For the rect angu lar br i ck shape on ly the ten poss ible comb inat ions
der i ved from �1 and �2 values of 1 .0 , 1 . 582 , 2 . 50 and 4.0 were
i nv es t i gated due to l im i t a t ions in compu t a t i on r esourc es . The
equ ivalent slab shap e free z i ng t i mes were a lso ca lculated usi ng the
f i n i te d i ff erence me thod . Equat ions (9.2) and (9.9) were used to
calculate EHTD and MC P . Using the same pred ict ion method for both the
mul ti -d i mens ional shapes and the equ ivalent s l ab g i ves a sys tema t i c
error cance l l i ng e ffect s o that the results reflec t a lmos t ent i r e ly the
var i a t i ons in geome tr i c factor s . Cal cul at ions for some runs us i ng the
full f i n i te element method formulat ion gave i dent ical results to the
f i n i te d i f f erence me thod , so the ful l f i n i te e l ement me thod formul a t ion
was not used for the full set of data . As sl i gh t changes in the
geome t r i c fac tors can occur wi th env ironmental cond i t ions , all
calculat ions were made a t i ntermed iate Ste and Pk values to average
these e ffects . A ful l set of data was not calcul ated for tha w i ng as a
tr i a l of some rep resentat i ve calculat ions y i e lded very simi l a r MCP and
EHTD values to those calcul ated for freez i ng .
The numer i ca l l y calculated results are are tabulated i n App . C ( Tabl e

C . 1 ) . Apart from some random error introduced b y s l i ght i mprec i s i on i n
the numer i cal calcu l a t i ons , espec i a l ly a t extremes o f the range o f Bi ,
the r esul ts showed a number of cons is tent patterns. Each shape was
cons i dered to have thre e d imens ions , taken in order of s i z e . The f i r s t
Pred i c t i on o f Freez i ng and Tha w i ng T i mes 1 86
d imens ion was the character i s t i c d ime ns ion and had an e ffect equal to
that of a slab for i nf in i te rods , rect angul ar b r i cks and squat
cy l i nders ( f i n i t e cyl i nders w i th D r � D y ) , and an effect equal to that
of an i n f in i te cy l i nder for short cy l i nders ( f i n i t e cy l i nders w i th D r �
D y ) . The e ffec t of each of the other d imen s i ons on the rat io o f
t s lab / t f o r each shape cou l d b e separated . A number of trends were
ev i dent
( a ) the e ff ec t of the second d imens ion for infinite rods and
rectangular b r i cks was equal
( b ) the e ffect of the second and th ird d i mensi ons for the squat
cy l i nders ( cons i der i ng the th ickness as the f irst d i mens ion and the
d i ame t er as two equ ivalent d i mens ions ) were b oth the same , and were
equal to the e f fect of the second d i mens ion i n inf i n i te rods and
rec tangu lar bri ck s
( c ) the e ffec t of the th ird d imens ion i n short cy l i nders ( consi der i ng
the d i ame ter as the f i rst two d i mens ions and the hei ght or l ength
as the th ird ) was the same as the effec t of the th ird d i mens ion in
rec tangular b r i ck s , but was l ess than the effect of the second
d imens i on i n i n f i n i t e rods and rectangu lar b r i ck s .
The va lue of t slab / t changed wi th B i ot numb er . The va l ue o f B i at
wh ich the change with respect to B i was greatest depended on the rat io
o f d i mens ions :
( d ) as e 1 or e 2 i ncreased the change occurred at l ower Bi values
( e ) for h i gh e 1 and e 2 v a lues as B i ��, the values o f MC P and EHTD both
t ended to s l ab l i mi ts ( for inf ini te rod s , rec t angu lar b r i ck s and
squat c y l i nders ) or i n f in i t e cy l i nder l im i t s ( for sho r t cy l i nde r s )
( f ) for l ow e 1 and e 2 va lues as B i � � , the val ues of MC P and EHTD b oth
tend to some o ther l i mi ts wh i ch are frac t ions of the v a l u es as
B i +O .
( g ) as B i +O the values o f MC P and EHTD both depend only on 2 V / AD .
U s i ng non-l i near r egress ion of the numer i ca l data set , a numb er of

func t i ons were dev e l oped to calculate EHTD and MC P for all t h e regular
shap es . The s i mp l es t forms that gave r easonab l e pred i c t ion accuracy
wer e :
P r e d i c t ion o f Fr eez i ng and Thawi ng T imes 1 87
EHTD G1 + G2 [ r.,<e,l + (1 - f 2 < 81) )

]
0.73
?
]
81 1
+ G3 [ r.,<e,l 82
+ (1 - f 1 2( 82) )
0 . 50
� (9.1 1 )
and
MC P
( 2 - G1 ) f ( f 1 3 ( G2 , ) 0 . 63 8iO .
39
34 8� 43 - 1 )
+
1 .. 81) (1 .
D
•
0 39 22
+ G3 f 1 .. ( f 1 3 ( G3 , 8 2 ) ) 0 . 63 8i · (1 . 51 8;· - 1 )
+ [ 1 - f 1 .. ( (f 1 3 ( G2 , 8 1 ) + f 1 3 ( G3 , 8 2 ) ) I ( G2 G3 + 1) ) ] .
[
( G1 + G2/ 8 1 + G 3 / 8 2 )
(9.12)
(G1 + G2 0 . 7 3 / 8�·50 + G3 0 . 5 0 / 8�· 69 )
1 . 77 1 1 . 34 . 77
where f 1 ( S) 2 . 32/ 8 (8i + 2 . 32/ 81 )
2
92
f 1 3( G, 8) G 2 . 00/ 81 ·
3
f I .
. ( X) x/ ( 8i 1 . 4 + x )
and the v a l u es o f G 1 , G2 and G3 a r e g i ven i n Tab l e 9 . 2 .
The p r i nc ip l es beh ind the methods to calcu l ate EHTD and MC P wer e
deve l oped from the ab ove observed trends i n the t s l ab / t data . For the
MC P conc ep t the A D / 2 V r a t i o was i ncorporated i n d ependent l y ( Eq . ( 9 .7 ) )
whereas for the EHTD c o nc ep t i t was inc luded i n the geome t r i c fac tor
i t se l f .
The geome t r i c fac tor c a n b e i n fl ue nced by u p to thr e e d imens ions for
any shap e . F i r st l y , the e f f e c t of the f i r s t ( charac ter i s t i c ) d i me ns i on
i s added ( G1 for EHTD and 1 .0 for MC P ) . Wh ere the char ac t er i st i c
d i mens ion can b e measured i n mor e than one d i me ns i on , the e f f ec t of
each of the add i t i o n a l d imens i ons i s to i nc rease the v a l u e o f G 1 by
one . The data in Tab l e 9 . 2 i l l us t r ate th i s i dea . The e f fe c t s of each
o f the other d imen s i on s ar e then ca lcu lated and summed as needed .
As 8 i +O the e f fec t depends on the AD/ 2 V rat i o o n l y . For reg u l ar sha p e s
AD/ 2V 2 G 1 + G2 / S 1 +G 3 / 8 2 s o for EHTD the add i t ions ar e G2/ 8 1 and/or
G3/ S 2 , wh i le for MCP there i s z ero add i t i on a s the e ff ec t of AD / 2V has

a l r eady b e en i nc l uded .
As 8i +oo the e ffect of each d i mens i on i s l ess than that sugge s t ed by the
AD/ 2V r a t i o so the e f f e c t o f ea c h d imens i on is a frac t ion of G2/ S 1

P r ed i c t ion of Freez i ng and Tha w i ng T i mes 1 88
and /or G3/ e 2 for EHTD and is greater than zero for MC P . The frac t ional
values , wh i ch are d i fferent for each d i mens ion because the ef fec t of
the th ird d i mens i on is l ess than the effect of the second d imen s ion ,
are g i ven b y 0 . 7 3/ e � · 50 and 0 . 5 2 / e � · 6 9 respec t i v e ly for EHTD .
For MC P the f i nal t e rm ca lculates the mod i f i ca t ion t o MC P requ i r ed to

al ter the effec t
o f the AD/2V rat i o . I t i s based on the f ac t that as
B i � , MC P � EHTD ( B i � ) / EHTD ( B i � m ) .
For the EHTD concep t the exp ress ion is comp let ed by a B i ot nu mber
we igh t i ng func t ion that calculates the relat i ve con t r i b u t ion of the
Bi � and the B i � m t erms in the ef fect of each d imens ion . The equa t ion
can b e wr i t ten in general terms as :
EHTD = XI ( EHTD Bi � ) + ( 1 - x
l ) ( EHTD Bi � m ) (9.13)
where x
l Biot numb er we ight ing func t i on ( 0 � x
l � 1). The Bi va lue
at wh ich the max imum rate of change , from one t erm to the o ther , occurs
is dependent on the re lat i ve s i z e of tha t d imens ion compared w i th the
charac t er i s t i c d i me ns ion .
For the MC P concep t the transi t ion i s more d i f f i cu l t to calculate as

MCP goes through a max i mum va lue b e tween the two B io t number ex tremes .
Ther e fore the express i o n inc ludes an extra Blot number correct ion as
well as a B i we igh t i ng func t ion s im i lar to that used for EHTD . Wr i t t en
i n general terms :
MC P = X 2 MC P B i � m + ( 1 X 2 ) ( EHTD Bi � I EHTD Bi � m )
-
(9.1 4)
where X 2 = B l o t numb e r we i gh t i ng funct ion ( 0 � X 2 � 1 ) and MC P B i � m is a
func t ion i nc lud i ng a t e rm that increases as B i i ncreases .
Tab l e 9 . 3 shows the adequacy of the f i t to the numer i ca l t s l ab / t dat a

of ( a) the old EHTD formula ( Eq . ( 9 . 3 ) ) , ( b ) the new EHT D formu l a
( Eq . ( 9 . 1 1 ) ) , ( c ) the old MC P formula ( Eq . ( 9 . 4 ) ) and ( d ) the new MC P
formula ( Eq . ( 9 . 1 2 ) ) . The new vers ions of EHTD and MC P are s i g n i f i cant
imp rov ements over the older ver s i ons . Th is was expec ted b ecause
Eqs . ( 9 . 3 ) and ( 9 . 4 ) were b o th developed from data for the r ectangular
on ly and for a l imi t ed range of Bi , e 1 and e 2 v a lues .
b r i ck shap e The
inaccuracy in the improved MC P and EHTD formulae ( ab ou t ±3% at the 95%
l evel of con f i denc e ) is l ikely to be insign i f i can t compared wi th
exper imental uncerta int i es . There fore the introduc t ion o f further new
Pred i c t ion of Freez i ng and Thaw i ng T i mes 1 89
terms i nto Eqs . ( 9 . 1 1 ) and/ or ( 9 . 1 2 ) ( or deve l opment of a new emp i r i cal

formula ) , to relate EHTD and MC P more c lose ly to a 1 , a 2 and B i wou ld b e
d i f f i cu l t to j u s t i fy . I t must be rememb ered that the S t e and Pk
e ff ec ts ( of up to ±5% ) have b een i gnored .
Equa t i ons ( 9 . 1 1 ) and ( 9 . 1 2 ) were f i tted for B i i n the range 0.01 to

1 00 . 0 and a from 1 . 0 to 1 0 . 0 for f i n i t e cyl i nders and i n f i n i t e rod s ,
and a 1 and a 2 from 1 . 0 to 4 . 0 for rec tangular b r i ck s . The range for
the b r i c k shap e may appear more restr i c t i ve . However , the relat ionsh i p
o f EHTD and MC P for rec tangular br i ck s was found t o b e a summat ion of
the inf i n i te rod and the f i n i te cy l i nder terms . There for e the f i n i te
cy l i nder and i n f i n i te rod data prov ided i n format ion that all owed an
accurate form of the re l a t ionsh i p for the rectangular b r i c k shape to be
found that was ap p l i cab l e bey ond the range of the data for the
rec tangular br ick shape i tse lf .
9 .5 TEST I NG Or IM PROVED GEOM ETR IC FACTORS AGAI NST EXPERIMENTAL D ATA

FOR MU LT I-D IMENSIONAL R EGU LAR SHAPES
By use of Eqs . ( 9 . 5 ) and ( 9 . 7 ) , b oth EHTD and MC P can b e app l i ed to any

slab pred ic t ion me thod . A number of accurate s i mple pred i c t ion
formulae for both freez i ng and thaw i ng are ava i l ab l e or were developed
in Chap . 7 . A l l of these me thods are of s im i lar pred i c t ion ac curacy
and calculate process t i mes h ighly corre lated w i th numer i ca l method
pred i c t ions . Rather than t est the geometr i c factors wi th each s l ab
pred i c t ion method i nd i v idua lly , it was dec i ded to i n i t i a l ly use only
one s l ab pred i c t ion me thod . The f in i te d i fferenc e method was chosen as
i t best allows the geometry e ffect to b e stud i ed on i ts own .
The p rev i ou s , and the i mp roved ver s ions o f the expr ess ions to calculate
MC P and EHTD were tested aga i nst the Ty lose rectangular b r i ck fr eez i ng
and tha w i ng data ( Cl e l and & Ear l e 1 97 9 b and Tab l e 6 . 5 ) . A summary o f
the p red i c t i o ns i s given i n Tabl e 9 . 4 .
For Ty lose rectangular b r i ck freez i ng the mean pred i c t ion error was
off-set from zero for both . the geometr i c fac tors . The full f i n i t e
d i ffer ence me thod resu l ts a l so d i sp l ayed an off-set mean pred i c t i on
error of the same magni t ude . Cl e land et a l ( 1 982 ) showed that th i s was
Pred ic t ion of Freez i ng and Thawing T i mes
probab ly due to non- equ il i b r i um freez ing rate effects not taken into
account i n calculat ions by the f in i te d i fference me thod . U s i ng the
f i n i t e d i f ference method as the slab pred i c t ion method wou ld there fore
b e expec t ed to l ead to a s im i lar off-set of the mean.
For freez i ng , the standard dev iat ion of pred i c t i ons was low , and the
corre lat ion coe f f i c i ent ( compared wi th the full f i n i te d i f ference
method results ) was h igh for both geometr i c fac tors . Th i s ver i f i es the
assump t i on that the Ste and Pk effec ts on t slab / t and hence EHTD and
MC P wer e suff i c ient ly sma ll to be ignored , and also prov i des
con f i rmat ion that for freez i ng the lack of fit of Eqs . ( 9 . 1 1 ) and
( 9 . 1 2 ) has not decreased the overa ll ag reement with exper i mental data .
For Tylose rec tangu l ar b r i ck thawi ng , the mean pred i c t ion errors for
Eqs . ( 9 . 1 1 ) and (9.12) were not s i g n i f i cantly d i f ferent from z er o .
However , the standard dev i a t i on o f the pred i c t ion error was h i gher than
that for the full finite d i f ference method pred i c t i ons and the
corre l a t i on coe f f i c i ent compared wi th the fu l l f i n i te d i ff erenc e method
results was low , for both the geometr i c factors . Th i s suggests that
the i naccuracy a r i s i ng from the improved EHTD and MC P formulae is
suff i c iently large to be d i s t ingu ished from the exper imen tal
uncerta i n ty . Two reasons ex i s t . F i rstly the rec tangular b r i ck tha w i ng
exper iments had less exper i mental uncer ta inty than the rec tangular
br i ck freez i ng data so the lack of f i t is more d i sc er n i b l e for thawi ng
but not for freez i ng . Secondly , i t was shown in Sec . 9 . 3 that the
e ffec t of Ste and Pk on t slab / t was a s much as ±5% dur i ng thaw i ng .
The se effects were ignored by Eqs . ( 9 . 1 1 ) and ( 9 . 1 2 ) , so correlat ion o f
p r ed i c t ion error s wi th S t e o r P k would ind i cate whe ther th i s was a
contr i b ut i ng fac tor . The correlat ion coe ff i c ients w i th Ste and Pk were
- 0 . 73 and 0 . 06 r espec t i ve l y , i nd i cat i ng that neg l ec t of the e f f ec t of
Ste was s i gn i f i cant .
Al though better pred i c t i ons for thaw i ng cou ld be ach ieved by add ing
terms i nvo lv i ng Ste, espec ial l y , i n to Eqs. ( 9 . 1 1 ) and ( 9 . 1 2 ) th i s s t ep
was not taken as the improvement would on ly be ev ident w i th very
accurate exper i mental data . In commerc i a l prac t i c e , food e ng i neers
mak i ng thawi ng t ime p red i c t i ons cannot determine data to represent the
cond i t i o ns as accurate l y as i s pos s i b l e in a researc h l aboratory , so
Pred i c t ion o f Freez ing and Thaw i ng T i me s 191
the ex tra t e rms wou l d not b e he lpfu l t o them .
An interest ing facet of Tab l e 9 . 4 i s that ov era l l the o ld MC P and EHTD

formu l ae perform as wel l as the new on es . Th i s might sug ges t that the
introduc t i o n of the new formulae was not worthwh i l e . Howev e r , i t must
be noted that the exper imental data se t does not cover as wi de a range
of cond i tions or geome tr i es as the numer i ca l data set of Tab l e 9.3 .
The o l d EHTD and MC P formulae are inaccurate i n parts of the w i der
range o f cond it ions and shapes covered by Tab l e 9 . 3 so the ir u se for
some B and Bi comb inat ion s , or shapes other than rectangular b r i ck s ,
cou l d l ead to subs tan t i a l pred i c t ion error s . There fore the i r
rep lacement by Eqs . ( 9 . 1 1 ) and (9.12) is j u st i f ied because o f the
reduced p red i c t i on inaccuracy r i sk s , desp i t e some add i t ional
comp l ex i t y .
9.6 TEST I NG OF IM PRO VED GEOMETR IC FAC TOR S I N COMBI NAT ION WITH
S IM PLE PRED ICTION FORMU LAE
The pred i c t ions of the imp roved geometr i c fac tors in comb ina t ion w i th
the s i mp l e fr eez i ng and thawing t i me pred i c t ion me thods of Sec . 7 . 3 are
summar i sed i n Tab l e 9 . 5 .
For free z i ng they a l l p er form simi l ar l y - those app ear i ng to be bet t er

due to l ower standard dev i at ions also have l ower corre l at i on
coeff i c ients w i t h the full f i n i t e d i fference method pred ict i ons . The
means are not off-set from z ero l ike the f i n i te d i f f erence mean , but
the standard dev iat i ons are o f s i m i l ar size to the finite d if f er e nce
me thod s tandard dev i a t ion . The offse t mean for the f in i te d i f ference
method pred i c t ions ar i se s from the rate e ffec ts d i scussed b y C l e l and et
a l ( 1 9 82 ) . The c loseness of the standard dev i a t ion for the finite
d if ferenc e me thod and those for the s i mp l e methods ind icates that for
freez i ng t i me pred i c t i on any of the e i ght comb inat ions in Tab l e 9 . 5 can
b e used w i thou t i ntroduc ing s i gn i f i cant pred i c t ion method uncerta inty .
The s i tuat ion for thawi ng t i me pred i c t ions was s im i l ar . All e i ght
method comb i na t i ons are comparab l e , but the neg lect of Ste and P k
e ffec t s o n EHTD and MCP has b o t h l owered the corr e l a t ion coeff i c i ent
with the f i n i t e d ifference method pred i c t ions , and l ed to the standard
Pred i c t ion of Freez i ng and Tha w i ng T i mes 1 92
dev iat ion b e ing s l ight ly h i gher than for the f i n i t e d i ff erence metho d .
Because E q . ( 9 . 1 1 ) and ( 9 . 1 2 ) were de ve loped from numer ical data they

are app l i cab l e over a wide range of cond i tion s . For a l l the regular
shap es cons i dered the l im i ts are :
0.0 < Bi < 1 00
1 .0 < 8 1 < 10
1 .0 < 82 < 10
The formulae may b e app l i cab l e outs i de these ranges but at the expense
of reduced ac curacy . Howe ver , v irtua l l y a l l p rac t ical food fr eezing
and tha w i ng s i tua t ions are covered .
9 .7 SUMM ARY
The e ffec t of geometry on free z i ng and thaw i ng t i mes , ev en for regular

mu l ti -d i mens ional shap es , is suff ic iently comp l ex that no accurate
geometr i c fac tor has been der i ved ana ly t i ca l l y .
There are two useful conc ep ts to accoun t for geome try - EHTD and MC P .
Formulae to calculate both geometr i c factors for fr eez i ng of
rec tangular b r i c k shap es under a l i mi ted range of cond i t ions had been
prev iously dev e loped by emp ir i cally f i t t i ng rectangular bri ck freez ing
exper imental dat a .
B y f i tt ing a n a lt erna t i v e data set calculated by numer i ca l methods ,

i mproved formulae for MC P and EHTD were de ve l oped . These are accurate
for both freez ing and thaw i ng of an ex tended range of regular
mul t i - d i mens ional shap e s , and for a wi der range of cond i t ions than the
or i g ina l formulae .
Used in comb ina t ion w i th accurate slab fr eez ing and thaw i ng t i me
pred i c t ion me thods , b o th of the i mproved geome tr i c fac tors gave good
f i t to exper imental data for freez i ng and thaw i ng of rec tangular
b r i ck s . N e i ther of the geome t r i c factors introduc ed s i gnif i cant
p red i c t ion uncerta inty .
For p re d i c t ion of freez i ng and thawi ng · of regular shaped

mul t i -d i mens ional obj ec ts there were no grounds to re commend e i th er o f
Pred i c t ion of Freez i ng and Thawi ng Times 1 93
the two geometr i c conc ep ts ahead of the other ( s im i lar ly , none of the
slab pred i c t ion approaches stood ou t as b e ing s i gn i f i cantly more
accurate or s i mp l e to u se ) .
Tab l e 9.1 The Effec t of B i , Ste and Pk on the Rat io of Free z i ng and
Thaw i ng T i mes For I n f i n i t e Rods To the Times For the
Equ i va l ent Slab
B1 Bi Ta T in t slab /t Effect of
1 .0 0.1 - 40 . 0 20 . 0 1 . 99
1 .0 0.1 - 30 . 0 20.0 1 . 99 Ste
1 .0 0. 1 -20 . 0 20 . 0 2 . 00
1 .0 1 .0 -40 . 0 5.0 1 . 85
1 .0 1 .0 -30 . 0 20 . 0 1 .91 Ste and Pk
1 .0 1 .0 - 20 . 0 35 . 0 1 . 96
1 .0 1 .0 5.0 -1 0 . 0 1 .9
1 .0 1 .0 20 . 0 -20 . 0 1 . 8� Thaw i ng
1 .0 1 .0 35 . 0 -30 . 0 1 . 80
1 .0 1 0.0 -30 . 0 5.0 1 . 69

1 .0 10.0 -30 . 0 20 . 0 1 .72 Pk
1 .0 1 0.0 -30 . 0 35.0 1 . 75
2.0 0.1 - 40 . 0 20 . 0 1 . 47
2.0 0.1 - 30 . 0 20 . 0 1 . 48 Ste
2 .0 0. 1 - 20 . 0 20 . 0 1 . 48
2.0 1 .0 - 40 . 0 5.0 1 . 26
2.0 1 .0 -30 . 0 20.0 1 .31 Ste and Pk
2.0 1 .0 -20 . 0 35 . 0 1 . 35
2.0 1 .0 5.0 -1 0.0 1 . 35

2.0 1 .0 20 . 0 -20 . 0 1 . 26 Thawing
2.0 1 .0 35 . 0 -30 .0 1 . 23
2.0 10.0 -30 . 0 5.0 1 .10

2 .0 10.0 -30 . 0 20 . 0 1 .1 1 Pk
2.0 10.0 -30 . 0 35 . 0 1 .12
Pre d i c t ion of Free z i ng and Thawi ng Ti mes 1 94
Tab l e 9 . 2 Constan ts For Pred i c t ion Of EHTD and MC P
Shap e Gl G2 G3
S l ab s 0 0
I n f i n i te C y l i nder s 2 0 0
Spheres 3 0 0
F i n i te Cy l i nder s 2 0
o r ;:: D Y
F i n i t e C y l inders 2 0
or s Dy
I n f i n i t e Rods 0
Two- D i mens iona l 0
Irregular Shap es
Rec t angular Br i ck s
Three- D i mens iona l
Irregular Shapes
Pred i c t ion of Freez ing and Thaw ing T i mes 1 95
Tab le 9 . 3 Summary of Percentage D i f ferences Between Numer ical ly

Calcul ated Freez i ng T i mes For F i n i te Cyl inder s , Inf in i te Rods
and Rec tangular Br i cks and Freez i ng T i mes Calculated By
S imp le Pred i c t ion Formu lae 1
Shap e Geome t r i c Equat ion Mean Std Oev 2 Min 2 Max 2

Fac tor (%) (%) (%) (%)
EHTD (9.3) 3.8 7.2 -7 . 0 24 . 8

All Data EHTD (9 .1 1 ) -0 . 5 1 .6 -7 . 0 5.2
( 270 runs ) MC P (9.4) -2 . 4 9.2 -31 .5 25 . 0
MC P (9.1 2) -0 . 3 1 .7 -7 . 0 4. 1
F i n i t e C y l inders EHTD ( 9.3 ) 0.1 3.9 -6 . 6 7.8

Or � Dy EHTD (9.1 1 ) -0 . 4 0 .8 -2 . 5 1 .2
( 63 runs ) MC P (9.4) -1 1 . 3 10.5 -31 . 5 0.3
MC P (9.12) 0 .5 1 .3 -2 . 2 4.1
F i n i te C y l i nders EHTD (9.3) 6.4 9.0 -5 . 9 24 . 8

Or � Dy EHTD (9 . 1 1 ) -0 . 5 2.3 -7 . 0 5.0
( 5 4 runs ) MC P (9 . 4) -4 . 2 6.3 - 25 . 7 0.3
MC P (9.12) -0 . 7 2. 1 -7 . 0 3.5
EHTD (9.3) 3 .6 4.7 -2 . 9 1 3.8

I n f i n i t e Rods EHTD (9 . 1 1 ) -0 . 6 1 .2 -3 . 7 2.4
( 6 3 runs ) MC P (9.4) 4.2 7.1 -1 .2 25 . 0
MC P ( 9 . 1 2) -0 . 5 1 .3 -4 .2 2. 1
EHTD (9 . 3 ) 4 .9 8.2 -7 . 0 24 . 4
Rectangu l ar
Br icks EHTD (9.1 1 ) -0 . 5 1 .7 -4 . 4 5.3
( 90 runs ) MC P (9.4) 0.3 4.7 -7 . 6 1 2.5
MC P (9. 1 2) -0 . 7 1 .7 -6 . 0 3. 1
1 U s i ng the f i n i t e d if ference method as the slab pred ict ion method .

2 S td Dev s tandard de viat ion , M i n
= m i n imum, Max
= max i mum. =
Pred i c t ion of Freez i ng and Thawing T i mes 1 96
Tab le 9 . 4 Summary o f Percentage D i f ferences Between Exper imental

Freez i ng and Thawing Times For Tylose Rectangular Br icks and
Freez ing and Thawing Times Calculated Us ing S i mple Geometr i c
Fac tors 1
Data Geometr i c Equat ion Mean Std Dev 2 Min 2 Max 2 Corr 3
Fac tor (%) (%) ( %) (%) FDM
FDM .. -4 . 4 6.6 - 20 . 7 9.8 1 . 00

Freezing FEM s .. -5 . 9 7.1 -24 . 1 9 .8 0 . 97
( C l e land & EHTD (9 . 3 ) -5 . 7 7.3 -23 . 0 9 .8 0 . 90
Ear l e 1 979b )
EHTD (9 . 1 1 ) -3 . 8 6.6 -21 3 • 9 .2 0 . 86
( 72 runs )
MC P (9 .4) -6 . 0 5.5 -1 6.8 7.3 0 . 67
MC P (9 . 1 2) -4 . 9 7. 1 -22 . 7 10.9 0 . 89
FDM .. 0.6 3. 1 -6 . 0 7.9 1 . 00

FEM s .. -6 . 3 3.4 -1 2 . 9 1 .2 0 . 66
Thaw i ng
EHTD (9.3) -3 . 5 5.4 -15.0 6.4 0.06
( Tab le 6 . 6 )
EHTD (9 . 1 1 ) -2 . 2 5.3 -1 2 . 9 10.9 0 . 06
( 68 runs )
MC P (9 .4 ) -0 . 6 5.8 -1 2 . 6 13.7 -0 . 0 3
MC P (9 . 1 2) -3 . 4 5.2 -1 3.0 7.1 0. 1 1
1 U s i ng the f i n ite d if ference method as the slab pred ict ion method .
2 Std Dev s tandard dev iat ion , Min min imum, Max
= = max imum. =
3 Correlat ion coe f f ic ient ( r ) compared with the percentage d i ff erences

for the full f in i te d i f ferenc e me thod •
.. FDM = full f in i t e d ifference method , FEM s s impl i f ied f i ni t e e l ement

me thod .
Pred ict ion of Freez ing and Thawi ng Times 1 97
Tab l e 9 . 5 Summary of Percentage D i fferences Between E xper imenta l

Freez i ng and Thawi ng T imes For Ty l ose Rectangular Br i ck s and
Freez i ng and Thaw i ng Times Calculated By S imple Pred i c t i on
Formu l ae
Data Slab Pred ict ion Geometr ic 1 Mean Std Dev 2 Min 2 Max 2 Corr 3
Me thod Factor (%) (%) (%) (%) FDM
FDM " -4 . 4 6.6 - 20 . 7 9.8 1 . 00

EHTD -0 . 1 4.9 -8 . 9 9 .7 0 . 57
Eq. ( 7 . 7 )
MC P -1 . 3 5.2 -1 1 . 0 8.0 0 . 66
Freez i ng
Cl e land & EHTD 0.8 5.3 - 9 .0 15.5 0 . 49
( C le l and & Ear le 1 9 82b
Ear le 1 97 9 b ) MC P -0 . 4 5.5 -1 0.5 12.7 0 .59
( 7 2 runs) EHTD -0 . 8 6.3 -1 6 . 4 1 1 .2 0 . 91
Pham 1 98 4 c
MC P -1 . 9 6.8 -17 .9 13.4 0 . 94
Pham 1 9 83 EHTD -2. 1 6.0 -1 5 . 9 1 1 .2 0 . 87
( Eq . ( 7 . 6 ) )
MC P -3 . 3 6.5 -17 .4 10.8 0 . 89
FDM " 0.6 3. 1 -6 . 0 7.9 1 . 00

EHTD -1 .6 4.3 -9 . 1 1 1 .5 0 . 28
Eq . ( 7 . 2 )
MC P -2 . 8 4.2 -9 . 8 7.7 0 . 36
Tha �o� i ng EHTD -2.3 5.3 -1 2.9 1 0 .6 0 . 36
Eq . ( 7 . 3 )
( Tab le 6 . 5 ) MC P -3 . 5 5.1 -1 3 . 4 6.6 0 . 42
( 68 runs ) EHTD -2 .6 6.0 -1 5 .6 1 1 .9 0 . 35
Eq . ( 7 . 4 )
MC P -3 . 9 5.5 -16 . 1 7.8 0 . 43
EHTD -1 . 1 4.3 -1 1 5
• 7.9 0 . 35
Eq. ( 7 .5 )
MC P -2 . 4 4.4 -1 1 .5 6.3 0 . 40
1 EHTD from Eq . ( 9 . 1 1 ) , MC P from Eq . ( 9 . 1 2 ) .

= min imum, Max
= max imum. =
3 Correlation coeff ic ient ( r ) compared w i th the percent age d ifferences

for the ful l f in i te d i fference method .
" full f i n ite d i fferenc e method .
1 98
10 PREDICTION OF FREEZING AND THAW ING T IMES FOR MULT I-DIMENSIONAL

I RR EGU LAR SHAPES BY SIMPLE METHODS
T he prev ious three chap ters have covered the th ird and four th research
obj ect i ves set in Chap . 3 - assessment both of the accuracy of Group I
( s imp l e ) and Group I I ( numer i cal ) pred i c tion me thods for r egular shapes
and of Group II methods for irregular shapes . Chap ter 1 0 is concerned
wi th the f i fth obj ect i ve inves t i gat ion of the poss ib i l i ty o f
deve lop ing a Group I method t o pred ict freezing and thaw i ng t i mes for
irregular shapes .
10.1 I NTRODUCTION
No simp le methods suggested for ca lcu lat ion o f geometr i c fac tors from
f i rst p r i nc i p l es for freez i ng and thawing of irregular shaped obj ec ts
have proved accurat e . Rutov ( 1 936 ) and Mat t ( 1 964 ) used the AD/ 2V
ratio as a shape factor but it is known that th is i s not accurate when
Bi � . Smi th et al ( 1 967 ) , Smith et al ( 1 968 ) , Cl ary et al ( 1 968 ) ,
Smi th & Nelson ( 1 969 ) and Clary et al ( 1 97 1 ) def i ned a geometry i ndex
( the forerunner to EHTD ) , for the case of heat conduc t ion wi thout
change of phase and B i ��. For irregular geometr i es they calculated
the i r geometry i ndex from an e l l ipso ida l model shape that has equa l
orthogonal cross-sect ional areas and the same c haracter i s t i c th ickness
as those of the anoma l ous shape that it r eplac es .
The orthogonal
cross-secti ons taken were generally the smal l and largest that pass
through the thermodynami c c entre and l ie in the same p lane as the
character i st i c d imens ion . I t was unknown how th is method wou ld perform
for phase change and when B i -�.
For regular mul t i-d imens ional shapes use of the concepts of EHTD and
MCP led to accurate me thods to take accoun t of geometry in freez i ng and
thawing t i me pred i c tions . EHTD and MC P are calculated as funct ions o f
the Blot number and the two other geome try parameters C e 1 and e 2 ) that
d es cr ibe the regular geometr i es . It was cons i dered sens ib l e to try to
extend the methods to calculate EHTD and MC P t o irregular geometr i es .
I t was dec i ded to ignore any vari ation o f these geome t r i c factors w i th
Ste and Pk as th i s var i at ion would probably be small c ompared w i th the
Pred i c t ion o f Freez ing and Thawi ng Ti me s 1 99
B i and shape effec ts ( Sec . 9 . 3 ) .
10.2 GEOMETRY PARAMETERS
U s i ng Eqs . ( 9 . 2 ) and ( 9 . 9 ) the va lues of EHTD and MC P can be defined

from i nd i v idual exper i ments for a par t i cular shape ( Cleland & Earl e
1 98 2 b ) . Howe ver these determinat ions are both geometry and cond it ion
spec i f i c and do not nec essar i ly allow accurate and s impl e calcul at i ons
for other cond it ions or geometr ies . A major problem w i th deve lop ing
me thods to de term i ne EHTD and MCP from f irst princ ipl es is that apart
from D , A and V , there are few other eas i l y measured parameters that
can be used to charac ter i se all irregular shapes .
Even the character i s t i c ( fi r s t ) d imens ion , D, is not alway s

s t ra i g h t f o r w a r d to es timate . For an irregul ar shape D i s de fined
e i ther as ( a ) the smallest th ick ness measured by a l i ne that passes
through the thermodynam ic centr e , or ( b ) twice the shortest d i s tanc e
from the thermod ynamic centre t o the obj ects surface . The pos i t ion o f
the thermodynamic centre i s not always obv ious from examination o f the
obj ect and may mov e dur i ng the phase change process ( Fl eming 1 970 ) .
For most common shapes where surface boundary cond i t ions a re not
pos i t ion var i able ( such as those c o n s i d e r e d in th i s wo r k ) , the two
def in i t ions of D are v irt ua l l y equ i valent .
Poss ibly use ful measures of the effect of the second and th ird
d i mens ions are :
( a) The rat i o between the max imum d istance from the thermodynamic
centre to the surface and D/ 2 .
( b ) The rat io o f the major ax i s leng th to the minor ax i s l eng th for an
e l l i p t i ca l model cross-sect ions equal in area to the orthogonal
cross-sect ions o f the anoma lous shape ( Smith et a l 1 967 ) .
( c ) The ratio of the volume o f the obj ect compared w i th the volume for
a i n f in i te cyl inder ( two-d imens ional shapes ) or sphere
( three-d i mens ional shapes ) o f the same surface area .
These three parame t er s are h ighly correlated with each other as they
all measure in some way , the d i stor t ion of the shape from a inf i n i te
cylinder or sphere . Each has some d ifferent propert i es so all three
were inves ti gated to see if they could ind i v i dual l y , or i n comb ination ,
Pred ict ion of Freezing and Thaw ing T imes 200
prov i de s imple me thods to calculate geomeric factors for irregular

shapes .
A fourth but , very d ifferent , way to descr i b e an objects shape is to

def ine a regular shape that freezes or thaws i n the same t i me as the
obj ect under the same env ironmenta l cond itions . For example , Pham
( 1 98 4 c ) def ined an equ ivalent rectangular b r i ck shape for fini te
cyl inders , but th is led to uncerta inty in the shape f actor and
consequently underpred i c t ion of freez i ng and thaw i ng t i mes , espec ial ly
at high B i values ( Tab le 9 . 3 ) . Th is was because the s i z e o f the
equ ivalent b r i ck ( br ick wi th the same freez i ng or thawing t ime ) changes
w i th Biot numb e r . Al though th is approach has proved suc c essful for
some spec i f ical ly stud ied irregular shap es by approx imat ion to slab s ,
infinite cyl inders or spheres and defin ing equ iva lent d iamet ers
( Sec . 2 . 5 , Tab le A . 8 ) , it is unl ikely to lead to a me thod that can be
appl ied sy stemat ica l ly to a wide range of shapes with accuracy . I t was
dec i ded not to cons ider i t further un l ess a l l of the o ther approaches
proved unsu itab l e .
10.3 DEV ELO PMENT OF GEOMETRIC FACTOR S FOR MU LTI-DIMEN SIONAL

IRR EGU LAR SHAPES
Both EHTD and MC P are defined for any shape as B i � by the AD /2V rat io .
There fore the requ irement i s to develop a me thod to calculate the
change in these factors w i th B iot number , in as s impl e and as accurate
a manner as poss ib l e . The calculat ion me thod should only u se eas i l y
measured o r est imated geometry parameters such as those d iscussed in
Sec . 1 0 . 2 .
There are few experiment al data for free z i ng and thawing o f irregular
shaped obj ec ts ava i l ab l e in the l i terature , for wh ich the geometry and
cond it ions are suff i c iently accurate ly descr i bed , measured and
contro l l ed to a l l ow the ir u se in the pr esent s tudy . For thi s reason ,
the method of analysi s app l i ed was the same as that used for r egul ar
shap es ( Sec . 9 . 4 ) . I n i t ia l l y only the ratios of numerically calculated
freez ing and thawi ng t imes for the actual shape , and for the r eference
s l ab were used in the development of the geome tr i c factor s . Onl y the
var i at ions due to geometry and the e ffect of Bi were apparent in these
Pred i c t ion o f Freez ing and Thaw i ng T i me s 20 1
d a t a a s m i d - range S t e and Pk v a l u es were used . The cho i c e o f app roach
was e s p e c i a l ly important for the three-d imens iona l i r r eg u l ar shap es
wher e there was the poss ib i l i t y o f s y s t e ma t i c sour c e s of e x p er i me nta l
error i n the e x p er i menta l data ( Sec s . 5 . 9 . 3 , 5 . 9 . 4 and 8 . 4 ) .
E v e n though an i n f i n i te numb er of shapes are pos s i b l e , d ue to
l i m i ta t i ons in grid p repar a t ion t i me and compu ta t i on resourc e s ,
numer i ca l data were only c a l c u l ated for the e ight two-d i mens i ona l
obj e c t s and the four three-d imen s i o na l objects u sed i n exper i me n t s
( F ig s . 5 . 1 5 to 5 . 2 1 and 5 . 2 4 to 5.2 ) . A l so comp u t e r proc ess t i me

7
l i m i ta t i ons meant that computa t ions were not pos s i b l e for the f ul l
r ang e o f Bi values ; only the impor t a n t case wh e r e B i +� was c a l c u l a t ed .
The data are g i ven i n Tab le C . 2 . To suppl ement the data base , the
numer i ca l da t a for the regu l ar shap es were a ls o used ( Tab l e C . 1 ) . Any
me thod to ca l c u l a t e the geome t r i c factor for i r regu l a r shap es shou l d
a l s o b e ap p l i cab l e to reg u l ar shap es . Howe ver , lower accuracy compared
wi th the me thod s s p ec i f i c for regu l a r shap es , descr ibed i n Chap . 9 ,
wou ld be e x pec ted b ecause for the method to be u n i v e r sa l , less deta i l ed
i n format ion about the geome t r y can be i ncorporated . The r egu l ar shape
data both i ncreased the range o f geome t r y t yp e s and added i n format ion
abou t how the geome t r i c factors behave at i n t e r med i ate B i v a l u es . The
compos i te data set was s t i l l l i m i t ed in scope .
B y c urve f i t t i ng of th e numer i ca l data the fo l l ow i ng e xp r es s ions were
found to be of reasonab l e accurac y , b u t as s i m p l e as pos s i b l e :
EHTD G1 + G2 [� - ]( 1 f 1 5( V 1 ) + (1 - f l 5( V l ) ) IV
1 .4
l 7
[ ](
=
2A 1
L ,D f l 5( V2 ) 2. 5
1
_
+ G3 + ( 1 - f l 5( V2 ) ) I V2 7 ( 10. 1 )
2A 2
(
and
MC P
1 + ( 2 -G 1 ) f1 1 f 1 6 ( G2 , V 1 ) ) 0 . 65 B i 0 · 39 ( V 1 · 39 - 1 )
(
=
+ G3 f l 1 ( f l , ( G3 , V 2 ) ) 0 . 65 B i 0 . 39 v; · 2 6 - 1
+
rAD
L2v
I ( G1 + G2 rL l D -
I_2A 1
]
1 1 vl · 4 7 + G3 rL 0
L2A 2
2
- J
1 i v� · 7 5 ) - 1 ] o
o
(1 - f1 1 ( ( f 1 , ( G2 , V 1 ) + f 1 , ( G3 , V 2 ) ) I ( G2 G3 + 1) )) (1 0 •2)
where f 1 5 ( V ) • 3 . 56 1 v1 • 77 I ( Bi 1 · 3 4 + 3 . 56 1 v 1 · 7 7 )
f 1 ,( G, V) • G 3 .08/ v •
1 90
Pred iction o f Freezing and Thawing T imes 202
• X I ( B i 1 · 35 + X )
z per imeter l eng th o f the first and second
orthogonal cross-sec t ions (m)
area of the f ir s t and second or thogona l
cross-sect ions
rat io o f major a x i s leng th to minor ax i s l eng th for
an e l l i p se mode l l i ng an or thogona l cross- sec t ion
4A I nD 2
1
4A 2 1 nO 2
and the va lues of G1 , G2 and G3 are g i ven i n Tabl e 9 . 2 . Tab l e 1 0 . 1
g i ves the geome try parame ters used in Eqs . ( 1 0 . 1 ) and ( 1 0 . 2 ) for the
shapes used in th is study ( Tab les 6 . 6 and 6 . 7 ) .
Th ese equat ions use the second o f the shape parameters d i scussed in
Sec . 1 0 . 2 y e t are st i l l defin ite extens ions o f the methods deve loped i n
Sec . 9 . 4 f o r regular shap es . The techniques are s imi lar to that o f
Smith et al ( 1 967 ) in that the or thogona l cross - sect ions that pass
through the thermodynamic centre are used and the contribut ions to the
geometr i c factor calculated from each cross- sec t ion are summed ( th i s i s
also the case i n Eqs . ( 9 . 1 1 ) and ( 9 . 1 2 ) ) . Due to the l ack o f data ,
accurate f i t t i ng of all the coef f ic ients was not poss ible so many of
the coe f f i c ients have b een defined by ana logy to the methods developed
for the regular shape geometric factors ( for example ,
3 . 081 v 1 · 7 7 approx i mates 2 . 3 21 a 1 · 77 and B i 1 · 3 4 is reta ined to g ive the
B iot number we igh t i ng func t ions in the equat ion for EHTD ) . Equa t i ons
( 1 0 . 1 ) and ( 1 0 . 2 ) are very s i m i lar to Eqs . ( 9 . 1 1 ) and ( 9 . 1 2 ) because V
i s a parameter tha t i s c lose ly re lated to a for r egular shap es .

However , th i s means that for shapes increas ing l y d i storted from r egul ar
shapes the accur acy may be reduced . All of the irregular shapes used
in the ana lys i s were e i ther relative ly oval w i th no shar p contour
changes or were rectangular with square corners or edges ; so th i s was
not a probl em wi th th i s data set .
Tabl e 1 0 . 2 shows the f i t o f Eqs . ( 1 0 . 1 ) and ( 1 0 . 2 ) to the numer i ca l

data for regu lar shapes . Overal l the agreement i s good and i s only
sl ightly inferior to that d isplayed by the spec ial i sed methods ( Table
9.3) .
Pred ict i on o f Freez ing and Thawi ng T i me s 203
10.4 TESTI NG OF GEOMETRIC FACTORS AGAI NST EXPERIMENTAL DATA FOR

MU LT I- DIMENSIONAL SHAPES
Equat ions ( 1 0 . 1 ) and ( 1 0 . 2 ) can be used in conj unct ion w i th any of the
slab pred i c t ion me thod that had prev iously been used w i th Eqs . ( 9 . 5 )
and ( 9 . 7 ) , to pred i c t freez ing and thawi ng t imes for objects o f any
shape . Table 1 0 . 3 summar i ses the pred i c t ions aga i ns t the exper imental
data of C l eland & Ear le ( 1 979b) and Tab les 6 . 5 , 6 . 6 and 6 . 7 for
rec tangular b r i ck s , two- d i mens ional irregular shap es and
three-d imens iona l irregular shapes .
1 0. 4 . 1 Rec tangular Br ick Freez ing and Thawing
The pred ic t ions were almost iden t i cal to those d i splayed for E q . ( 9 . 1 1 )
and ( 9 . 1 2 ) in Tab les 9 . 4 and 9 . 5 . Th is con firms that for regular
shapes , the general calculat ion me thods for EHTD and MCP ( Eq s . ( 1 0 . 1 )
and ( 1 0 . 2 ) ) are equ ivalent to the spec ial i se d methods ( Eq s . ( 9 . 1 1 ) and
( 9 . 1 2 ) ) , and do not add s i gn i f icant unc erta inty to freez ing or thaw i ng
t ime pred ict ions .
10.4.2 Freez ing and Thaw ing of Two-D imensional Irregular Shapes
For the two-d imensiona l irregular shape dat a the mean pre d i c t ion errors
us i ng E q . ( 1 0 . 1 ) and ( 1 0 . 2 ) to descr ibe geometry were sl ightly off- set
from z ero for both the geometr i c factors , and for both freez i ng and
thaw i ng . The standard dev iat ion was low and the correl a t i on
coe f f i c ient ( compared with the full f in it e e l emen t method results ) was
h igh . The magni tude of the 9 5 % conf i dence bounds for the pred i c t i on
errors was s imilar to the est imated exper imental error bounds for th i s
data ( Sec . 5 . 8 . 4 , Tab le 1 2 . 2 ) . Hence for the two-d i mens ional irregu l ar
shapes used ( all of wh ich had curved , ova l surfaces ) the lack of f i t o f
the geome tr i c fac tors calculated by Eqs . ( 1 0 . 1 ) and ( 1 0 . 2 ) does not
s i gn i f i cantly worsen the over a l l agreement w i th exper i ment al data
a l though there i s a sl i ght sh i ft o f the mean.
Pred ict ion o f Freez ing and Thawing Times 20 4
10.4.3 Freez i ng and Thaw i ng of Three-D imens iona l Irregular Shapes
I n general the accuracy o f pred i c t ions for the three-d i mens ional
irr egular shapes was poorer than for the other shapes . Th is was
expected due to a h i gher exper imental unc erta inty for these shapes
( Sec . 5.9.4). The st andard dev iat ion o f the pred ictions were s i m i lar
to those for the ful l f i n i te e lement method r esu lts and the corre l a t ion
coe ff i c ient of the percentage d ifferences were h igh.
However , the mean pred i c t ion errors d i splayed d ifferen t trends to those
for the full f in i t e element results ( Tabl e 8 . 2 ) . For the py rami d shape
the mean pred i c t ion error was closer to z ero compar ed wi th the
under-pred ict i on shown by the full f i n ite e lement method results . As
d i scussed in Sec . 8 . 4 the off-set for the numer ical results was partly
caused by use o f a coarse spat ial gr id for the ca lcu lat ions . The
s i mp l e slab pred i c t ion me thods and Eqs . ( 1 0 . 1 ) and ( 1 0 . 2 ) were not
affec ted by th is problem so , as expec ted , for an accurate slab
pred i c t ion me thod the mean pred i c t ion error was not s i gn i f icant l y
d i fferent from z ero .
The same explanat ion app l ies for the sphere shape results . The
pred i c t ions for the ful l f in i te e lement me thod us ing a
three-d imens ional g r i d were o ff-set from z ero , but both the pred ict ions
for the f in i te e l ement method us i ng a f iner one-d i mens iona l g r i d and
those for the s impl e predict ion methods were not .
For the egg and f i sh shapes d ifferent trends were observed . The mean
pred iction error was h igher for the s i mple pred iction methods than the
nume r i cal me thods for the egg shape , but l ower for the f i sh shape . It
was d if f icult t o assess whether the d if ferenc es i n the mean p red ict ion
error s were apparent due to systematic error in the geome t r i c factors
for these shapes , because the numer i cal ca lculat ions were i n f luenced by
factors such as the coar se spatial grid ( Sec . 8 . 4 ) , or becau se the
pred i c t ions were affec ted by systemat i c error in the value of the
surface heat transfer coeffic ient used in calculations ( Sec . 8 . 4 ) . All
three reasons probably cont r i bu ted i n b oth case s .
Pred i c t ion of Freez ing and Thawing T imes 205
Because the pred i c t ions for the two-d i mens ional irregu lar shapes were
based on data for shapes w i th both rectangular and ova l cross-sections
and were qu i te prec ise , it was cons idered that the effect of the second
d imens ion was accurately mode lled by Eqs . ( 1 0 . 1 ) and ( 1 0 . 2 ) for both
ovo id and rectangular shapes . There fore any uncerta inty d ue t o the
geometr i c factors for the egg and f i sh shapes was thought to be in the
mode l l i ng of the e ffect of the th ird d i mens ion . Thi s is not surpr i si ng
as there were very few data ava i lab le to ana ly s i s the e ffect o f the
th ird d imens ion in three-d i mens ional irregul ar shap es . The ma i n r eason
for th i s was the large computat ion costs involved in numer i ca l
calculat ion for three-d i mens iona l ly irregular shapes . A typ i cal
calculat ion using the full f i n ite e lement method for the f i sh shape
took 1 50 000 sec . proc ess t i me on a Pr i me 750 computer . Th is meant
that the ana ly s i s was forced to re ly heav i ly on the rectangular brick
and f i n i te cyl inder shape data . These regular shapes have rectangul ar
cross-sect ions in the th ird d imens ion , not ova l as found in the eg g and
f i sh shap es . Consequently the coe f f ic ien ts in Eqs . ( 1 0 . 1 ) and ( 1 0 . 2 )
f i t ted data for shapes w i th rec tangular cross-sect ions in the th ird
d i mens ion and do not seem to be as accurate for shapes wi th other
geometries . To deve lop more accurate methods to calcu late the
geome tr i c fac tor s , EHTD and MC P , more data are requ ired . I f more
three-d imens i ona l irr egular shape data were ava i l ab l e , inc lud ing data
for shapes w i th oval cross- sec t ions in the th i rd d i mens io n , i t was fe l t
that the princ iples o f the methods to calculate EHTD and MC P ( Sec . 9 . 4 )
woul d not need to be changed ; only the values o f the coe f f i c ients i n
Eq . ( 1 0 . 1 ) and ( 1 0 . 2 ) ( and poss ibly the geometry parameter u sed ) , wou l d
a l ter to f i t the data .
Overall , the off-se t o f the mean for the pred ict ions using Eq . ( 1 0 . 1 )
and ( 1 0 . 2 ) was not cons idere d large i n relation to the inaccurac y o f
the exper i menta l data and the lac k o f su i tab le data to deve lop and test
the geomet r i c factor expr ess ions for three-d i mens ional i rregular
shapes .
Pre d i c t ion o f Freez ing and Thawing Times 206
10.4.4 Compar i son o f Slab Pred i c t ion Methods
A l l o f the f i ve s l ab pred i c t ion me thods ( the f inite d i fference method

plus the four simp l e formulae approaches ) , use d in conj unct ion w i th the
expr ess ions for EHTD and MCP gave adequate pred i c t ion ac curacy . As
d i sc ussed for rec tangular brick freez ing ( Sec . 8 . 2 ) , use o f numer i ca l
slab me thods lead t o under-pred i c t ion compared wi th the other s impl e
slab pred ict ion methods ( Chap . 7 ) . Otherwi s� the mean pred ict ion error
was almost i den ti cal for all the slab pred i c t ion methods . The f i ve
slab pred ict ion methods a lso gave very s im i lar standard d e v iat ions o f
pred ic tion error s and corre lation coeff ic ients w i th nume r i ca l method
pred ict ions .
10.4.5 Ana ly s i s o f Geometr i c Fac tors
T he accuracy of the p red ictions ob ta ined using the simp l e geometr i c

factors , EHTD an d MC P , was suffic iently good for mo s t of the shapes
tested that no further geometry parameters or geometr ic fac tor concepts
were i nv es t igated .
The expressions for EHTD and MC P gave a lmost ident i ca l freez ing and
thawi ng t ime pred i c t ions for a l l shapes and could not be d i ff eren t iated
by the accuracy c r i ter ion alone . The express ion for EHTD was sl ightly
l ess complex i n i ts f inal form than the express ion fo r MCP . Becau se o f
the peak in MCP values at intermed iate B iot numbers it was mor e
d i f f i cu l t to f ind and curve-fi t a su i table expr ess ion fo r MCP than i t
was for EHTD .
I t was d i ff icult to assess the ranges o f app l icab i l i ty of Eqs . ( 1 0 . 1 )

and ( 1 0 . 2 ) because o f the large var iety o f geome tr i es that are common
in prac t i ce . The ir accuracy has been p roven for two-d imens ional shapes
wi th both ova l and rectangular cross- sec t ions so i t seems reasonab l e to
suggest that the equat ions should apply equally we ll to mos t
two-d i mens ional obj ect s . For three-d imens ional shap es Eqs . ( 1 0 . 1 ) and
( 1 0 . 2 ) have only been p r ov en accurate for obj ects with rectangular
cross-sec t ions in the th ird d imens ion . Therefore the l im i t s of the i r
app l i ca t ion should b e t o objects w i t h th is type o f geometry . The
formulae c an be u sed for o ther shap es , but at the expense o f reduced
Pred ict ion o f Freez i ng and Thawi ng T i me s 207
accuracy . The accuracy of Eqs . ( 1 0 . 1 ) and ( 1 0 . 2 ) for both two- and

three-d imens iona l objects with extreme d is tortion of geometry wou ld b e
expected to be lower . More ref inement of the expr ess ions for ETHD and
MC P can be j us t i f ied , espec ially to mak e them app l icab l e to a w i der
range of three-d i mens ional geometr ies .
The way in wh ich the equat ions for EHTD and MCP take account o f the
effect of Bi was thought to be un i ver sa l ly correct so the l imi ts o f
app l icab i l i t y w i th regard t o th is parameter are the same a s for
Eqs . ( 9 . 1 1 ) and ( 9 . 1 2 ) for regular shap es :
0.0 < Bi < 1 00 .
1 0 .5 SUMMARY
The princ iples under ly ing the methods to ca lcu late geometr i c fac tors
u s l ng the EHTD and MCP conc epts were sat i sfactori ly extended to
irregular geometr ies . In a simi lar manner to that used for regular
shap es in Chap . 9 and by Sm i th et al ( 1 967 ) for irregular shap es , the
effect o f each d imens ion was calculated separately by cons ider ing each
of the orthogonal cross-sec t ions that pass through the thermodynam ic
centre . The parame t er �=4A/ no 2 for these cross-sect ions was s imilar to
the parameter 8 used for regular shapes and allowed expres s ions to
ca lcul ate the two geome tr i c factors to be developed along s imi lar l i nes
to those used for regular shapes .
Used i n conj unct ion w i th accurate slab freez ing and thawi ng t ime
pred i c t ion methods the express ions developed for EHTD and MCP both gave
pred ictions of s i m i l ar accuracy to those ach ieved by numer i ca l methods
for rectangu l ar b r i cks and two-d i mens ional irregular shapes . The
geometr i c factors d id not add s i gn i f i cant uncertainty to the
pred ic t ions for these shapes .
For the three- d i mens ional irregular shapes the accuracy of the
geome tr i c factors was l ower than for the two-d i mens ional irregular
shapes . Th i s was attribu ted to l ess accurate modell ing o f the e ffect
o f the th ird d i mens ion r ather than error in mode l l i ng of the effect o f
the second d imension o r because the princ iples o f the calcul at ion
method were i napprop r i ate as the pred i c t ions for the two-d i mens i onal
Pred ict ion o f Free z i ng and Thaw i ng Time s 208
shapes were accurate .
The methods developed are accurate for most two-d imens iona l objects but
are rest r i c ted to three-d i mens ional obj ec ts w i th rectangular
cross-sections in the th ird d imens ion . For these shapes the methods do
not add s ign i f i cant ly to the pred i c t ion unc erta inty . For o ther shapes
lower accuracy was apparent .
The present ana l y s i s was l im i ted by the smal l data set , and by
d i ff icul t i es in obta i n i ng accurate exper imenta l measurements espec ially
for three-d imensiona l irregu lar shapes . More da ta wou ld enab l e more
accurate and un i ver sa l ly app l i cable express ions to ca lculate EHTD and
MC P to be deve loped . Sub stant ial comput i ng costs wou ld have to be
borne in order to do th i s wor k .
Pred ict ion of Freez ing and Thaw i ng T i me s �9
Table 1 0 . 1 Parame ters For Calculat ion of the Effec t of Geometry For
Irr egular Shap es
Shape 1 0
& Code
( m)
2 01 0 . 1 525 0 . 0 1 83 0 . 479 0 . 0 1 83 0 . 479 1 . 00

2DI 2 0 . 1 1 1 5 0.01 64 0 . 475 0 .01 64 0 . 475 1 . 68
2 01 3 0 . 1 370 0 . 0 1 7 7 0 . 4 75 0 . 0 1 77 0 . 475 1 . 20
201 4 0 . 0990 0 . 0 1 52 0 . 478 0 . 0 1 52 0 . 47 8 1 . 97
2 01 5 0 . 1 050 0 . 00866 0 . 330 0 . 00866 0 . 330 1 . 00
20 1 6 0 . 0850 0 . 00796 0 . 323 0 . 00796 0 . 323 1 . 40
2 01 7 0 . 09 1 0 0 . 008 1 1 0 . 324 0 . 0081 1 0 . 32 4 1 . 25
201 8 0 . 0 475 0 . 00586 0 . 325 0 . 00586 0 . 325 3 . 30
Pyramid 0 . 0 825 0 . 00 1 3 6 0 . 0780 0 . 0 1 03 0 . 41 6 1 . 93 0 . 0 1 1 5 0 . 460 2.15

Sphere 0 . 1 2 70 0 . 00 1 07 0 . 0507 0 . 0 1 27 0 . 399 1 . 00 0 . 0 1 27 0 . 399 1 . 00
Egg 0 . 1 700 0 . 00 3 63 0 . 1 1 75 0 . 0227 0 . 534 1 . 00 0 . 0 320 0 . 652 1 . 41
F i sh 0 . 1 200 0 . 00 4 3 7 0 . 1 625 0 . 01 43 0 . 424 1 . 26 0 . 0 4 88 1 . 076 4 . 31
1 20 1 two-d imens ional irregular shap e , code number from Tabl e 6 . 6 .

2 For the 2 0 1 shapes these va lues are for a 1 . 0 m long object .
Pred i c t ion of Freez i ng and Thaw i ng T i mes 210
Table 1 0 . 2 Summary o f Per centage D i f ferences Between Numer i ca l ly

Calculated Freez ing Time s For F i n i t e Cy l inder s , I n f i n i t e
Rods and Rectangular Br ick s and Freez ing Times Ca lculated By
S imple Pred ict ion Formulae 1
Shape Geomet r i c Equa t i on Mean Std Dev 2 Min 2 Max 2

Factor (%) (%) (%) (%)
EHTD (9. 1 1 ) -0 .5 1 .6 -1 . 0 5.2

All Dat a EHTD (1 0 . 1 ) -0 . 3 1 .7 -6 . 8 5.7
( 270 runs ) MC P (9.12) -0 . 3 1 .7 -1 . 0 4.1
MC P (1 0.2) -0 . 3 1 .7 -6 . 9 4.2
F i n i t e Cyl inders EHTD (9 .1 1 ) -0 . 4 0.8 -2 . 5 1 .2

Dr � D y EHTD (1 0 . 1 ) -0 . 4 0.8 -2 . 8 1 .2
( 63 run s ) MC P (9.12) 0.5 1 .3 -2 . 2 4.1
MCP ( 1 0.2) 0.2 1 .5 -4 . 1 4.2
F i n i te C y l inder s EHTD (9. 1 1 ) -0 . 5 2.3 -7 . 0 5.0

D r i:: D y EHTD (10 . 1 ) -0 . 3 2 .5 -6 . 8 5.7
( 5 4 runs ) MC P (9 . 1 2 ) -0 . 1 2.1 -1 . 0 3 .5
MCP (10.2) -0 . 5 2.2 -6 .9 4.0
EHTD (9.1 1 ) -0 . 6 1 .2 -3 . 7 2.4

I n f i n i t e Rods EHTD (1 0 . 1 ) -0 . 3 1 .3 -3 .7 2.6
( 6 3 runs ) MCP (9.12) -0 . 5 1 .3 -4 . 2 2.1
MC P ( 10.2) -0 . 3 1 .3 -4.2 1 .9
EHTD (9. 1 1 ) -0 . 5 1 .7 -4 . 4 5.3

Rectangular
Br i c k s EHTD ( 10. 1 ) -0 . 2 1 .1 -4. 3 5.6
( 90 runs ) MCP (9.12) -0 . 1 1 .7 -6.0 3. 1
MC P ( 10.2) -0 . 6 1 .7 -6 . 1 3.9
1 U s i ng the f i n i t e d if ference method as the slab pred ict ion method .

2 Std Dev =standard dev iat ion , Mi n min imum, Max= max i mum. =
Pred ict ion o f Freez ing and Thawi ng Times 21 1
T abl e 1 0 . 3 Summary of Percentage D i fferences Between Exper i mental

Freez i ng and Thaw i ng T imes For Tylose Mu l t i - D imens ional
Shapes and Freez i ng and Thaw i ng T i mes Calculated By S i mp l e
Pred i c t ion Formu lae
Dat a Slab Pred ict ion Geometr i c 1 Mean Std Dev 2 Min 2 Max 2 Corr 3
Me thod Factor ( %) (%) ( %) (%) FDM
FDM " -4. 4 6.6 - 20 . 7 9.8 1 . 00

EHTD -3 . 4 6.7 -21 1• 9 .6 0 . 86
FDM
MC P -4 . 9 7.2 -22 . 8 1 1 .3 0 . 89
Rectangu lar EHTD 0.3 5. 1 -8 . 5 10.1 0 .56
Br ick Eq . ( 7 . 7 )
MC P -1 . 3 5.4 -1 1 1
• 8.3 0 . 65
Freez i ng
Cl e land & EHTD 1 .2 5.5 -8 . 7 15.9 0 . 48
( Cle land & Earl e 1 982b
Ear le 1 97 9 b ) MC P -0 . 4 5 .7 -10.6 13.1 0 . 58
( 72 runs ) EHTD -0 . 4 6.4 -1 6 . 2 1 1 .7 0.91
Pham 1 98 4 c
MC P -2 .0 6.9 - 1 8 .0 13.9 0 . 93
Pham 1 9 83 EHTD -1 .8 6. 1 -1 5 . 7 1 1 .4 0 . 86
( Eq . ( 7 . 6 ) )
MC P -3 . 3 6.6 -1 7 .5 1 1 .3 0 . 89
FDM " 0.6 3.1 -6.0 7 .9 1 . 00

EHTD -1 .6 5.4 -1 2 . 3 1 1 .2 0 . 06
FDM
MC P -3 . 2 5.3 -1 2 . 8 6.8 0.10
Rec tangular EHTD -1 .0 4 .3 -8 . 8 1 1 .8 0 . 29
Br ick Eq . ( 7 . 2 )
MC P -2 . 6 4 .2 -9 .8 7.4 0 . 34
Thaw i ng
EHTD -1 . 7 5.3 -1 2 . 7 10.8 0 . 36
( Tabl e 6 . 5 ) Eq. ( 7 . 3 )
MC P -2 . 2 5.1 -1 3 . 3 7.0 0 . 41
( 68 runs )
EHTD -2 . 1 5.9 -1 5 . 4 12.1 0 . 36
Eq. ( 7 . 4 )
MC P -3 . 7 5.3 - 1 6.0 7.4 0 . 43
EHTD -0 .6 4.4 -1 1 1
• 8.2 0 . 35
Eq. ( 7 .5 )
MC P -2 . 2 4.6 -1 1 7
• 7.4 0 . 38
• • • cont i nued
Tab l e 1 0 . 3 cont inued • • • 212
Method Factor (%) ( %) ( %) (%) FDM
FEM' ' - 1 .0 4.5 -1 1 .4 7.6 1 . 00

EIITD 2.5 4 .6 -8 . 3 1 1 .4 0 . 85
FDM
MC P 2.8 4.6 -8 . 3 1 1 .8 0 . 84
Two-
D imens ional EHTD 3.9 5. 1 -9 . 6 1 3 .5 o . 72
Irregular Eq. ( 7 .7 )
MC P 4. 1 5.1 -8 . 9 1 4.0 o . 72
Freez ing
Cl e land & EHTD 4.5 5.6 -9 .6 1 6.8 0 .83
( Tab le 6 . 6 ) Ear le 1 982 b
MC P 4.7 5.6 -8 . 9 1 6.8 0 . 83
( 42 runs )
EHTD 5.5 4. 1 -5 . 0 14.1 0 . 86
Ph am 1 984c
MC P 5.8 4.1 -4.2 1 4. 4 0 . 86
Pham 1 9 8� EHTD 3 .5 5.0 -7 . 3 1 2.9 0 .84
( Eq . ( 7 . ) )
MC P 3.8 5.0 -6 . 6 13.3 0 . 84
FEM'' 1 .5 5.5 -7 . 1 1 1 .3 1 . 00
EIITD 5. 1 5.2 -6 . 7 19.0 0 . 79
FDM
MCP 5.0 5.3 -6. 7 1 9 .2 0 . 80
Two-
D imens ional EHTD 5.2 5.2 -6 . 7 1 9 .2 0 . 85
Irregular Eq. ( 7 . 2 )
MC P 5.2 5.3 -6 . 7 1 9 .3 0 . 86
Tha w i ng
EHTD 5.6 5.4 -7 . 4 16.5 0 . 82
( Tabl e 6 . 6 ) Eq . ( 7 . 3 )
MC P 5.6 5.5 -7 . 4 1 6. 7 0 . 83
( 4 1 runs )
EHTD 6.4 5.6 -7 . 8 1 8.9 0 . 82
Eq. ( 7 . 4 )
MC P 6.3 5.7 -7.8 19.1 0 . 83
EIITD 6.0 5.6 -5. 1 20 . 2 0 . 86
Eq. ( 7 .5 )
MC P 5.9 5.7 -5 . 1 20 . 3 0 . 87
FEM " -10.3 6.7 -1 8 . 2 -2 . 0 1 . 00

EHTD 0 .8 10.2 -1 2 . 8 13.2 0 . 89
FDM
MC P -3 . 9 9.7 -1 6.8 7.9 0 . 89
Eq . ( 7 . 7 ) EIITD 2 .5 8.0 -9 . 0 1 2.0 0 .91
or Eq . ( 7 . 2 )
Pyramid MC P -2 . 3 7.6 -1 3 .2 6.8 0 . 91
( Tabl e 6 . 7 ) Cleland & EIITD 2 .8 7.4 -6 .5 1 1 .1 0 . 95
Ear le 1 98 2 b
( 6 runs ) o r Eq . ( 7 . 3 ) MCP -2 . 0 7 .0 -10.8 5.9 0 . 95
Pham 1 98 4 c EIITD 2.3 8.1 -8. 3 13.2 0 . 93
or Eq. ( 7 . 4 )
MC P -2 . 5 7.6 -1 2 . 5 7.8 0 . 93
Pham 1 98 � EHTD 2.6 9.3 1 0 1 5.9 0 . 95
( Eq . ( 1 ) )
- .
or Eq. ( 7 . 5 ) MC P -2 . 2 8.8 -1 1 .3 1 0 .5 0 . 95
Tab le 1 0 . 3 con t i nued • • • 21 3
Data Slab Pred ict ion Geomet r i c 1 Mean Std Dev 2 Min 2 Max 2 Corr 3
Method Fac tor (%) (%) ( %) (%) FDM
FEM'' ( 3 -Da l Gr i d ) -5 . 5 6.8 -1 2. 1 15.3 1 . 00

FEM ,. ( 1 -Da l Gr i d ) 0.4 6.7 -7 .7 9.6 0.91
EIITD 2.3 8.8 -1 3 . 1 13 .6 0 . 72
FDM
MC P 2. 1 8.8 -1 3 . 3 13.4 0.71
Eq. (7 .7 ) EIITD 5.0 5.2 -1 .6 1 3 .7 0 . 92
or Eq . ( 7 . 2 )
Sphere MC P 4 .8 5.2 -1 .8 1 3.5 0 . 92
( Tab le 6 . 7 ) Cleland & EIITD 6.9 7.6 -1 . 2 1 6 .5 0 . 94
Ear le 1 982b
( 6 runs ) or Eq . ( 7 . 3 ) MC P 6.7 7.5 -1 . 4 16.2 0 . 94
Pham 1 98 4 c EIITD 2. 1 7-3 -6 . 9 1 4 .5 0 . 94
or Eq . ( 7 . 4 )
MC P 2.0 7.3 -7 . 1 1 4 .2 0 . 94
Pham 1 9 8� EHTD 3.6 7.4 -6 . 5 1 1 .3 0 . 77
( Eq . ( 7 . ) )
or Eq . ( 7 . 5 ) MC P 3 .5 7.4 -6 . 7 1 1 .1 o .77
FEM ,. 5.2 13.o -1 2 . 9 25 . 1 1 . 00

EHTD 14.4 14.3 -1 1 . 5 28 . 8 0 . 89
FDM
MC P 13.3 1 4. 4 -1 2 . 8 27 . 9 0 . 89
Eq. ( 7 .7 ) EHTD 17.2 1 2.7 -4 . 1 31 .6 0 . 96
or E q . ( 7 . 2 )
Egg MC P 1 6.0 12.8 -5 . 4 30 . 6 0 . 96
( Tabl e 6 . 7 ) Cleland & EHTD 20 . 5 1 3 .5 3.0 39 . 8 0 . 97
Ear le 1 982b
( 6 runs ) or Eq . ( 7 . 3 ) MC P 19.3 1 3.5 1 .6 38 . 8 0 . 97
Pham 1 9 84c EHTD 1 3 .7 1 2. 4 -6 . 9 30 . 2 0 . 98
or Eq . ( 7 . 4 )
MC P 12.5 1 2 .5 -8.2 29 . 3 0 . 98
Pham 1 98 � EIITD 1 7 .0 1 3.5 -4 . 1 34.6 0 . 95
( Eq . ( 7 . ) )
or Eq . ( 7 . 5 ) MCP 15.8 13.6 -5 . 4 33 . 7 0 . 94
Tab l e 1 0 . 3 cont inued • . • 214
Method Factor (%) ( %) (%) (%) FDM
FEM .. 35 . 3 8.9 20 . 8 44 . 2 1 . 00
EHTD 15.3 7.3 6.2 24 .6 0 .88
FDM
MC P 12.3 7.0 2.5 20 . 4 0 . 89
Eq . ( 7 . 7 ) EHTD 1 7 .9 7. 1 7.7 28 . 5 0 . 72
or Eq . ( 7 . 2 )
F i sh MC P 1 4 .8 6.3 5.9 24 . 1 0 .79
( Tabl e 6 . 7 ) Cleland & EHTD 19. 1 10.3 2.9 34 . 8 0 . 67
Ear le 1 98 2 b
( 6 runs ) or Eq . ( 7 . 3 ) MCP 1 6 .0 9.3 1.1 30 . 2 0 73
•
Pham 1 98 4 c EHTD 1 5.3 8.1 2.2 25 . 1 0 . 74

or Eq . ( 7 . 4 )
MC P 12.3 7.3 0.5 20 . 8 0 . 80
Pham 1 9 83 EHTD 18.1 7.4 4.8 25 . 3 0 . 96
( Eq . ( 7 . 6 ) )
or Eq . ( 7 . 5 ) MC P 1 5 .0 7.0 3.0 21 . 0 0 . 99
1 EHTD from Eq . ( 1 0 . 1 ) , MC P from Eq . ( 1 0 . 2 ) .

= min imum , Max
= = max imum.
3 Correlat ion coe ff ic ient ( r ) compared wi th the percentage d i fferenc es
for e i ther the full f in i te d i fference me thod or the ful l f in i te
e lement method •
.. Full f i n it e d i fference method or full f i n it e element method .

21 5
11 T ESTI NG OF PRED ICTION MET HODS FOR OTHER

MATER IALS AND DATA SETS
11.1 INTRODUC TION
In Sec . 6 . 1 it was dec ided to exclude var iat i o n o f N ( the ratio o f the
2
unfroz en to the fr ozen volumetric spec ific heat capac i ty ) , and N 3 ( the
ratio of the unfrozen to th e froz en thermal conductiv ity ) , in the ma in
thaw ing e x perimental des ign as the effect o f these factors was expected
to be smal l . Howe ver some t es t ing was requ ired to ensure that th i s was
the case . Also to comp lete the testing of freez ing and thaw i ng t i me
p r ed i ct ion me thods , a l l avai labl e accurate e xper imenta l data - for as
many geome tr i es , cond i t io ns and phase change materials as poss ib le
should be used .
In the l i terature no exper i mental thaw ing data for foods were found for
wh ich the cond i t ions and geome tr ies were suf f ic ien t l y acc urate l y
measured , descr i b ed and cont rol led for them t o b e use d t o test
pr ed ic t ion me thod s . Howe v er , in the present stu dy f our teen thaw i ng
exper iments were conducted w i th minced l e an beef ( Table 6 . 8 ) .
For freez i ng a compreh ens i ve se t o f data for a range o f r egul ar

geome t r i es , food mater ials and f inal thermodynamic centre t emperatur es
ex i s ts ( Cle l and & Ear l e 1 984a , Pham 1 98 4 c ) . The only addi t iona l da ta
collected wer e four freez ing runs using t wo-d imens ional irregular
shape s of m i nc ed lean bee f . The compo sit e fr eez i ng and thawing data
set i s descr ib ed i n Table 1 1 . 1 .
1 1 .2 NUMER IC AL PRED ICT ION METHODS
It was expec ted that the f i n i te d ifference and f i n i t e element nume r i c al

methods wou l d introduce neglig ib l e pred i c t io n inaccuracy when app l i ed
to foods i f the space and t i me step intervals used were suff ic iently
small . Howe ve r , an increase in thermal p roperty data unc er ta i nty
relat ive to Tylose data would be expected ( Sec . 5 . 2 ) . Also the nature
of food materials means tha t experimental error is l ike l y to exc eed
that for exp er i ments using Tylose , wh ich is a homogenous gel
T es t i ng of Pred i c t ion Me thods 216
( Sec . 5 .7 . 3 )
The nume r i c al me thods to pre d ict freez ing and thawi ng t i me s had
prev i ously been compared wi th mo s t of the
compos i t e data set for
freez ing ( Cl e land & Earle 1 98 4a ) and for thaw ing of Ty lose ( Sec . 7 . 2
and Chap . 8 ) . Numer ica l me thod pred i c t ions were mad e for the rema i n i ng
thaw ing dat a for mi nced lean beef a nd the more r ecently publ ished
freez i ng dat a , ( marked in Tab l e 1 1 . 1 ) , to comp l e te the compar i son . The
f i n it e d i fference me thod was used for regular shapes and the f in i te
elemen t me thod for irregul ar shapes . The th erma l p roper ty dat a u sed
wer e those given by Cl e land & Earle ( 1 98 4 a ) . For Ty lose and m i nced
lean bee f these are cons is ten t wi th , a l though s l i ghtly d i f fer e nt to ,
the da ta in Table 5 . 1 . The pred ict ions are summa r i se d i n Table 1 1 . 2
( for thaw i ng o f minced lean bee f ) and Table 1 1 . 4 ( for freez i ng o f
mul t i -d imens ional shap es ) .
Of f se t o f the mean per cen tage d i f ferenc e between predicted and

exper imenta l t i mes from zero was s i g n i f icant for the two-d imens ional
irregu l ar shapes , for f in i t e cyl inder experi me nts carr i ed ou t by de
M i chel is & Calv e lo ( 1 983 ) , and for a ll the data collecte d by Hayakawa
et a l ( 1 9 83 a ) and Succar & Hawakawa ( 1 98 4 ) . Cons istent off set can
ar i se from sy stemat i c exper imental error ( partic ularly in est i mates o f
the surfac e heat transfer c oe f f i c i e nt ) or from thermal p roper ty data
used in calc ulat ions not truly r epresenting the samples o f the test
mater i a l s u sed .
For the two-d imens ional irregular shapes the former was cons ide red most
l ik e l y . Measur ed rates o f temperature change w i th t ime were
con s i s tently under-pred icted by the f in i te e lement method thr oughou t
bo th the freez i ng or thaw i ng proc esses for b oth the shapes u sed
( Fi g . 6 . 1 9 ) . Al though thermocouple placement error may have
contr ibuted to oc ca s ional und er-pred i c t io n , the under-pred i c t io n was
too cons is tent for th is factor alone to expla i n the observed
t emperature prof i l es . Hen ce the assump t i on made in Sec . 5 . 8 . 3 that
both the contac t res i s ta nc e between the Tylose and the mou ld wall and
the contac t res is tan ce b etween the minc ed lean beef and the mould wall
were equal , may not be correct . The d if ference may have ari sen b ec ause
Tylo se i s a dry gel , whereas minced lean beef has a f ib r ou s , mo i s t
Test i ng of Pred ict ion Methods 21 7
nature ( Sec . 5 . 7 . 3 ) .
The o ther data set s for wh ich o ff se t s from z ero were s i g n i f icant were
al l t aken from th e l i terature . It was d if f icu lt t o as sess wh ether
inappro p r i ate therma l dat a , or ex per imental inaccuracy cause d the
problems in these data sets . I n several cases surfac e heat transf er
coe f f ic ients were not determi ned i ndependently of the freez ing
exper i men t s . It is v ery unl ike ly that p roblems in th e f in i te
d ifferenc e or f i n i te element method c alcu lat ions were th e cause as the
pr ograms were t es ted r i gorously ( Chap . 4 ) and i t has been demonstrated
in th is study that they performed well for 90% of the whole data se t .
The standa rd dev i a t ions o f pred i c t ion error s wer e general ly l arger for
food ex per i ments than for Ty lose exper iments ( for example - Ty los e slab
tha w i ng , 3 . 5 % ; min ced lean bee f s l a b th aw i ng , 5 . 9% ) . Th i s r e f l ec ts
the d i f f i c ult ies d isc ussed previously in exper imenting w i th food
mater ials ( Sec . 5 . 2 ) .
It shou ld be noted that some indiv idual se ts o f data are very sma l l
( l ess than s i x runs ) , s o pred i c t io n error means and standard dev i at i ons
calc ulated for these se ts are less mean ing ful than thos e for larg e data
set s . Simi lar l y , when simpl e pred i c t i on methods are eval ua ted in
Sec . 1 1 . 3 , the c orre lat i on coe f f ic ients bet ween these methods and th e
nume r ical method pred ic t i on resu l ts for such s ma l l data se ts shou l d be
v i ewed in the same way .
1 1 .3 SIMPL E PRED ICT ION METHODS
If the e ffec ts of N 2 and N 3 are un imp ortant , results calc ulated us ing
prev i ously-recommended s i mp l e pred i c t ion formulae ( Sec . 7 . 3 . 3 ) wou l d b e
expected to match results for the nume rical methods ( s imi lar mean
pred i c t io n error and h i gh corre lat io n coeff ic ients ) , as wel l a s be i ng
i n general a greemen t w i th the exper i mental t i me s . Very good agreement
wi th al l o f the exper i men t s w ould not b e ex pec ted in the l ig h t of the
poor n ume r i c a l method pred i c t i o ns for some data .
Tab l e 1 1 . 2 summar i ses the pred i c t io n acc uracy for the four simp l e slab
thawi ng t i me predi c t i o n formulae ( Eqs . ( 7 . 2 ) to ( 7 .5 ) ) u se d in
Tes t i ng of Pred i c t ion Meth ods 218
conj unc t io n w ith the two geometr ic factors ( Eqs . ( 1 0 . 1 ) and ( 1 0 . 2 ) ) for
the minced lean beef data ( Tab le 6 .8 ) . The thermal pr oper ty data u sed
ar e g i v en in Table 5 . 2 . As both the mean and standard dev iatio ns o f
the pred i c t ion error s ar e s i mi lar t o tho se for the numer i ca l me thods it
was conc luded that any inacc uracy a r i s ing from n eglect o f N2 and N 3 was
suff ic i en t l y smal l to be ignored .
Cleland & Earle ( 1 984a , 1 98 4 b ) and Pham ( 1 983 , 1 98 4 c ) use d the data of
Cle land & Ear l e ( 1 97 7 a , 1 97 9 a , 1 979b ) , de M i chel i s &
Ca lve lo ( 1 983 ) and
Hung & Thompson ( 1 983 ) to test methods to p redict freez ing t i mes . I t
was cons idered worthwhi le to ca lculate resu l t s equ iva l e nt to Tab l e 1 o f
Cl e land & Earle ( 1 98 4b) for Eq. ( 7 . 7 ) , th e o n e new freez ing me thod
under cons ide rat ion her e . The resu l t s a r e g i ven i n Table 1 1 . 3 . For
data to a f i nal thermodynamic centre temper ature other than - 1 0 °C , the
mod i f icat i on o f Cle land & Ear le ( 1 98 4 b) was used to correc t the
pred iction o f Eq. ( 7 . 7 ) wh ich i s based on a f inal th ermodynamic c entre
temperature o f - 1 0 °C . The therma l property data g iven by Cl e land &
Ea r l e ( 1 984a) were u se d to be cons is ten t w i th the prev i ously publ i sh ed
results .
S i rice the previous stud ies , some new slab data have been pub l i shed by
Succar & Hayakawa ( 1 9 84 ) . The se are a lso i nc l uded in Table 1 1 . 3 . W i th
the thermal property data use d , ne i ther these n i n e runs , nor resul t s
from the same l aboratory for o th er shapes ( Hawak awa e t a l 1 983a ) shown
in Table 1 1 . 4 co uld be predic ted accurately by any of the methods
cons idered , inc lud i ng the f in i te d i f ferenc e me thod .
Compar ison o f Table 1 1 . 3 w i th Table 1 of Cleland & Earle ( 1 98 4b ) shows

that E q . ( 7 . 7 ) was equa l l y good as the best pr ev i ously pr opo sed me thods
o f Cle land & Earle ( 1 984b) , and Pham ( 1 983 , 1 98 4 a , 1 98 4c ) ( Sec . 7 . 3 . 3 ) .
Ne i ther ignor ing the effects o f N 2 and N 3 nor us ing the me thod o f
Cleland & Earl e ( 1 98 4 b ) to acc ount for d if fere nt f ina l temperatures
s i g n i f icantly a ffected the pred ic tion acc ur acy .
The four s i mp l e slab freez ing and thaw i ng t i me pred i c t i on approaches

d i sc ussed in th is sec t i o n and in Sec . 7 . 3 , c an all be extended to any
o th er shape b y e i the r o f the geometric factors EHTD or MCP . Both
geometric fac tors have been tested for most of the T y lo s e
Tes t i ng of Pred ict ion Methods 21 9
mu l t i -d imens io na l shap e freez ing and tha w i ng data ( Chap . 1 0 and Tab l e
1 1 .2) . In Table 1 1 . 4 , the pred ict ion results of these s imple
pred i c t ion me thods ar e summar i se d for the rema in i ng mu l t i -d imens iona l
shap e dat a from the compos i te data se t of Tab le 1 1 . 1 . Becau se a l l four
s l ab approaches are app rox imate ly equ ival en t , only one was used in th is
analy si s . The method of Pham ( 1 98 4 c ) was arb itra r i ly chos en . Aga in ,
th e s imp l e pred ict i on me thod resu l ts c l ose ly fol low the numer i ca l
method pred ictions and ag ree a s well as cou ld b e expec ted w i th the
ex per imental dat a . No s ign i ficant d i f ferenc e in pred ict ion acc uracy
between MC P and EHTD cou ld be d iscerned .
1 1 .4 SUMMARY
Numer ical freez ing and thaw ing t ime pred ict ion me thods were sl igh t ly
l ess accurat e for food mater ials than for Tylo se due to l arger thermal
property dat a and expe r i mental uncertaint i es .
S i mp l e slab pred i c t i on me thods and geometric factor s deve loped to

pred ic t fr eez ing and thawi ng t i mes for Ty lose ·have b een shown to be
equa l l y app l ic able to food mate r i a ls and for a wid er range of
cond i tions and shapes than previously cons idered .
The effects o f N 2 and N 3 on freez ing t i me s were suff i c iently sma l l

compared wi th e xpe r i men tal uncerta inty , that n o j u s t i f icat i on ex i s ted
for inclu s io n o f terms i nvolv ing N 2 and N 3 in the s i mple emp ir ica l
me thods . Fewer test da ta ex i st for tha w i ng , but there is no ind ic a t i on
from these that N 2 and N 3 ar e any more s i gn i f icant for thawi ng than for
freez i ng .
Tes t i ng of Pred ic t ion Methods 220
Tab l e 1 1 1 Composi te Data Set For Tes t ing of Freez i ng and Tha w i ng Ti me
•
Pr ed ict ion Me thods
Type So urc e Mater i a l Shape 1 Fina l Centre No . of

Temperature Runs
( oc )
Tab le 6 . 2 Tylose Slab 0.0 35

Tab l e 6 . 3 Ty l ose Cy l ind er 0 .0 34
Table 6 . 4 Ty lose Sphere 0 .0 35
Table 6 . 5 Ty lo se Br i ck 0.0 68
Thaw ing Table 6 . 6 Ty lose 2D I 0 .0 41
Tab l e 6 . 7 Ty l ose 3D I 0 .0 11
*
Tab l e 6 . 8 Lean Bee f Slab 0 .0 6
*
Table 6 . 8 Lean Beef Br i ck 0 .0 4
Table 6 . 8 Lean Bee f 2DI 0 .0 4*
Tab l e 6 . 6 Tylose 2DI -10.0 42

Fr eez ing Table 6 . 7 Ty lose 3D I -1 0 .0 13
*
Table 6 . 8 Lean Beef 2DI - 1 0 .0 4
Tylose Slab -1 0 . 0 43
Cleland & Ear l e 1 977a Le an Bee f Slab - 1 0 .0 6
Po tato Slab -1 0 . 0 6
Freez i ng
Cl e land & Ear le 1 97 9 a Ty lose Cy l inder - 1 0 .0 30
Cleland & Ear l e 1 979a Tylo se Sph ere -10.0 30
Cl e land & Ear le 1 97 9b Ty lose Br ick - 1 0 .0 72
Tylos e Slab -1 8 .0 23
Lean B ee f Slab - 1 8 .0 9
Freez ing Hung & Thompson 1 983 Potato Slab - 1 8 .0 9
Ground Beef Slab -18.0 9
Car p Slab -1 8 .0 9
Tab l e 1 1 . 1 con t inued • • • 221
Ty pe Sourc e Ma ter ial Shape 1 F i na l Centre No . of

Temperature Runs
( oc )
Lean Beef Slab - 1 8 .0 5

de Miche l i s & Lean Beef F in i te Cy l . -18.0 4
Freez ing Ca lve lo 1 983
Lean Beef In f . Rod - 1 8 .0 3
Lean Beef Br i ck -10.0 17
*
Lean Bee f In f . Rod - 1 5 .0 6
Freez i ng Hayakawa et a l 1 983a
Tylo se F in i te Cy l . - 1 5 .0 6*
*
Freez i ng Succar & Ty lose Slab Var iou s 9
Hayakawa 1 9 84
THAW ING Total 238

FR EE ZING Tota l 355
FR EEZI NG AND TH AW ING TOTAL 593
1 2DI two-d imens ional irregu lar shapes , 3D I

= three-d imens io nal
irr egular shapes .
*
Data not prev iously used to test pred ic t i o n methods .
Tes t ing of Pred i c t ion Methods 222
Tab le 1 1 . 2 Summary of Perc entage D i f ferences Between Expe r i mental

Thaw ing T i mes and Pred ic ted Thaw ing Time s For Minced Lean
Beef
Data Slab Pred iction Geometr ic 1 Mean Std De v 2 Min 2 Max 2 Corr 3
Method Factor ( %) ( %) ( %) (%) FDM
FDM " - 4 .5 5.9 -1 1 9

• 2.5 1 . 00
Slab Eq. (7 . 2 ) -7 . 2 8 .5 -1 5 . 4 3 .6 0 .81
( Tab le 6 . 8 ) Eq . ( 7 . 3 ) -7 .0 6.9 - 1 6 .0 1 1
• 0.91
( 6 runs ) Eq. (7 . 3 ) -6 . 4 7 .9 -1 9 . 4 3 .6 0 . 92
Eq. ( 7 . 5 ) -5 . 4 6 .0 -1 0 .6 2 .5 0 . 96
FDM " 4 .8 7 .0 -3.0 1 7 .3 1 .00

EHTD 1 .8 6.0 - 3 .5 10.1 1 . 00
Eq. (7 .2)
MC P 1 .8 6 .0 -4.1 9.4 0 . 99
Rect angu l ar
Br ick EHTD 1 .7 8 .5 -5 . 3 14 1
• 0 .99
Eq. ( 7 . 3 )
( Table 6 . 8 ) MC P 1 .7 8.3 -5.9 1 3.4 0 . 99
( 4 runs ) EHTD -0 . 6 5 .5 -6 . 1 6 .3 0 . 97
Eq. ( 7 . 4 )
MC P -0 . 7 5 .5 -7 . 5 5.6 0 . 93
EHTD 2 .5 4 .6 -2 . 1 8 .6 0 . 94
E q . ( 7 .5 )
MC P 2.4 4.3 -1 .5 7 .9 0 . 95
F EM'' 1 3 .8 3.0 9 .5 16.2 1 . 00

EHTD 1 4 .6 2.8 1 2. 4 1 8 .8 0.16
Eq. (7 . 2 )
Two- MC P 1 4 .8 2 .8 1 2 .5 1 8 .9 0.1 6
D i mens iona l
Irregular EHTD 1 5 .7 3 .7 1 1 .6 1 9 .9 0 . 55
Eq. ( 7 . 3 )
( Tab le 6 . 8 ) MCP 1 5 .8 3 .7 1 1 .8 20 . 0 0 .56
( 4 run s ) EHTD 1 7 .0 3 .3 1 3 .5 21 . 0 0 . 76
Eq . ( 7 . 4 )
MC P 17.2 3 .3 1 3 .6 21 .2 0 . 76
EHTD 1 6 .9 1 .4 15.4 1 8 .5 0 . 81
Eq. (7 .5 )
MC P 1 7 .0 1 .4 15.6 1 8 .7 0 .82
1 EHTD calc ulated from E q . ( 1 0 . 1 ) , MCP ca lculated from Eq. ( 1 0 . 2 ) .

2 Std De v standard dev iation, Min min i mum, Max : max i mum.
• •
' Correlat ion coeff ic ient ( r ) compared w ith the perc entage d if ferences
for ei ther the full f in i te d i fferen ce method or the ful l f ini te
element method .
" Full f in i t e d iffer ence method or full f in it e f i ni t e e lement method .
Tes t ing of Pred i c t ion Methods 223
Table 1 1 . 3 Summary o f Perc entage D i f ferences Between Exper i me ntal

Fr eez ing T i me s and Predicted Freez ing Times Calcu lated By
Eq. ( 7 . 7 )
Sou rc e Shape Mate r i a l Geometric Me an Std Dev 2 Min 2 Max 2 Corr 3

1
Factor No . ( % ) (% ) (%) (%) FDM
Slab Ty lose 43 0.8 2 .8 -5. 9 5.7 0 . 32

Cle l and & Slab Lean Beef 6 2.9 4 .0 -1 .8 9 .4 0 . 64
Ear le 1 97 7 a
Slab Pota to 6 -0 . 5 2.2 -3 . 2 2 .2 0 .35
Cleland & Cyl inder Tylo se 30 -1 . 4 4.0 -9 . 8 5.3 0 .81
Ear le 1 979a
Sphere Ty lose 30 0.5 4 .0 -7 . 2 1 0 .6 0 . 92
Cle l and & EHTD 72 0 .3 5. 1 -8 5 1 0 . 1
• 0 . 56
Ear le 1 97 9 b Br ick Tylose
MC P 72 -1 3
• 5.4 -1 1 . 1 8.3 0 . 65
Ty lose 23 -3 . 9 8 .0 -24 .8 9 .2 0 .78

Lean Beef 9 - 4 .8 9 .0 -17.2 9 .3 0 . 89
Hung &
Thomp so n Slab Po tato 9 - 8 .0 4 .9 - 1 6 .5 0.0 0 . 20
1 983
Ground Bee f 9 2 .8 1 5 .8 - 2 1 . 6 22 . 2 0 . 93
Carp 9 -1 7
• 1 2.1 -22 . 2 1 6 . 7 0 . 89
Slab Lean Beef 5 4.4 4 .6 -1 5 1 0 . 9

• 0 .91
de M i che l is
& Calvelo F in i te EHTD 24 8 .7 1 1 .5 - 1 2 . 0 29 . 3 0 . 84
1 98 3 Cyl inder Le an Beef
Rod & MC P 24 7.4 1 0 .8 - 1 2 . 3 29 .0 0 .87
Br i ck
Succar & Slab Tylose 9 3 1 .5 8.3 2 3 . 0 43 . 1 1 . 00

Ha yakawa
1 9 84
1 EHTD c alc ulated from Eq. ( 1 0 . 1 ) , MC P calc ulated from Eq. ( 1 0 . 2 ) .

2 Std Dev standard deviat ion, Min
s m i n i mum, Max
= max imum. =
3 Correlat ion coeff ic ient ( r ) compar ed w ith th e perc entage d if ferences

for the f ini te d if ferenc e method .
Test ing o f Pr ed ict ion Methods 22 4
Tab l e 1 1 . 4 Summary of Perc ent age D i f ferences Between Exper i me ntal

Freez i ng Ti mes For Mu lti-Di mensional Shapes and Freez i ng
T i mes Ca lcu lated By S i mple Prediction Methods 1
Sou rce Shape Mate r i a l Geometr i c Mean Std Dev 3 M i n 3 Max 3 Corr �
Fac tor 2 (%) (%) (% ) ( % ) FOM
I n fi n i te FDM 5 -2 . 7 3 .9 -6.7 1.0 1 .oo

Rod
Lean Beef EHTD -5 . 3 9.8 -1 6.6 0 .5 0 .91
(3 runs )
MC P -5 . 6 9 .7 -1 6.8 0.2 0.91
F i n ite FDM 5 1 3 .6 9.3 6.1 25 . 6 1 .0 0
d e M i che l i s Cy l inder
& Ca lvelo Lean Beef EHTD 1 4.4 8.3 10.6 30 . 0 0 . 97
1 983a ( 4 runs )
MC P 18.2 8.9 10. 1 29 7 1 00
• •
Rec tangu lar FDM 5 8 .6 6 .5 -4 . 2 1 7 .7

1 00
•
Br ick
Lean Beef EHTD 4.2 6.9 - 1 2 .6 1 3 .6 0 .84
( 1 7 runs )
MC P 2.8 6 .0 - 1 2 .5 1 0 .0 0 .89
Infin i te FDM 5 23.8 8 .0 1 4.9 37 . 9 1 .00

Rod
Lean Beef EHTD 28 . 8 8.2 1 9 .5 43 . 0 1 .00
( 6 runs )
Hay akawa MC P 28 . 4 8.3 18 9
• 42 . 7 1 00•
et a l
1 98 3 Finite FDM 5 66 . 9 1 9 .9 45 . 2 9 1 . 5 1 .00
Cyl inder
Ty lose EHTD 80 . 8 21 . 5 57 . 5 1 07 . 3 1 .0 0
( 6 run s )
MC P 80 . 9 22 . 3 56. 8 1 08 2 • 1 00•
1 0.8 2 .2 8.2 1 3 .5 1 .00

20I 6
Tabl e 6 . 8 Lean Beef EHTD 12.5 1 .8 10.5 1 4 .6 0 . 46
( 4 runs )
MC P 1 3. 2 2 .3 1 0 .7 1 5 .9 0 . 37
1 Us i ng ?ham ' s ( 1 9 8 4 c ) slab predi c t io n method for fr eez ing .

2 EHTD c alculated from Eq. ( 1 0 . 1 ) , MC P ca lculated from Eq. ( 1 0 . 2 ) .
3 Std Dev • s ta ndard devia t i o n , Min m i n i mum, Max
= max imum. =
� Corre la t i o n coeffic ient ( r ) compared w i th the percentage d if ferences

for e i ther the ful l f ini te d if ferenc e me thod or the fu l l f in i te
element method .
5 Ful l f in i te d ifference method or ful l f in i t e e lement method .
6 20 I • t wo-d i mens i o nal i r r e gular shapes .
225
12 OVERALL EVALU AT ION OF FREEZING AND THAWING

TIME PREDICTION METHODS
12.1 INTRODUCT ION
I n Chap s . 7 , 8 , 9 , 1 0 and 11 a nu mber of pred ict ion methods were

evaluated a ga inst a large compos i te data set of 593 fr eez i ng and
thaw i ng runs . Tab le 1 2 . 1 summa r i ses the overall per formance of the
b est nume r i ca l me thods ( the f in i te d i fference me thod for r egul ar shapes
and the f i n i t e e l ement method for irregular shapes ) and the four best
s impl e slab freez ing and thaw i ng time pred i c t ion approaches ( u sed in
conj unct ion w i th both s impl e geometr ic fac tors ) . I t was dec ided to
exc lude from Tab l e 1 2 . 1 the data aga i nst wh ich all the pred i c t i on
methods per formed bad ly . Th is dec is ion was made so that these
exper i menta l runs d i d not unduly influenc e the compari son of pred i c t i on
methods . Only 33 runs were exc luded . These were the data o f H ayakawa
et al ( 1 9 83a ) , Succar & H ayakawa ( 1 98 4 ) plus the egg and f i sh
three-d imens iona l irregular shap es ( Tab le 6 . 8 ) . Deta iled comments on
why poor pred i c t ions aro se for the se runs are g iven in Sec s . 1 0 . 4 and
1 1 2.
•
It was also cons idered use ful t o compare pred ict ion method per formance
to est i mates of the random exper i mental unc erta inty . I n thi s s tudy an
est imate of the exper imenta l uncerta inty cou ld only be der i ved for the
exper i menta l work of Cleland ( 1 977 ) and the present work . Tab l e 1 2 . 2
compares the estimated random e xper imental uncerta inty w i th the 95%
conf idenc es bounds for the pred i c t ion error s o f both the best numer i ca l
and s imple pred ict ion methods , for each shape tested.
I mportan t sourc es o f r andom exper i mental error were d i scussed i n

Sec . 5 . 1 . I n order t o obtain a good estimate o f the exper i mental
error , expressed as a 9 5 % con f i dence bound , the fol lowing calcu l a t i on
procedure was used :
( a ) the spread of r ep l i cate slab exper iment s was assessed th i s was
used t o est i mate the unc erta inty ar i s ing from control in all of the
exper iments ,
(b) a component was added for the surface heat transfer coe f f ic ient .
Evaluat ion of Pred i c t ion Methods 226
The impor t ance of error in h i s a funct ion o f the B io t number .

Plank ' s equat ion sug gests a we igh t i ng o f 4 / ( Bi + 4 ) so th i s was u sed ,
( c ) further al lowance s were added for mul t i -d imens iona l irregular
shap es where the exper imental techniques and probl ems w i th
measur ing and controll ing the geometr ies suggested greater
uncerta inty than that found for the slab exper iment s .
I t was consi dered that a l l other sources o f random exper imenta l error
wer e negl ig ibly smal l . Thermal data uncerta i n t i es and systema t i c
exper imenta l error were not inc luded in the est imates . The 9 5 %
conf idenc e bounds based o n f i t t o exper i mental data for the f our best
simple slab pred ict ion approaches were averaged to give the data in
Table 1 2 . 2 as all four approaches gave pred i c t ions wi th very s im ilar
offset and spread o f pred iction errors ( Tab le 1 2 . 1 ) .
12.2 NUMER IC AL PR ED IC T I ON METHODS
Throughou t the testing aga inst exper imenta l data ( summar i sed in Tab les
1 2 . 1 and 1 2 . 2 ) it has been shown that the f in i te d i fferenc e and f in i te
element numer ical methods do not introduce s i gn i f icant pred ict ion
unc ertainty prov i ded that they are correctly formu l ated and
implemented . The users of these methods need to meet the gu idel ines
for space and t i me s t ep int ervals est ab l i shed in Sec . 8 . 5 for the
f i n i te e l ement method .
The d i f ferenc e b etween the predict ion error 95% confi dence bounds for
the numer ical me thods and the es timated random expe r i mental uncerta inty
bounds in Table 1 2 . 2 g ive in most cases an ind icat ion o f the thermal
property unc erta inty .
The off-set mean error for the rectangular brick freez ing data and the
larger numer ical pred i c t ion error bounds for both the slab and
rec tangu lar brick freez ing data are most probab ly the resu lt o f
freez i ng rate e ffects that the numer ical me thod calcu l a t ions d i d not
take into account ( Cl e land et al 1 982 ) . The l arger spread of
pred i c t ion errors and the offse t mean for the thr ee-d i mensional
irregular numer ical p red ict ions have p robab ly ar i se n as a result o f
b e i ng forced to use coarse spatial gr ids . They could a lso r e f l ect
substant ial systemat i c exper imental errors ( part i cular ly in measurement
Evalua t ion of Pred iction Methods 227
of the surface heat transfer coeffic ient and in desc r i b i ng and

measur ing the object geometr i es ) .
12.3 SIMPL E PREDICT ION METHODS
All four emp ir ical approaches gave similar pred ict ion accuracy for the
compo s i te data set for both freez ing and thaw i ng . The s impl e method
pred i c t i ons all generally matched the numer i ca l method pred ict ions , and
the mean pred i c t ion error s were not s i gn i f i can tly o ff- set from z ero .
For freez ing the formulae for the two approaches of Calv e lo ( 1 98 1 ) and
C l e l and & Ear le ( 1 976b ) ( Eq . ( 7 . 7 ) and Cleland & Earle ( 1 9 82 b ) ) , were
not quite as h ighly correlated with the numer i ca l method results as the
o ther approaches ; probably because these formulae were based on
curve- f i t t ing to a sma l ler data set than the other formulae .
In Tabl e 1 2 . 1 i t can be observed that the standard dev i a t ions f or

simpl e freez ing t ime predict ion methods were very s imi lar to the
numer ical methods standard dev iat ions , but a small d i f ference occurred
for thawi ng . Numer ical methods were ±4 . 9 % , but the best s imple methods
were abou t ±6 . 1 % . Th i s suggests that for thawing a small s impl e
pred i c t ion me thod unc erta inty does exist . I t has a l mo s t c erta inly
ar i sen from neglect o f the e ffect of Ste in der i v ing emp ir i ca l
equa t ions for EHTD and MCP ( Sec . 9 . 5 ) . The de crease i n pred i c t ion
method accuracy is small , and can only j us t be obse rved w i th a large ,
accurate exper imental data set . Wh i lst new terms for the Ste effect
cou ld be included in MC P and EHTD for thaw ing th is wou ld destroy the
un i f ied approach to take ac count of geometry . Further , the prac t i s i ng
food eng ineer wou ld not ob tain s i gn i f i cantly better pred ictions because
data uncerta int i es in industr ial prac tice far exceed tho se i n the
research laboratory .
Tabl e 1 2 . 2 shows that the confi dence bounds for the simple methods are
cons i stent wi th the numer ical pred i ct ions and wi th the exper imental
error bounds . Hence , there i s no ev idence in th i s tabl e that s impl e
pred ic t ion method inaccuracy i s s ign i f i can t compared t o exper i mental or
thermal proper ty data error .
Evaluat ion o f Pred ict ion Methods 228
The accuracy of al l four approaches was such that deve l opment of other
emp ir ical methods was not consi dered wor thwh i l e .
I t i s unl ikely that
s ign i f ican t l y better pred i c t ion accuracy could be ach ieved unl ess
better exper imen tal data are col lected . Marg ina l increases i n acc uracy
coul d be ach ieved i f further terms were added , but at the r i s k that a
systemat i c component o f the exper imenta l error was be ing f i t t e d .
Two way s o f calcu l a t i ng each of the geome t r i c fac tor s , EHTD and MCP ,
were proposed Eqs . ( 9 . 1 1 ) and ( 9 . 1 2 ) for EHTD and MC P respec t i vely
for regular shapes and Eqs . ( 1 0 . 1 ) and ( 1 0 . 2 ) r espec t i ve ly for
irregu lar shapes . For regular shapes the latter equat ions to ca lculate
EHT D an d MCP ( Eqs . ( 1 0 . 1 ) and ( 1 0 . 2 ) ) gave almost equal values as
Eqs . ( 9 . 1 1 ) and ( 9 . 1 2 ) . Therefore only Eq . ( 1 0 . 1 ) ( EHTD ) and
Eq. ( 1 0 . 2 ) ( MC P ) were compar ed d irectly .
The two g eometr i c factors gave v irtua lly ident ica l overa l l pred ict ion
accuracy for the compos i te data set as wel l as a l mo s t i den t i ca l
ind iv idual predict ions . The formula for EHTD ( Eq. ( 1 0 . 1 ) ) was l ess
complex than the formula for MCP because the MC P func t ion goes through
a max imum va lue at intermed iate B lot nu mber values , wh ich was d i ff icult
to curve- f i t i n a s i mp l e manner . I t was found eas i er t o f i t the EHTD
relat ionsh ip f i r s t and use the inter-relat ionsh ip between EHTD and MC P
to der i ve the MCP equat i ons .
There may be no need for other geometr i c concep ts because b oth EHTD and
MC P seem c apab l e of g iv i ng suff ic ient accuracy for a wide range o f
shapes . The proposed calculat ion formulae are l east accurate for
calcu l a t i ng the effect of the th ird d i mens ion in irregul ar shapes .
Th is s i tua t ion has ar i sen more from the spar s i ty o f su itab l e data , than
from inappr op r i ate p r i nc iples in the geome t r i c factor s themsel ves .
Collect ion o f the necessary data would be expens ive , but no problems in
mod i fy i ng the EHTD and MC P equations are env i saged because all the
present work has shown that the princ iples on wh ich they are based are
sound . Tab l e 1 2 . 1 inc ludes few data wi th irregular th ird d ime ns ions so
th is one area of weakness i s not apparent in i t .
I f the detai l ed compar i so ns i n Chap s . 7 t o 1 0 are examined i t can b e

seen that each o f the s imp le approaches has dat a sets on wh ich i t
Evaluat ion of Pred ict ion Methods 229
performs rel a t i ve l y better , and data sets on wh ich i ts per formance is

poor compared w i th the other three approaches . Tab l e 1 2 . 1 shows that
there is noth ing systema t i c in these ob servat ions for the full data set
so all four s imple approaches and both geometr i c fac tors can be used
wi th equal conf idence . Al l e ight ind iv idual freez i ng and e ight thawi ng
t ime pred ict ion methods are there fore recommended as su itab l e for
general use . Eng ineer s may have preferenc es among st them. Poss i b l e
c r i ter ia are d iscussed in Sec . 1 2 . 4 . Shou ld very accurate predict ions
be requ ired u ser s may w i sh to make pred i c t ions by more than one method ,
and take an average . Th is procedure a ls o he lp s gua rd aga inst the
poss ib i l i ty of ca lculat ion error as pred i c t ions d i sagree i ng by more
than a few percent have almost certa inly ar i sen from user error .
The cho ice be tween the geome t r i c fac tors i s probably b est made by
ind i v i duals on the bas i s of ease of understand ing of the concep t s .
Some may f ind EHTD eas ier t o v i sua l i se and others MCP .
12.4 OTH ER ATTR I BUTES OF SIMPLE PREDICTION METHODS
The desirab l e attr ibu tes of a freez ing or thaw ing t ime pred ict i o n
me thod other than accuracy a r e l i sted in Table 3 . 1 . Al l four s i mp l e
approaches invest i gated had some of these attr i bu tes . Each approach
led to freez i ng and tha w i ng t i me pred i c t ion formu l ae wi th s im i l ar forms
so that a un i f i ed approach for freez ing and thaw ing t i me pred ict ion
could be used .
I n terms o f s i mp l i c ity , none o f the approaches was s i gn i f i cantly

better . For a l l four approaches , most of the t i me requ ir ed t o obta i n a
pred ict ion wou ld be spent est ima t i ng rep resentat ive env ironmenta l
cond i t ions and the rmal property d ata , rather than in us i ng the formu l ae
themse lves . Samp l e ca lculat ions for all of the approaches are g iven in
App . E.
Comments can b e made on some of the slab methods . The freez i ng

formulae of Pham ( 1 98 4 c ) uses a var i ab l e , the mean freez i ng
temperature , that does not take physi cally r ea l i st i c values in
calculat ions . The approach of Pham ( 1 983 ) for freez i ng assumes that
the basic form of P lank ' s ( 1 9 1 3 ) equat ion correctly models phase change
Evalua t i on of Pred i c t ion Me thods 230
i n foods w i thou t super heat ing or subcoo l ing , wh ich i n r ea l it y it does

not do ( Sec . 2 . 3 . 2 . 3 ) . O ther w i se the four approaches led to formul ae
that are phy s i ca lly rea l i st i c . The method of Pham ( 1 98 4 c ) for freez ing
bu i lds on an ear l ier me thod Pham ( 1 98 4 a ) wh ich had a more comp l e t e
phy s i ca l and ana ly t i cal bas i s . It proved i mposs ible t o ex tend the
ear l i e r me thod to tha wing wi thout i ncorpor a t i ng emp i r i cal terms
( Eq . ( 7 . 4 ) in Sec . 7 . 3 . 2 ) . Ther e fore for th e present ana ly s i s ,
Eq . ( 7 . 4 ) was regarded a s the tha wing equ ivalent of the approach of
Pham ( 1 98 4 c ) for freez ing because b oth are emp ir i ca l methods , and the
approach of Pham ( 1 9 8 4 a ) was no t cons i dered further .
1 2 .5 COM PARI SON OF NUMERICAL AND SIMPLE P R EDIC T ION METHODS
Compar i sons of the me r i t s of numer ica l methods and simple formulae for
freez i ng and thaw i ng t i me pred i c t ions are ma de by Cleland ( 1 977 ) ,
C l e land & Earle ( 1 977 a , 1 98 4 a ) and Heldman ( 1 983 ) . Br i e f ly , nu mer i ca l
me thods ha ve the advantages o f flex ib i l i t y and re l i ab i l i ty for a wi de
range of cond i tions , whereas s i mp le me thods are l ess comp l e x , eas i er
and l ess cos t l y to u se i n ca lculat ions , have fewer thermal property
data requ ir ements but have a more rest r i cted range of app l i cab i l i ty .
Tab l es 1 2 . 1 and 1 2 . 2 show that the numer ical and s i mp l e pred i c t ion
methods gave comparab l e pred i c t ion accuracy . The s i mple method results
dev iated from the nume r i cal resu l t s for only three se ts o f dat a , but
these dev iat ions can be exp la ined . F i rs t l y , the nume r i cal results for
s l ab and rectangular b r i ck freez i ng wer e par t icular ly affected by rate
effects ( Cl e land et a l 1 982 ) . Second ly , coarse spat i a l gr i ds were used
in the cal c u l a t ions for three-d i me ns ional irregu l ar shapes , and th i s
introduc ed numer i c a l method error . T h i r d ly , the lack of su i t ab l e data
meant that the s i mpl e me thods geome t r i c factors were not as accurate
for three-d ime ns iona l irregular shapes as they may have been w i th an
extended data se t .
12.6 NON-CONSTANT ENV I RONMENTAL COND ITIONS
In Chap . 3 i t was dec ided tha t the ent i r e f i e ld of freez i ng and thaw i ng
t i me pred i c t ion cou l d not be c overed comprehe ns i ve ly . The present
s tudy therefore cons i dered on ly phase change w i th constant cond i t ions
Eva lua t ion o f Pred i c t ion Methods 23 1
and concentrated par t icular l y on the e f fect o f shape . Futur e re search

may address the accuracy of freez ing and thaw i ng t i me pred ict ions under
t i me and/or pos i t ion var i ab l e env ironmental cond i t ions .
Unt i l such research i s car r i ed ou t the most approp r i a t e way s to hand le

non- constant cond i t ions wi th s i mp l e methods are those descr i b ed by
C l e land ( 1 977 ) in the case of non-un i form init ial temperature , and
Loe f fen e t al ( 1 98 1 ) and C l e land & Ear l e ( 1 9 82c ) in the case o f t i me
var i ab l e h and T a · The p rob lem o f a pos i t ion var i ab l e sur face heat
transfer coe f f ic ient introduces ano ther l e vel of comp l ex i t y . Te i der
( 1 96 3 ) , de M i che l i s ( 1 9 82 ) and Mascheron i e t a l ( 1 9 82 ) , d es c r i be way s
to hand le on ly the s i mplest case of a slab w i th d i fferent h va lues on
eac h face .
Numer i ca l methods , by compar i son w i th s i mple formulae , are very

ver sa t i l e and can take account of any of these t i me or pos i t ion
var i at ions d irectly , bu t at the expense of more comp lex compu ter
implementat ion and more expens i ve compu t a t ions .
12.7 SUMMAR Y
The accuracy of the f i n i t e d i f ference and f i n i t e e l ement methods for

freez i ng and thaw i ng t i me pred i c t ion were l i mi ted mor e by inac curacy i n
the therma l data and experimenta l uncer tainty than uncer ta inty due to
the me thods themse l v es prov ided that the gu idel i n es to e nsure
suff i c iently sma ll spat i a l and t i me steps are obey ed .
All four s i mpl e emp ir ical approaches in comb ina t i on w i th both EHTD and
MC P are accurate freez ing and thaw ing t i me p red ictors , per form ing very
s im i lar ly to the nume r i ca l me thod s . None of the me thods had attr i bu tes
that par t i cu larly recommended it so all ar e advocated as su itab l e for
rou t i ne use . The h i ghest leve l o f prec i s ion i s probably obta inable by
averag ing pred ict ion from more than one o f the me thods .
Evalua t i o n o f Pred i c t i o n Methods 2 32
Tab l e 1 2 . 1 Summary o f the Pe rc ent age D i f ferenc es Between E xp eri menta l

Fr eez i ng and Tha w i ng Ti mes From a Compo s i te Da ta Set and
Fr eez i ng and Thaw i ng T ime s Ca lculated By Numer ical and
S i mp l e Pr ed ic t ion Me thods
Geome t r i c Fac tor EHTD MC P

Slab Pr e d i c t i on Me an Std Dev 1 Corr 2 Me an St d De v 1 Corr 2
Method ( %) (%) FDM (%) ( %) FDM
FRE E Z ING ( 3 28 runs )
Nume r i c a l 3 -0 . 8 7.9 1 . 00
E q . ( 7 .7 ) 1 .0 7 .3 0 .70 0 .5 7 .3 0 . 73
C l e land & Earle 1 9 82b 1 .8 7 .5 0 . 68 1 .3 7 .5 0 . 72
Pham 1 98 4 c 1 .8 7.4 0 . 80 1 .3 7 .6 0 .81
Pham 1 9 83 ( E q . ( 7 . 6 ) ) 0.8 7.4 0 . 86 0.3 7.6 0 . 87
THAW ING ( 23 2 ru ns )
Numer i ca l 3 -o. 1 4.9 1 .00

Eq. (7 . 2 ) 1 .0 6. 1 0 .6 4 0.4 6.2 0 .6 4
Eq. ( 7 . 3 ) 0.8 6.2 0 . 67 0.2 6.3 0.67
Eq. (7 . 4 ) 1 .0 6 .7 0 . 64 0 .5 6 .8 0 . 65
Eq. ( 7 . 5 ) 1.4 6.2 0.67 0.9 6.4 0 .66
1 Std De v s t andard dev iat ion , M i n

= m i n imum, Max= max i mum. =
2 Correla t ion coeff i c ient ( r ) compared w ith th e perc en tage d i f ferences

for e i th er the fu l l f ini t e d i f ferenc e method or the ful l f in i te
element method .
3 The f u l l f in it e d i f ferenc e method for r egular shap es and the f u l l
f i ni te elemen t me tho d f o r irregul ar shapes .
Evaluat ion o f Pr ed ic t ion Me thods 233
Tab l e 1 2 . 2 Comp ar i so n o f the Est imated Expe r i ment a l Unc erta in t y Bounds
and the Means and 95 % Conf idenc e Bounds For th e Numer i c a l 1
and Simp le 2 Fr eez ing and Thaw ing T i me Pred ict ion Me thods
Da ta 3 Ty pe .. Es t i mate d 5 Nume r i c a l Methods 1 S i mp le Me thods 2

E xper ime nta l
Uncer ta i n ty Mea n CB 6 Mea n CB 6
( %) (%) (% ) (%) (%)
F ±4 . 2 7 0.8 ±1 2 . 2 1 .9 ±8 . 7
Slab
T ±5 . 3 -0 . 8 ±7 . 0 0.5 ±1 0 . 9
F ±6 . 5 7 -3 . 6 ±9 .5 -1 .0 ±8 . 4
Cy l i nder
T ±6 . 1 -2 . 2 ±4 . 7 -1 . 4 ±6 . 8
F ±7 . 0 7 -2. 2 ±6 . 9 -0 . 3 ±7 . 9
Sphere
T ±8 .0 -0 . 9 ±1 1 1 • 1 .1 ±1 3 . 0
F ±8 .0 7 -4 . 4 ±1 3 . 1 -0 . 9 ±1 2 . o
Br i ck
T ±5 . 4 0.6 ±6 . 3 -1 . 9 ±9 . 8
201 F ,T ±8 . 9 0.3 ±1 0 . 2 5.1 ±1 0 .5
Rect F ,T ±9 . 6 -10 .3 ±1 3 . 4 0.2 ±1 5 . 9
3D1 8
Ova l F ,T ±1 4 . 3 1 1 .7 ±40 . 2 1 2 .3 ±2 1 . 6
1 The f i n it e d i ffer enc e me thod for r egular shapes and the full f in i te
elemen t method for i rr egu l ar shape s .
2 Avera ge o f the four best slab pred ict ion methods , results were n early
i den t ic a l us i ng e i ther EHTD or MC P as th e geome t r i c fac tor .
3 Data fr om C l e land 1 97 7 and Tab les 6 . 2 , 6 . 3 , 6 . 4 , 6 . 5 , 6 . 6 , and 6 . 7 •
.. F = freez ing , T = thaw i ng .

5 Es t i mated exper i men tal unc er t a i n ty 9 5% conf idenc e b ounds .
6 CB 95 % conf idenc e b ou nds o f the p red i c t ions abou t the me an.
=
7 Es t i mates given by Cl e land ( 1 97 7 ) .

8 20 1 = t wo-d imens ional i r reg ular shapes , 3DI = three-d i me ns ional
irregul ar shap es , Rect = r ect angu lar cross - sec t io ns in th i rd
d imens ion , Oval = oval cross-se c t io ns in the th ird d imens io n .
234
13 CONCLUSI ONS
The dat a measured i n the pr es ent wor k r e pr es ent a maj or addi t i o n to the
sets of accurat ely measur ed and cont r ol l ed e xper i ment a l data f or
free z i ng and thawi ng of foods . The 297 experiments i nclude 1 82 for
thaw i ng of regu l ar sha pes and 1 1 5 f or bot h free z i ng and tha w i ng of
i rr e gul ar shapes .
O f the numer i cal methods ava i l abl e thos e that take account of the
con t i n uousl y t emper atur e- variable thermal proper ti es model the t r ue
physi ca l behavi our dur i ng free z i ng and t haw i ng of foods mos t c l os el y .
T es ti ng showed that t h ese methods w ere acc ur ate pred i ctors of
temper ature/ t i me prof i l es .
The f i ni te d i ff er ence method is restri cted by pract i cal cons i derat i ons
to use f or regul ar sha p es . T es t i ng agai nst e x perimental data indi cated
that prov i ded suf f i c i en t l y small space and t i me steps wer e used i n a
corr ect l y f ormul at ed and impl emented comput er program , the predi ct i on
method uncer t a i nt y i n pred i c t i ng free z i ng and thawi ng t im es of r egul ar
shapes was i ns i gn i f i cant .
The f i ni t e el ement method was f ormul at ed and i mpl emen t ed i n a comput er

progr am t hat was abl e t o sol ve heat conduction wi th phase change for
mul t i - dimen s i onal regul ar and i rregu l ar shapes . Compu tat i on cos t s wer e
h i gh . A simpl i f i e d f i ni t e el ement metho d formul ation w as deri ved that
cons i derabl y r educed costs but shoul d be used caut i ousl y because of the
crude way in whi ch thermal property var i ations ar e i ncor porated .
Quant i tat i ve gu i de l i nes wer e devel oped f or appl i ca t i on of the two
f i ni t e el ement method formul ati ons to free z i ng and thawi ng probl ems
wher e there ar e l imi ts to compu t i ng r esour ces . Compari son o f predi cted
phase change times wi th experimental data f or both r egul ar and
i rr egu l ar shapes show ed that adher en ce t o these gu i de l i nes ens ur ed that
pre d i c t ion method unc erta i nt y was negl i g i bl e .
No accurate s i mpl e method t o pred i ct t haw i ng t i mes that was not pr oduc t
s pec i f i c was found i n the l i t erat ure . For thawi ng of slabs , i nf i n i t e
cyl i nders and s pheres , four s i mpl e but gener a l l y appl i cabl e formul ae
w er e develo ped . They were al l e qual l y acc urate wi th 95% conf i dence
Conclusi ons 23 5
bounds of - 1 1 . 0 % t o + 1 1 . 0% when compared wi th e x p � imental l y determi ned

t haw i ng t i mes .
The two exi s t i ng concepts to t ake accoun t of the e ff ect of geometr y on

free z i ng and thawing t i m es , EHTD and MCP , were both i n cr ease d i n
acc uracy and extended to cover a w i der range of mul ti - d imens i onal
geometri es . Used in co nj unc t ion wi th acc ur at e simpl e predi c t i on
met ho ds f or sl abs , t he y gave pred i ct i on accur acy s i mi l ar to t ha t of the
n umeri cal methods . For two- d i mens i onal shapes the 95% conf i dence
bounds of the per centage d i f f er ences f or the predi ct i on compa r ed w i th
the experimental l y meas ured free z i ng and thawi ng times wer e -5 . 0% to
+ 1 5 . 5% ; for thr ee- d imen s i onal shapes w i t h rectangu l ar cross- sec t i ons
the bounds were - 1 2 . 5 % to +9 . 5% ; but for thr ee-d imens ional sha p es wi t h
ova l cross- secti ons the boun ds wer e w i der and off- set f ur t her f r om zer o
a t - 4% to 3 7% .
R ef i nement of the met hods to ca lcul at e EHT D an d MC P so as to i ncrease

the acc uracy for some thr ee-dimensional shapes was prevented by lack of
sui tabl e dat a . However the pr i nc i pl es under l y i ng t he methods to
calc ul ate EHTD and MC P are considered v al i d so f ur ther dat a woul d
enab l e t he co eff i c i ents i n the e qua t i ons to be mor e accur at ely f i t t ed
for a wi der r ange of shapes . Improvement of the emp i r i cal EHTD and MC P
e xp r es s i ons f or the effect of the t h i r d d i mens i on for i rr egu l ar shapes
is an area i n which futur e wor k mi ght be most val uabl e .
When compar ed w i th the compos i te exper i mental freezi ng and t hawi ng dat a
s e t for a r ange of materi als , geomet r i es and condi tions , both t he
numer i ca l and s i mp l e pred i ct i on met hods gave accurate pred i ct i ons .
None of the four simpl e slab pred i c t i on method approaches has any
advant age t hat par t i cular l y r ecommended it so all ar e advocated as
sui tabl e for routine use . Both E HTD and MCP gave v i rt ual l y i denti cal
pred i ct i ons for mul ti - d imen s i onal shapes . U sers may w i sh to bas e t he
cho i c e of whi ch to use on their conceptual un derstan d i ng of t he
pr i nc i pl es i nvolved . I n pract i ce i t would be e xpected that any of the
predi c t i on methods advocated i n this s t udy would be l i mi ted more by t he
accuracy of dat a to be used i n the pred i ct i ons , than by l imi tat ions in
the acc uracy of the methods themsel ves .
236
NOMENCLATURE
a constant for rad ial geome try

A surface or cross - sect ional area
Bi hD/ k , B i ot number
Bi hD/ k s , B i ot number for freez i ng
hD/k 1 , B i o t number for thaw i ng
c spec i f i c heat ca pac i t y J kg - 1 oc - 1
c vo lume tr i c spec i f i c heat capac i ty J m-3 oc - 1
c thermal capac i tance mat r i x
D th i ckness , d i ameter or characte r i s t i c d imens ion m
E percentage er ror
EHT D equ i val ent heat tr ansfer d imens ional i ty
f arb i tr ary funct i on
f."DM fi n i te d i f f erenc e method
FEM f i n i te e l emen t me thod
[ thermal forc ing vec tor
f."o kt/co 2 , Four i er number
Fo k s t/C s D 2 , Four i er number for freez i ng
= k 1 tlc 1 o 2 , Four i e r number for thawi ng
G constants for calcu l at i on of EHTD and MC P
h sur face heat transfer coe f f i c i ent
H e ntha l py
I number of nodes i n x d irect ion
J number o f nodes i n y d ir ec t i on
k thermal conduc t i v i ty
K therma l conduc tance ma tr i x
1 d i rec t ion cos i ne to the outward normal
L l at en t heat capac i t y
L edge o r per i meter l ength m
m pos i t ion i n r d i rect i on
M number o f nodes i n r d irect ion
MC P mean conduct i ng path l ength m
n number of nodal points

N shape f unc t i on
Nl •
C 1 T i f -Tf i n i 1 6H
Nomencl ature 237
N1 �
C s ( T if -T f i n ) / 6H for fre ez i ng
c 1 ( T f i n -T i f ) / 6H for tha w ing
N2 C l /C s
N3 = kl / ks
P geometr i c factor i n vers ions of Plank ' s equat ion
Pk c 1 T i n -T i f i / 6H , Plank number
Pk C l ( T in -T i f ) / 6H , Plank number for freezing
C s ( T i f -T i n ) / 6H , Plank number for thawi ng
Q internal heat gener at i on
r distanc e in rad ial direction m
R hal f th i ckness or rad ius m
R geometr ic fac tor i n vers ions of Plank ' s equat ion
S sur face area m2
c T -T I I �H , Stefan number
Ste I if a
Ste C s ( T i f - T a ) / �H , Ste fan number for free z i ng
C l ( T a -T if ) / �H , Stefan number for thawi ng
t time s or hrs
T temperature °C or K
I vector of nodal temperatures °C or K
V volume m3
W fac tor for axisymmetr i c f i n i te element integrat ions
X distance i n x d i rect ion m
X Biot number we i ght ing funct ion for EHTD and
MCP calcul a t i ons
X constant i n the FDM schemes
y d i s tance i n y d i rect ion m
Y frac t i onal unaccompl i shed temperature change
z ( T a-T ) / ( T a-T i n )
Y constant i n the FDM schemes
z distance i n z d irect ion m
S rat io of s i de l engths for r egular shapes

enthal py change between 0 °C and - 1 0 °C
V rat io of maj or axi s l ength to mi nor ax i s l ength
for an e l l i pse
• 4A/ nD 2
a Stefan-Boltzmann constant
• 5 . 67 x 1 0-a
Nomenc latur e 23 8
£ sur face rad iat ion emi ss i v i t y

p dens i t y
thermal di ffus i v i ty
heat flux
� change i n
L summat ion of
Subsc r i pt s
a amb i e nt value
ac amb i ent convec t i ve value
ar amb i en t rad i at i ve value
ave average value
c centre va lue
con value for convect ion
cyl value for cyl i nder
e element or surface value
exp exper imental value
f for free z i ng
f ful l me thod
fdm value pred i c ted by the f i n i te d i f ference method
fern value pred i c t ed by the f i n i t e e l ement me thod
femf ful l f i n i te element method formulat ion
ferns s i mp l i f i ed f i n i t e e l ement method formula t i on
fin f i nal value
i denotes pos i t i on o f node in x d irec t i on
i val ue for i th node
if value a t i n i t i a l freez i ng point
in i n i t i a l value
j denotes pos i t ion o f node i n y d irect ion
j value for j th node
k denotes pos i t ion o f node i n z d irec t ion
1 unfrozen phase value
m denotes pos i t i on of node i n r d irec t ion
r value i n the r ad i al d irect ion
rad val ue for rad iat ion
s frozen phase value
s s impl i f i ed method
Nomencl at ure 23 9
s l ab value for slab

sph value for s phere
t for thawing
w value at a wal l or sur face
X v a l ue i n the X ax i al d i rect ion
y value in the y a x i al d i rec t i on
z value in the z a x i a l d i rec t i on
1 ' 2 ' 3 i nd i cates r el at i ve t i me , state or case
Superscr i p ts
i ind i cates t i me l e vel i n numeri cal me thods

+ at values j us t greater than
at values j ust l es s than
240
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or mel t i ng i n a f i n i t e med ium subj e c t to r ad ia t i o n a nd convec t ion .
J . Heat Transf er 1 0 1 : 593
Yuen W . W . ( 1 9 80 ) : Appl i ca t ion of the h eat balance i n te gral to
me i t ing prob l ems w i th i ni t ia l sub-cool i ng . In t . J . Hea t Mass
Transf er 23 : 1 1 57
Yuen , W . W . & Kl e inman, A . M . ( 1 98 0 ) : A appl i c at ion of v a r i ab l e t ime
s t e p f i ni t e d i fferen ce methods for th e one-d imens iona l me l t i ng
prob l em i nclud ing th e effec t of subcool ing . AIChE J . 26 : 828
Za ri tzky , N . E . , Anon , M . C . & Ca lvelo ,_ A . ( 1 9 82 ) : Rate of freez i ng
effec t on the co lour of froz en beer l i ver . Meat Sc i . 7 : 29 9
Z i e nk i ewi c z , O . C . & Parekh , C . J . ( 1 970 ) : Transien t f i e l d p roblems :
two-d imens ional and three-d imens ional analy s i s by i soparametr i c
e l ement s . In t . J . Num . Meth . Engng � : 6 1
Z i enk i ewi c z.( O . C . ( 1 97 1 ) : F i ni te El emen ts in Eng inee r i ng Sc ie nce ( 2 nd
ed . ) . Mcuraw Hi l l , N ew Yo .
Z i e nk i ew i c z , O . C . , P arekh , C . J . & Wi lls , A . J . ( 1 97 3 ) : The app l ication
of f i ni te el emen ts to heat conduc t ion involv i ng laten t heat . --
Rock
Mecha n i c s 5 : 65
260
APP END IX A
SUMMARY OF PU BLI SHED SOLU TIONS

TO PHAS E CHA NGE PROBLEMS
A . 1 ABBREVIAT IONS USED IN TABLES A . 1 TO A . 8
1 Geometr i c shapes : SS = semi - i nf i n i te slab , S = slab , C infinite

cyl inde r , S P = sphe re , 1 0 = one-d i mensional , 2 0 = two-d ime ns iona l , 3D
= three-d imens iona l .
2 BC = boundary cond i ti ons : 1 = f i r s t k i nd , 2 second k i nd , 3 th ird

k i nd , 4 = four th k i nd , R = rad iat ion.
3 T i n = i n i t i a l cond i tion. = mea ns int ial temperature i s equa l to the

phase cha nge tempera ture and � me ans i n i tial t emperatur e i s not equal
to the phase change t emperature .
� Num Eval = nume r i c al evalua t i o n requ ired for solu t i o n . Y yes , N

no , P = pr obably .
5 HBI = heat balanc e i n tegral method , VT = var i a t i onal t echnique , P ER =
per turba t ion method , QSS = us i ng the quas i - stead y st a te as sump t i on ,

EM = emb edd ing tec hnique , AI analy t i cal i tera t i o n me thod , IT =
int egra l transf orma t io n , MHS = solved as heat cond uc t ion w i th a
mov ing heat sourc e , APT - assumes i nt er fac e pos i tion p ropor tional to
th e sq ua r e root of t ime , LRT - laten t heat released or absorbed ov er
a range of temperatures , DHG d iscont i n uous h eat genera t i o n .
6 Form So ln = form tha t the solu t i ons takes , CH = char t , G grap h , N =
nomogram , R E = r egress ion based bes t fi t equ a t i on .
7 Typ e : F • freez i ng , T • thawi ng .
• Comments i nc lude product type and amb ient med i a , EXP • based on
e xper imen tal dat a , FDM • based on f i ni t e d i f ference me thod r esu l ts .
Append i x A 261
9 Bas i c Shape a re ferenc e r egular geome tr i c shape that the actual

irregu l ar shape is rel a ted to by the equal ival ent d iame te r . See
not e 1 •
A . 2 ANALYTIC AL SOLUTIONS TO PHASE CHANGE U SING TH E ASSUM PTION OF A

UNIQUE PHASE CHANGE T EM PER ATURE
Table A . 1 Exac t Analy t i cal So lut ions Assuming a U n i que Phase Cha nge
Temperature
Referenc e Shape 1 BC 2 T i n 3 Num " Method and Comments 5

Eval
Stefan i n ss N
Car s l aw & Jaeger
1 95 9 . p . 2 82
Neumann i n ss N Churc h i l l & Evans 1 97 1
Ca rslaw & Jae ge r t ab u l a t e fun c t ions .
1 95 9 , p . 28 2
Danckwe r t s 1 95 0 ss � N Dens i ty of phases d i fferent .
Evans e t al 1 9 50 ss 2 p Ser i es solu t i on .
Landau 1 95 0 ss 2 N Abl a t i o n , transformat ion to
immob i l i se boundary .
Append i x A 26 2
Tabl e A . 2 Approx i ma te Ana ly t ic a l So lut ions For Sl abs Assum ing a Un i q ue

Phase Change Temperature
Referenc e T i n 3 Num � Me thod and Comments 5

Eval
Heat Balanc e I nt egral and Var i a t ional Techni que
Goodman 1 95 8 ss 1 ,2 ,3 N HBI , ablat ion , QSS .

Goodman & s 2 p HBI , ser i es expans io n .
Sh ea 1 9 60
Goodman 1 96 1 ss 1 ,2 N HBi l d i f ferent temperature
pror i l es .
Poo t s 1 96 2 b s p HBI , se r i es solut i on .
Hry cak 1 9 63 ss 3 N HBI , QSS 1 phase front «
penetrat 1 on d i stanc e .
Good man 1 96 4 ss 1 ,2 N HBI
Libby & ss y HBI
Chen 1 9 65
Lappadula & ss N VT
Mue l le r 1 96 6
S i egel & ss 3 y HBI , AI
Sav ino 1 9 6 6
Hrycak 1 9 67 ss 3 N See Hrycak 1 96 3 , stra t i f i ed
med i a .
Hills & ss 3 y HBI
Moore 1 9 67
Cho & SS , S N H BI , APT
Sunder land 1 9 69
H i l l s 1 96 9 ss 1 ,2 y HBI
Hi l l s & ss 3 y HBI
Moor e 1 96 9
Imber & ss y H BI , C & k t empe ra ture
Hua ng 1 9 73 d ependen t .
Chung & Yeh 1 97 5 s 3,R y HBI , V T
Alb i n e t a l 1 97 6 s 4 y HBI , s i x stages .
Chung & Y e h 1 97 6 ss 2 y HBI , C & k tempe rature
dependent .
Bel l 1 97 8 ss y HBI , subd iv i des r eg i on .
Bel l 1 97 9b s y HBI , subd i v ides r eg ion .
El-Genk & ss N HBI
Cronenbe rg 1 97 9
Yeh & Chung 1 97 9 s 3,R y VT
Table A . 2 cont inued • • • 2 63
Referenc e Shape 1 BC 2 T i n 3 Num " Me thod and Comments 5

Eval
Hale & ss y HBI

Vi skan t a 1 9 80
O ' Callagha n s 2 y HBI
et a l 1 9 80
Yuen 1 9 80 ss 1 ,2 ,3 y HBI
Chung e t a l 1 9 83 ss 2 y HBI , two stage abl a t i o n .
Jayaram & ss 2 y H BI , s e r i es solut ion .
Stre ider 1 9 83
Gau & s y HBI
V i skan t a 1 9 84
Pe rturba t ion and Se r i es So l u t ions
Jack son 1 9 64 s 2 p Ser i es so lution .

Wes tphal 1 96 7 ss 3 p Ser i es solution .
Duda & s N PER
Vrent as 1 9 69
Lock et a l 1 9 69 ss 4 N PER
Pedroso & ss y P ER , C & k tempe rature
Domo to 1 97 3 b dependent .
Pedro so & ss 3 y PER
Domoto 1 97 3 d
Huan� & ss 1 , 3 N PER
Sh 1 h 1 9 7 5 a
Huan g & ss 3 N PER
Shih 1 975 b
We inbaum & s N PER
J i j i 1 97 7
Yan & Huang 1 97 9 s 3,R p PER
Sol i rna n 1 98 1 ss 3 p PER
So l u t ions U s i ng Other A pproaches
Plank 1 9 1 3 s 3 N Q SS
Ru tov 1 9 36 s 3 N Mod i f ied P lank 1 9 1 3 for
sens i b l e h ea t remov a l .
London & s 3 N See Plank 1 9 1 3 .
Seban 1 9 4 3
Cochran 1 9 55 s •
N QSS , lumped capac i ty me thod .
Krei th & s 3 N See Pl ank 1 9 1 3 .
Rom i e 1 9 55
Chan e t al 1 9 8 3 ss 3 P Q SS , temperature prof i l e
approxi mated by i s othe rmal
boundary .
• • • con t i nued
Table A . 2 con t i nued • • • 2 6�
Re ferenc e Shape 1 BC 2 T i n 3 Num " Me thod and Comments 5

Eval
Boley 1 9 61 SS , S 3 p EM , ablat ion , ser i es

solut ion.
Boley 1 96 3 s 2 -- p EM , ab lat ion , short t imes .
Bo l ey 1 9 68 s 1 ,2 , 3 p EM , ablat ion , sh ort t i mes .
Pat e l & ss 4 y EM , sho r t t i mes .
Bo l ey 1 969
Hami ll & ss N AI
Ba nk off 1 9 64
Beaubouef & ss N AI
Ch ap man 1 967
Sav ino & ss N AI
Si ege l 1 969
Ham i l l & ss 1 ,2 N IT , solut ion bo unded .

Bank off 1 9 63
Se l i m & s 1 ,2 .3 y IT
Sea grave 1 973a
Ker n 1 9 77 ss 3 N IT , co ns iders e ffec t of QSS .
Glas ser & ss 3 N Se e Kern 1 9 77 , solut ion
Kern 1 97 8 bounded .
Chuang & ss 3 y MHS , ablat ion , Green ' s

Szeke l y 1 97 1 func t ions .
Hirai & ss 3 p A PT
Komor i 1 97 1
Komo r i & s 3 .. p A PT
H ir a i 1 972
Cho & ss -- y APT , k t emperature
Sunderland 1 97 4 depende nt f dens i ty of
phases d i feren t .
M i kha i lov 1 9 7 6 ss -- N APT , mo i sture m igrat i o n .
Ha kash i & ss -- N A PT
omor i 1 97 9
Cl � ne & ss 3 N A PT , v ir tual adj unct
a rc ia 1 980 me thod .
Cho & ss 3 N A PT , tempera ture prof i l e
Sunder land 1 98 1 same a s for n o pha s e c hange .
A ppend i x A 265
Tab l e A . 3 Approx imate Analy t i c al Solutions For Rad ial Geometry As suming
a Uni que Phase Change Temperature

Eval
Poe ts 1 96 2 b C , SP p HBI , se r i es solu t i o n .

Langford 1 9 6 6 SP 2 N HBI , k nown i n t erface
velo c i ty at zero t i me .
Alb in e t a l 1 97 9 SP y HBI , s i x stages .
Bel l 1 979a c y HBI , subd i v id es r eg ion .
Be l l 1 9 7 9 b c y HBI , subd iv ides reg ion .
T ie n 1 98 0 c 3 y HBI
Lunard ini 1 9 8 1 c y HBI
Pek er i s & c N Ser i es solu t i o n .

Sl i cht er 1 9 39
Pedroso & SP N PER
Domoto 1 97 3 a
Pedroso & SP N PER
Domo to 1 97 3 c
R i l ey e t al 1 9 7 4 C , SP N PER
Jij i & c N PER
We inbaum 1 9 78
Seen i raj & C , SP 3 ,R Y PER
Bose 1 982
H i l l & Kucera 1 983 SP 3 N Ser i es solu t i o n .
Plank 1 9 1 3 C,SP 3 N QSS

Lond on & C , SP 3 N See Plank 1 9 1 3 .
Seban 1 9 4 3
Lederman & C 2 Y EM , ab lat ion .
Bo l ey 1 97 0
Sh ih & Tsay 1 9 7 1 C 3 N AI
Sh i h & Chou 1 97 1 SP 3 N AI
Theofanous & SP N AI
Lim 1 9 7 1
Se l i m & C , SP y IT
Seagra ve 1 973 b
Chuang & c 3 .. y MHS , ablat i on , Green ' s
Szekely 1 97 2 func t ions .
Cho & SP N APT
Sunder l and 1 9 70
Komo r i & C 3 p APT
Hirai 1 97 0
Bol es & Oz i s i k 1 983 C 2 N APT
Append i x A 266
Table A . 4 Approx imate Analy t i ca l So lut ions For Mu l t i -D imens iona l Shapes
Assum ing a U n i qu e Phase Cha nge Temperature
Re ferenc e Shape 1 BC 2 T i n 3 Num .. Method and Cornrnents 5

Eval
Poo t s 1 9 62a 2D y HBI , ser i es so lut ion .

Ri l ey & 3D y HBI , c uboi d .
Duck 1 977 a
R i l ey & 2 , 3D y H BI , rec tang ular p r i sms ,
Duck 1 9 77 b el l i p ses , e l l i p soids .
Plank 1 94 1 2 , 3D 3 N QSS , is oth erma l surface ,

sur face & i n terfac e
pa ra l lel , rod & b r i ck .
Tanaka & 3D 3 N See Plank 1 9 41 , con i ca l &
N i sh imo to 1 95 9 square pyramid shapes .
Tanaka & 3D 3 N See Plank 1 9 4 1 , b r i ck s &
Ni sh imo to 1 9 60 fin i t e cyl inders .
Tanaka & 3D 3 N See Plank 1 94 1 ' tr apezoids .
N i sh imo to 1 9 6 4
Shams undar 1 9 82 2 , 30 3 N See Plank 1 9 4 1 , but sur f ac e
& inte rface not pa ral lel ,
use s sha � e factors of Hahne
& Gr igul 1 975 .
J i j i e t al 1 9 70 20 y MHS , Green ' s func t ions ,

corner .
Rathj en & 20 y MHS , Green ' s func t ions ,
J i j i 1 97 1 c orner .
Budhia & 2D y MHS , Gre en ' s func t i ons ,
Kr ei th 1 9 73 wedge .
Append i x A 2 67
Tab le A . 5 Emp i r ical Solut ions As sum i ng A U n i qu e Phase Cha nge

Tempe rature
Refer enc e Shap e 1 BC 2 T i n 3 Num � Method 6 ' 7 a nd Comments 8

Eval
Charm & ss 3 N Adds f i c t i tious th ick ness to

Sl av i n 1 9 62 mod i fy method of Neumann
1912.
Bax t e r 1 96 2 s ,c 3 N RE , F , FDM
Tao 1 9 67 C , SP 3 N CH , F , FDM
Tao 1 96 8 S , C , SP 3 N RE , F , FDM
Ever i ng ton & s � N G , T , cor rect i on to
Cooper 1 972a N eu ma nn 1 9 1 2 .
Good l i ng & S ,C , S P 3,R N CH , F , FDM
Khade r 1 9 74
Church i l l & 1 , 2 , 30 1 , 2 , 3 p De r i v e an " e ffec t i ve" C
Gupt a 1 91 7 value that is used to mod i f y
solutions for hea t
conduc t ion w i thout pha se
chang e .
Al b i n et al 1 97 9 SP 4 N RE , F , based on
ana ly t ical resu lt s .
Shamsundar & 1 ,2 ,30 1 , 2 , 3 y QSS , isotherma l surface
Sr i n i vasan 1 979 as sumed , s i mi lari t y rul e
so l ess numer i ca l r esul t s
a r e requ i red .
Shamsund ar 1 98 1 1 , 2 , 3D 1 , 2 , 3 y See Shamsundar & Sr i n i vasan
1 9 79 , dens i ty of ph ases
d ifferen t .
Vol l e r & c N RE , F , FDM
Cross 1 981 b
Append i x A 2 68
A . 3 SOLUT IONS FOR PHASE CHA NGE OVER A RANGE OF T EMP ERATUR ES
Tabl e A . 6 Approx i mate Ana ly t ical So lut ions For Al l oy So l i d i f ic a t i on

Eval
T i en & ss N HBI , LRT , DHG

Ge i ge r 1 96 7
T i en & ss 4 y HBI , LR T , DHG
Ge ige r 1 9 68
T i en & s 4 y HBI , LRT , DHG
Koump 1 96 8
Cho & SS , S N HBI , APT , LRT , DHG
Sunder land 1 9 69
Geuze et al 1 97 2 ss , s y HBI , LRT
Hayak awa & s 3 � p HBI , s i x stages , LRT
Bakal 1 97 3
Mue lbauer s 3 p HBI , s i x stages , LRT
e t a l 1 97 3
Hayash i ss � N APT , f i ve stages , LRT , DHG
e t a l 1 97 9
Oz i s i k & c 2 .. N So l i d frac t i on d epends on
U zz e l l 1 97 9 temperature o r d i st anc e , DHG
Append i x A 2 69
Tab l e A . 7 Emp i r i cal So lutions For Phase Cha nge Over a Range of
Temperatures
Re ferenc e Form 6 Ty pe 7 Comments 8

Sol n
Cow an 1 9 58 CH F EXP , poul try i mmersed i n b r in e or

gly co l .
Loren tzen & CH F EXP , b eef ca rc as ses i n a ir .
Rosv ik 1 95 9
Mer r i t t & G T EXP , f i sh i n wat e r & air .
Ba nks 1 96 4
Slav in 1 9 6 4 N F F i sh i n a ir , bas ed on the method of
Nagaoka et al 1 955 .
Ear l e & CH F EXP , l amb & mut ton i n a i r .
F l eming 1 96 7
Fl emi ng 1 9 67 CH F EX P , lamb bra ins & k i dney s i n
br ine & a i r .
Kas sa i 1 9 69 G T EX P , beef & pork l eg s i n a i r .
Ever i ng ton 1 9 7 1 G T EX P , be ef blocks i n vac uum steam .
Eve r i ngton & G T EXP , food in vacuum steam .
Cooper 1 97 2 b
Fraz erhurst CH F EX P , fancy meat s immersed i n glyco l .
et al 1 9 7 2
B a i l ey & CH T EX P , FDM , pork l eg s & mea t blocks i n
James 1 9 74 a i r , wate r & v acuum s t eam .
Ba i l ey G T EX P , FDM , pork l e gs i n a ir , wat er
et a l 1 974 & v acuum st eam .
Hew i t t et a l 1 97 4 RE F EX P , f i sh i n plate freezer .
Sco t t 1 97 5 G , RE T EX P , f i sh i n wat er.
C l e l and & RE F EX P , food slab s .
Ear l e 1 976b
Cl e l and 1 97 7 RE F EX P , food slab s , c y l i nders , spheres
a nd b r i ck s .
C l e l and & RE F EXP , food sl ab s .
Ear l e 1 97 7 a
James et a l 1 9 7 7 CH T EXP , FDM , beef quarters i n a ir .
Cle l a nd & RE F EXP , food cyl inder s a nd sphe r es .
Ear l e 1 97 9a
C l el and & RE F EX P , food bri c k s .
Ea r l e 1 97 9 b
Cr eed et a l 1 9 7 9 CH ,RE T EXP , lamb carca s s es i n a ir .
Durb i n et a l 1 97 9 G T EXP , l amb & mut ton c ar casses i n a i r .
James e t a l 1 9 7 9 CH F EX P , FDM , boxed meat bloc k s i n a ir .
Tab l e A . 7 con t inued • • • 270
Referenc e Form6 Ty pe 7 Comments 8

Sol n
James & G T EXP , FDM , beef blo ck s i n a ir

Ba i l ey 1 9 80 & vac uum st eam.
James & CH T EXP , FDM , b ee f fore & h i nd quar t ers
Creed 1 9 80 air , wat er & vac uum steam .
Calve l o 1 9 8 1 RE T FDM , mea t sl ab s .
Creed & CH , R E T EX P , FDM , beef b loc k s i n a ir , wat er
James 1 98 1 vac uum s t eam .
Loe ffan e t a l 1 9 8 1 RE F Di fferen t i a l form of C l e land & Earle
1 979b for t i me va r i abl e cond i t ions .
Cle land & RE F EXP , food s l ab s , cyl inder s , sphe res
Ear le 1 9 8 2 b and brick s .
C l e land & RE F D i f ferent i a l form of Cl e land & Earle
Ear l e 1 982c 1 9 82 b fo r t i me var iabl e condi t i ons .
Mo leera t anond N , RE F EX P , boxed beef blocks i n a ir .
e t al 1 982
Zar i t zky RE F FDM , bee f l i ver slab s .
et al 1 982
Hayak awa RE F Pr ed icted by f i n i t e element methods
et a l 1 9 83 a for foo d in f i n i te cyl inders & r ods .
Hung & RE F EX P , food slab s .
Thompson 1 983
Pham 1 9 83 RE F EX P , food slab s , c yl i nders & sph e res .
Succa r & RE F FDM , food slabs .
Hayak awa 1 9 8 4
Pham 1 9 8 4c RE F EX P , food slab s , c yl i nder s , spheres
and b r i cks
A ppend i x A 27 1
Tab l e A . 8 Sol u t i ons U s ing Equ ivalent D i ameters to Accoun t For Irregular
Shape
Re fer enc e Bas i c 9 Type 7 Comments 8

Shape
Nagaoka C F F i sh , ell i p t i c shape .

et al 1 9 55
Edd i e & Br i c k F Fish .
Pear son 1 9 58
Levy 1 9 58 C F Fi sh .
Ear l e & C F Lamb & mut ton carc asses .
F l emi ng 1 96 7
Tao 1 9 68 C,SP F Food , relate to nearest bas i c shap e .
F l em i ng 1 97 0 C F Lamb car cass .
Kouwenhoven 1 97 2 SP T Pou l try .
Van i chseni Br i c k T Lamb shoulde rs .
et al 1 9 72
Ba i l ey & SP T Pork l e gs .
James 1 97 4
Ba i l ey e t a l 1 97 4 SP T Pork leg s & me at blocks .
James et a l 1 977 C ,SP T Beef h i nd- & f ore-qu ar t ers .
�2
APP ENDIX B
EST IMAT I ON OF EDGE HEAT TR AN SFER I N

SLAB THAWING EXP ER IMENTS
I n slab thawi ng exper i ments a number o f measur es were t ak en t o m i n i mi se

all heat transfer other than that wh i ch i s one-d imens i onal b etween the
s l ab f aces . Each slab was s ur rounded by at l eas t 0 . 09 m of
polystyrenne foam board i ns ul at i on on the other two s i des . The Tylose
slab i tsel f was at l east 2 . 1 t i mes greater in wi dth than i t was thi ck .
Even wi th these measures some unwanted edge heat transfer is

i nev i t ab l e , espec i a l l y wher e the t emperatur e d r i v i ng forces are smal l ,
the slab i s thick , the sur face heat transfer coeff i c ient i s l ow and the
thaw i ng proc ess is therefor e l ong. The i nsul at i on was large l y
effec t i ve i n prevent i ng heat transfer from the room cond i t i ons to the
slab . Howe ver , heat t ransfer a l so occurred from the pl ates d irectly to
the i nsulat i on and thence to the s i de f aces of the slab s . Th is eff ec t
was thought to have s i gn i f i cant effect on thaw i ng t i mes of the slab s so
an i nves t i ga t i on was made to predict th i s effec t .
Th i s effect coul d not b e stud i ed exper imental l y so simul at i on by the

f i n i t e element method was use d . The f in i te el ement method can deal
w i th heat transfer in both the Tylose and in the i nsul at i on .
Calculat i ons were made w i th the gr i ds shown i n F i g . B . 1 . The two cases
were ( a ) the i deal sl ab s i tuation wi th onl y one-d imens i onal heat
transf er ( perfect i nsul at i o n ) a nd ( b ) where heat transfer thr ough the
i nsul a t i ng material was poss i bl e . The d i fferenc e between the pred i ct ed
thaw i ng t i mes was cons i dered to be due to the unwant ed edge heat
transfer .
In the s imul at i on the mos t pess i m i s t i c v i ew that the cont act res i st ance
between the thaw i ng p l at e and the polystyrene foam i nsul at ion surface
was the same as that between the plate and the Tylose sur face was
t aken . I n the ac tual s i tuat ion i t should b e greater because of the
porous nat ure of the polystyrene and bec ause the Tylose th i ckness was
s l i ghtly larger than the surround i ng i nsul a t ion . Mos t of the contact
Append i x B 273
pressure was therefore between the Tylose and the plat e . The ex tent t o
wh i ch the ac tual con tact r es i st anc e f rom th e plate t o the i nsul at ion
was grea ter than that from the plate to the Tylose could no t be
measured or es t i mated , but g i ves a fur ther saf ety factor when
int erpre t i ng the resul t s of th is inves t i gat ion .
The cond i t ions invest i gated were those used i n th e slab thaw i ng runs
( Sec . 6 . 2 ) . For the runs mos t affec t ed by edge effects the cond i t i ons
used and the cal cul ated thaw i ng t i mes , b oth assumi ng perfect i nsul at ion
and wi th the poss i b i l i ty of heat transfer through the insul a t i on , ar e
g i ven in Tab l e B. 1 . The r esul ts show the six cases whe r e the
d i f ference in thaw i ng t i me was greater than 1 . 0 % . The effec t of the
edge heat transfer qu i ck l y reduc ed for h i gher amb i en t thawi ng
temp eratures , h i gher sur face heat transfer coef f i c ient s and sma l l er
slab th i cknesses . Consequen t l y , for th e other sl ab thaw i ng exper iments
the s i mulated thaw i ng t i mes wer e l ess than 1 . 0% d i fferent . These
r esul ts conf irm that a l though the edge heat transf er was not negl i g i bl e
i n all cases , for most of the slab thawing exper i ments it was sma l l
enough t o be tol erat ed . Par t icul ar care must be t aken in interpr e t i ng
resul ts for Runs T3 , T 1 6 and T3 .
Append i x B 27 4
Tab l e 8 . 1 R esul t s o f the F i n i t e El emen t M ethod S imul a t ion of Edge Heat

Transfer Dur i ng Thaw i ng o f Sl abs
*
R un 0 h Ta t exp tI
( m ) ( W m- 2 ° C - 1 ) ( °C ) ( hrs ) ( hr s ) ( hr s ) (%)
T26 0 . 1 0 50 37 . 3 5.2 -24 . 7 29 . 3 3 29 . 4 3 28 . 0 9 4.6

T3 0 . 05 25 13.2 5.2 -1 1 4
• 1 9 . 32 20 . 85 20 . 2 3 3 .0
T 1 6 0 . 1 000 24 . 5 12.8 -9 . 4 1 6 . 92 1 6 . 37 1 5 . 91 2.8
T1 0 0 . 1 0 20 1 3 .2 43.0 -1 3 .7 8 . 83 9 . 29 9. 10 2 .0
T30 0 . 1 05 0 78 . 1 5.2 -28 . 8 23 . 6 2 23 . 5 1 23 .07 1 .9
T 1 3 0 . 07 70 37 . 3 5.2 -3 0 . 2 18 .49 18. 1 2 1 7 . 87 1 .4
*
t1 thaw i ng t i me calcul ated from the f i n i t e element method us i ng the
g r i d g i ven i n F i g . B . 1 a , t 2 = thaw i ng t i me ca lculated from the f i n i t e
el emen t me thod us i ng the gri d g i ven in F i g . B . 1 b .
1 E = percentage d i fference between the thawi ng t i mes predi cted by
f i n i t e e l ement ana l y s i s wi th per fect insulat i on ( t 1 ) and that wi th
imperfect i nsulat i o n ( t 2 ) at the slab edges .
Appen d i x 8 275
Vertical Scale [cm]
4 8
r' � I"' r' "'
a
I"' I"' r' "'
A ----
Vertical Scale [cm]
4 8
Fig . 8. 1 The F i ni t e El ement Method Gri ds Used To I nv es ti gat e the Eff ect
of Edge Heat T ransf er D ur i ng Thaw i ng of Slabs of Tyl os e .
*
- no des , * * - no des wher e t emper atur e r ecor ded , - el em ent
boundar i es , == - pl anes of s ymmet r y , A - axi s of symmet r y .
Shaded r eg i ons s how el ements repr es ent i ng po l ys t yr en e ,
k 0 . 03 W m- 2
= °C - 1 , C
3 . 3 88 MJ m- 3 oc - 1 . Hor i zont al axi s
=
scal e i s vari a bl e de pending on the slab thi c kness mo del l ed .

( a ) a per f ectl y i ns ul at ed sl ab
( b ) an a ct ual sl ab .
_27 6
APP END I X C
GEOMETR IC FAC TOR DATA FOR MU LT I-DIM EN SIONAL SHA PES
Tabl e C . 1 Resu l t s of F i ni t e D i f ference Method Calculat ions T o Deter m i ne

G eome t r i c Fac tor s For Mul t i - D i mens iona l Regular Shapes
Us i ng Tylose th ermal proper t y dat a ( Tabl e 5 1 ) , D • = 0 0 1 65 m or

•
0 . 1 6 5 m , Ta = - 3o . o oc , T in = 20 . 0 °C , T f i n - 1 0 . 0 °C .
Shape B 1 82 Bi t fdm EHTD MC P
.. .. 0 . 01 0 24 . 1 � 0 1 . 00 1 .00
.. .. 0 . 0 32 7 .6 8 1 . 00 1 .00
.. .. 0 . 1 00 2 . 4 79 1 . 00 1 . 00
.. .. 0 .31 6 0 . 833 1 . 00 1 .00
Slab .. .. 1 . 000 30 . � 90 1 .00 1 .00
.. .. 3 . 1 62 1 �. 20 1 . 00 1 . 00
.. .. 1 0 .000 . 4 45 1 .00 1 . 00
.. .. 31 . 6 20 6 . 866 1 .00 1 . 00
.. .. 1 00 . 000 6 . 3 88 1 .00 1 . 00
1 . 000 0 .0 1 0 8 .0 4 3 3 . 00 1 .00
1 . 000 0 . 032 2 . � 57 3 . 00 1 . 00
1 . 000 0 . 1 00 o . 27 3 . 00 1 .0 1
1 . 000 0 .316 0 . 279 2 . 98 1 .10
1 . 000 1 . 000 1 0 . 9 42 2.81 1 . 33
1 . 000 3 . 1 62 5 .3 1 5 2 .60 1 . 35
1 . 000 1 0 . 000 3 .3 6 5 2.5 1 1 . 27
1 . 0 00 3 1 .6 20 2 . 7 46 2 . 50 1 . 23
1 . 000 1 00 . 000 2.555 2 . 50 1 . 21
1 . 255 0.0 10 8 . 6 27 2 .8 0 1 . 00
1 . 255 0.032 2 . � 47 2.79 1 .0 5
1 . 25 5 0 . 1 00 0 . 89 2 .79 1 .1 2
1 . 255 0 . 31 6 0 . 302 2 .76 1 .18
1 . 255 1 . 000 1 1 . 99 0 2 . 57 1 . 45
1 . 255 3 . 1 62 5 . 8� 6 2 .35 1 . 4�
1 . 255 1 0 . 0 00 3 .7 9 2 . 23 1 .3
1 . 255 3 1 . 6 20 3 . 096 2 . 22 1 . 29
F i ni te 1 . 255 1 . 27
c r; l i nd er
1 00 . 000 2 . 884 2 . 22
r :s; D y 1 . 582
1 . 5 82
0 .0 1 0
0 .032
9 . 1 68
2 . 922
2 .6 3
2 .6 2
1 .00
1 .11
1 .582 0 . 1 00 0 . 9 44 2 .6 2 1 . 20
1 . 5 82 0.31 6 0 . 32 2 .57 1 . 35
1 . 582 1 . 0 00 1 2 . 992 2 . 3� 1 . 55
1 .582 3 . 1 62 6 . 3 45 2.1 1 . 47
1 . 582 1 0 . 000 4 .0 6 6 2 .08 1 . 37
1 . 5 82 31 . 6 20 3 . 31 2 2 .0 7 1 . 30
1 . 582 1 00 . 0 00 3 . 08 5 2 .07 1 . 28
2 . 5 03 0.010 1 0 . 054 2 .40 1 . 00
2 . 5 03 0 . 03 2 3 .210 2 . 39 1 .22
2 . 5 03 o. 1 00 1 . 045 2 . 37 1 . 48
2 . 503 0 .3 1 6 0 .366 2 . 27 1 .66
2 . 503 1 .000 1 4 . 53 0 2.12 1. 6
2 . 503 3 . 1 62 6 .9 00 2 . 00 1 . 4�
2 . 50 j 1 0 . 000 4 .2 1 8 2 . 00 1 .2
2 . 50 3 1 . 620 3 . 4§ 1 2 . 00 1 . 22
2 . 5 03 1 00 . 000 3.1 4 2 . 00 1 .21
Table C . l con t inued • • • 277
Shape 8 1 82 Bi t fdm EHTD MCP
1 0 . 7 39 2 . 25 1 . 54
2 . 2�
4 . 000 0 .0 1 0
4 . 000 0 . 0 32 3 . 437 2 .09
4 . 000 0 . 1 00 1 1 �8
• 2. 1 2 .3 4
4 . 000 0 .31 6 0 .3 9 2 . 09 2 .0 7
4 . 000 1 . 000 1 5 . 1 82 2 . 03 1 . 55
4 . 0 00 3 . 1 62 6 .89� 2 . 01 1 . 28
4 . 000 1 0 . 000 4 .21 2 . 00 1 . 17
4 . 000 3 1 620
• 3 . 4 31 2 . 00 1 .14
4 . 000 1 00 . 000 3 . 194 2 . 00 1 .13
6 . 297 0.010 1 1 208
• 2. 1 5 2. 12
6 . 297 0 . 03 2 3 .6 1 0 2.12 3 . 10
6 . 297 0 . 1 00 1 . 207 2 . 05 3.10
F i n i te 6 . 297 0 . 31 6 0.41 2 2 .0 2 1 .92
cf? i nde r 6 . 297 1 . 0 00 1 5 . 2 7� 2 . 02 1 . 35
r :;;
Dy 6 . 29 7 3 . 1 62 6 . 87 2 .o 1 1 . 17
6 . 29 7 1 0 . 000 4 . 21 2 2. 0 1 1 .11
6 . 29 7 3 1 . 6 20 3 . 43 1 2 . 00 1 .0 9
6 . 29 7 1 00 .000 3 . 1 94 2 . 00 1 . 08
1 0 . 000 0 .o 1 0 1 1 . 5 62 2 . 09 3 . 50
1 0 .000 0 . 032 3 .730 2 .0 6 3 .7 3
1 0 . 000 0 . 1 00 1 2 31
• 2 . 01 2 . 77
1 0 . 000 0.316 0.410 2 .03 1 . 47
1 0 .000 1 .0 00 1 5 . 2 28 2 . 02 1 .19
1 0 .000 3 . 1 62 6 . 8 76 2 . 01 1 .1 0
1 0 .000 1 0 .000 4 .21 2 2 .0 1 1 . 07
1 0 . 000 3 1 . 6 20 3 . 4 31 2 . 00 1 . 06
1 0 .000 1 0 0 . 000 3 . 1 94 2 . 00 1 . 05
1 . 000 0.010 8 .0 4 3 3 . 00 1 . 00
1 . 00 0 0 . 032 2 .565 2 .99 1 . 00
0 . 1 00 0 . 829 2 . 9� 1 .0 4
1 .10
1 . 000
1 . 0 00 0 .31 6 0 . 279 2. 9
1 .000 1 . 000 1 0 . 942 2 .81 1 . 33
1 . 0 00 3 . 1 62 5.315 2 .60 1 . 35
1 . 00 0 1 0 . 000 3 . 36 5 2 .5 1 1 . 27
1 . 0 00 3 1 620
• 2 .7 4 6 2 . 50 1 . 23
1 . 00 0 1 0 0 . 000 2 .555 2 .50 1 . 21
1 . 582 0.010 1 0 . 658 2 . 26 1 . 00
1 .582 0 .032 3 .371
1 1 05
2 . 28
2 . 24
1 .14
1 . 38
1 .582 0 . 1 00
0 . � 82 1 52
•
1 . 5 82 0.31 6 2. 18 .
1 . 582 1 . 000 1 5 . 06 1 .9 5 1 .81

1 . 5 82 3 . 1 62 8 . 1 82 1 .6 9 1 .7 7
1 . 582 1 0 . 000 5 . 5 �8 1 .5 1 1 . 69
1 . 5 82 3 1 . 6 20 4 .6 0 1 . 47 1 .6 1
F i ni t e 1 . 582 1 00 . 000 4 . 384 1 . 46 1 .58
C b l i nder
r ;:: D y 1 � .428 1 .80 1 . 45
1 .7 �
2 .503 0 .0 1 0
.�0 1 1 .7 8
1 .l 6
2 . 503 0 .0 3 2
2 . 50 3 0 . 1 00 1 . 10 1 .9
2 .503 0.31 6 0 . 508 1. 4 2 .34
2 . 50 3 1 . 000 2 1 . 76 0 1 .42 2 . 36
2 . 503 3 . 1 62 1 1 - �8 4 1 . 21 2 .0 9
2 . 50 3 1 0 . 0 00 1 . 08 1 .1 1 1 . 87
2 .5 0� 6 6 . 2 ��
1 .7 1
1 .620 1 .09 1 .7
2 . 50 1 0 . 000 5.9 1 .07
4 . 000 0.010 16.119 1 . 50 1 .80
4 . 000 0 . 032 5 . 1 60 1 .49 2 . 20
4 . 00 0 0 . 1 00 1 . b� 1 1 . 4§ 2 . 95
4 . 00 0 0 .31 6 0. 1 1 .2 3 . 26
4 . 00 0 1 . 0 00 1 .12 2 . 67
4 . 000 3 . 1 62 F : �� 1 . 03 2 . 05
4 . 000 1 0 . 000 t�952 1 .0 1 1 .69
4 . 0 00 3 1 .6 20 66 .. 3 �8 1 . 00 1 . 56
4 . 000 1 00 . 000 1 .00 1 52
.
Table C . 1 con t inued • • • 278
Shape 8 1 82 Bi t fdm EHTD MC P
6 . 300 0 .0 1 0 1 8 . 4 06 1 .31 2 .8 4
oo 0 . 082
g · � 00
• 0. 1 0
5 . 9 40
2.054
1 . 29
1 . 21 � :14
6 . 3 00 0 .31 6 0 . 76 7 1 . 09 3 . 92
6 . 300 1 . 0 00 30 . 5 1 5 1 .01 2 .5 3
6 . 3 00 3 . 1 62 1 g . 75 1 1 01• 1 . 70
6 . 300 1 0 .000 . 4 20 1 .00 1 .44
6 . 3 00 3 1 . 620 6 .8 5 9 1 . 00 1 . 36
F i n i te 6 . 300 1 00 . 0 00 6 . 388 1 . 00 1 . 33
Cyl inder
Dr � D y 1 0 . 0 00 0.010 20 . 260 1 . 19 4 .o �
1 0 . 000 0 . 03 2 6 . 6 68 1 . 15 6.4
1 0 . 000 0 . 1 00 2 . � 36 1 . 06 6 .�7
1 0 . 0 00 0 . 31 6 0 . 30 1 .00 3. 8
1 0 . 00 0 1 . 000 30 . � 29 1 . 00 1 . 99
1 0 .000 3 . 1 62 1 �. 06 1 .00 1 . 4�
1 0 . 000 1 0 . 000 . 4 45 1 . 00 1 .2
1 0 .000 31 . 6 20 6 . 86 6 1 . 00 1 . 23
1 0 . 00 0 1 00 . 0 00 6 . 388 1 . 00 1 . 21
1 . 000 (I) 0 .010 1 2 . 0 65 2 . 00 1 .00

1 . 0 00 (I) 0 . 032 3 . 8� 4 2 . 00 1 . 00
1 .000 (I) 0 . 1 00 1 .2 3 1 .99 1 . 08
1 . 000 (I) 0.31 6 0 . 42 1 1 . 98 1 .14
1 .000 (I) 1 . 000 1 6 .o 5 g 1 . 92 1 . 21
1 . 0 00 (I) 3 . 1 62 7 . 70 1 . 79 1 . 26
1 . 000 (I) 1 0 . 000 4 .9 1 6 1 .72 1 . 23
1 .ooo CO 31 . 6 20 4 .01 3 1 .7 1 1 . 19
1 .000 CO 1 00 .000 3 . 75 1 1 .70 1 . 18
1 . 25 5 CO 0.010 1 � .44� 1 . 80 1 .00
1 . 2 55 CO 0 . 032 . 28 1 .79 1 .13
1 . 25 5 (I) 0 . 1 00 1 . �9 0 1 .78 1 . 20
1 . 25 5 (I) 0.316 0. 74 1 .76 1 .31
1 . 25 5 CO 1 . 000 1 8 . 4 37 1 .67 1 . 38
1 . 255 CO 3 . 1 62 9 .00 � 1 . 53 1 .3�
1 . 25 5 CO 1 0 . 0 00 5 . 82 1 . 45 1 .3
1 . 255 CO 31 . 6 20 4 .863 1 . 41 1 .31
1 . 25 5 CO 1 00 . 000 4 .543 1 . 41 1 . 29
1 . 5 82 CO 0.010 1 4 . 8 04 1 . 63 1 .0 4
1 . 5 82 CO 0 . 032 4 . 725 1 .62 1 . 28
1 .582 CO 0 . 1 00 1 .536 1 .61 1 . 46
Inf in i te 1 .582 CO 0.31 6 0 . 5 28 1 . 58 1 .49
Rod 1 .582 CO 1 . 000 20 . 9 4 6 1 . 47 1 .5 5
1 . 5 82 00 3 . 1 62 1 0 .3 91 1 . 33 1 .5 1
1 . 5 82 CD 1 0 . 000 6 .772 1 . 25 1 . 43
1 . 5 82 CD 3 1 . 6 20 5 . 65 1 1 . 22 1 .3
1 . 5 82 CO 1 0 0 .000 5 . 27 9 1 .21 1 . 36
2 .503 CO 0 .01 0 17 .273 1 . 40 1 .�0
2 .503 CD 0 . 032 5 . 5 2� 1 . 39 1. 3
2 . 503 CD 0 . 1 00 1 .80 1 . 37 1 .85
2 . 503 (I) 0 .3 1 6 0 . 6�6 1 .31 1 . �4
2 . 503 (I) 1 . 00 0 25 . 4 1 . 20 1. 5
2 .503 CO 3 . 1 62 1 2 .l44 1 .09 1 .64
2 . 503 (I) 1 0 . 000 8 .0 7 4 1 .0 5 1 . 47
2 .50� CO a 1 . 620 · 61 84 1 .0 4 1 .40
2 .50 00 1 0 . 000 g 1• 1 .03 1 . 37
4 . 0 00 CD 0 .0 10 1 9 .366 1 . 25 1 . 52
4 .000 (I) 0 . 032 6 . 20 4 1 . 24 2.11
4 .000 CD 0 . 1 00 2 . 0 54 1 . 21 2.46
4 . 0 00 00 0 .3 1 6 o . 7 38 1.13 2 . 48
4 .000 CD 1 . 00 0 29 . 4 08 1 .0 5 1 . 97
4 .0 0 0 00 3 . 1 62 1 � . 6 29 1 .01 1 .5 3
· �5 3
4 .0 0 0 (I) 1 0 . 0 00 1 .01 1 .33
4 . 0 00 00 3 1 . 6 20 6 . 05 1 .01 1 . 2l
4 . 000 00 1 00 . 0 00 6 . 36 9 1 .0 0 1 .2
Table C . 1 con t inued • . • 279
Shape 8 1 82 Bi t fdm EHTD MC P
6 . 297 CD 0.010 20 . 8 92 1 . 16 2 . 32
6 . 297 CD 0 . 032 6 . 7 g2 1 . 14 3 . 22
6 . 297 CD 0 . 1 00 2 .2 8 1 . 09 3 . 47
6 . 297 CD 0.31 6 0.810 1 . 03 2 .74
6 . 297 CD 1 . 000 30 . � 29 1 .00 1 .7 8
6 . 29 7 CD 3 . 1 62 1 � . 20 1 . 00 1 .36
6 . 29 7 CD 1 0 . 000 . 4 45 1 . 00 1 .22
6 . 297 CD 3 1 . 6 20 6 . 866 1 . 00 1 . 18
I nf i n i te 6 . 29 7 CD 1 0 0 . 000 6 . 388 1 . 00 1 . 17
Rod
1 0 . 000 CD 0.010 22 . 0 7 7 1 .09 3 .5 7
1 0 . 000 CD 0 . 032 7 . 20 0 1 . 07 5.19
1 0 .000 CD 0. 1 00 2 . 4 30 1 .02 4 . 22
CD 0.316 0 . 828 1 01 2 . 29
30 . � 90
1 0 .000 •
CD 1 . 000 1 . 00 1 .50
1 . 2�
1 0 . 000
1 0 . 000 CD 3 . 1 62 1 g. 20 1 . 00
1 0 . 0 00 CD 1 0 . 000 . 4 45 1 . 00 1 .1
1 0 .000 OD 3 1 . 6 20 6 . 866 1 .00 1.11
1 0 .000 CD 1 00 . 000 6 . 3 88 1 .00 1 . 10
1 . 000 1 . 0 00 0.01 0 8 .0 4 3 3 . 00 1 . 00
1 . 000 1 . 000 0 . 032 2 .5 63 2 .99 1 .10
1 .000 1 . 000 0 . 1 00 0 . 8� 0 2 .99 1 18
•
1 . 000 1 . 000 0 .3 16 0 .2 4 2 . 93 1 .34

1 . 000 1 . 000 1 . 000 1 1 4 59
• 2 .69 1 .58
1 . 0 00 1 . 000 3 . 1 62 5 .7 1 3 2 . 42 1 .54
1 . 000 1 . 0 00 1 0 . 0 00 3 . 7 45 2 . 26 1 . 46
1 . 000 1 . 0 00 31 . 620 3 . 061 2 .24 1 . 38
1 . 000 1 .000 1 0 0 .000 2 .852 2.24 1 .34
1 . 000 1 . 582 o .o 1 0 9 . 1 89 2 .6 3 1 . 41
1 . 000 1 . 5 82 0 . 032 2 . 9 30 2 .6 2 1 . 48
1 . 000 1 . 582 0 . 1 00 0 . 955 2 . 60 1 .55
1 . 000 1 . 582 0.31 6 0. �31 2 . 51 1 .65
1 . 000 1 . 582 1 . 000 1 g. 36 2 . 26 1 . 83
1 . 000 1 . 5 82 3 . 1 62 . 9 38 1 .99 1 .73
1 . 582 1 0 . 000 4 .57 0 1 85 1 . 59
3 .44 6
1 . 000 •
1 . 000 1 . 582 3 1 . 6 20 1 . 83 1 . 49
1 . 000 1 . 582 1 00 . 000 3 . 85 1 . 83 1 . 45
1 . 000 2 .503 0 . 010 1 0 .071 2 . 40 1 . 59
1 . 000 2 . 5 03 0 . 0 32 3 . 2 20 2 .38 1 . 73
1 . 00 0 2 .503 o . 1 00 1 . 056 2 . 35 1 . 90
R ectangular 1 . 000 2 . 503 0 . 31 6 0 . 3 72 2 . 24 1 . 99
Br i c k · 1 . 0 00 2 . 5 03 1 . 000 1 5 . 273 2 .0 2 1 .95
4 .540 1 . 83
1 .4�
1 . 000 2 . 503 3 . 1 62 1 .7 0
1 . 000 2.503 1 0 . 000 .610 1 . 83
1 . 000 2 . 50 3 31 . 6 20 3 . 9 87 1 72
• 1 4
•
1 . 000 2 .503 1 00 . 0 0 0 3 .7 1 4 1 .72 1 . 41

1 . 000 4 . 000 o . 01 0 1 0 . 7 6g 2 . 24 2 . 43
1 .000 4 .000 0 .032 3 .44 2 . 22 2 . 47
1 . 000 4 . 000 0 . 1 00 1 1 4� 2 . 16 2 . 67
2 . �9
•
1 . 000 4 .000 0.31 6 0 . 40 2.04

1 . 0 00 4 . 000 1 . 0 00 1 6 . 028 1 . 92 1. 6
1 . 000 4 .000 3 . 1 62 4 .. 79 31 64 1 .7 9
1 72
1 .59
1 . 43
1 . 0 00 4 . 000 1 0 . 000
6 1 . �5
•
1 . 000 4 . 000 1 . 6 20 4 . 008 1 .7 1

1 . 000 4 . 000 1 0 . 000 3 . 7 29 1 71
• 1. 3
1 .5 82 1 . 582 0 . 01 0 1 0 . 6 86 2 . 26 1 .62
1 . 582 1 . 5 82 0 . 032 3 .4 1 7 2 . 24 1 . 70
1 . 5 82 o . 1 00 1 . 82
1 . 9�
1 . 582 1 117 2 . 22
1 . 5 82
•
1 . 582 0 .31 6 0 . 394 2.1 1

1 .582 1 .582 1 . 000 1 6 . 70 6 1 .84 2.1
1 . 582 1 . 582 3 . 1 62 8 .791 1 .57 2 . 00
1 .582
1 . 5 82
1 . 582 1 0 . 000 � -. 99 7602 1 . 42 1 .84
1 .l 2
1 . 582 3 1 . 6 20 1 .3 8
1 . 5 82 1 . 5 82 1 00 . 000 4 .656 1 .37 1. 8
Table C . 1 cont inued • • • 280
Shape 81 B :z 81 t fdm EHTD MC P
1 . 5 82 2 .503 o. 010 1 1 922

• 2 . 02 1 .7 3
1 .582 2 . 50 3 0 .032 3.817 2 . 01 1 .93
1 . 25 6 1 . 97 2 . 20
2 . 4g
1 . 5 82 2 . 503 o. 100
1 . 582 2 . 50 3 0 . 31 6 0 . 45 3 1 . 84
1 . 5 82 2 .503 1 . 000 1 9 . 280 1 . 60 2 .3
1 . 582 2 . 50 3 3 . 1 62 1 0 . 029 1 .3 8 2 . 07
1 . 5 82 2 . 503 1 0 .000 6 . 7 02 1 . 26 1 .86
1 . 582 2 . 503 3 1 .6 20 5 . 5 46 1 . 24 1 .l2
1 . 5 82 2 . 503 1 0 0 . 000 5. 181 1 . 23 1. 1
1 . 582 4 . 000 0 .0 1 0 1 2 . 8 69 1 . 88 2 . 52
1 . 5 82 4 .000 0 .032 4 . 1 31 1 .86 2 .77
1 . 582 4 . 000 0 . 1 00 1 37 9
• 1 .8 0 2 . 92
1 . 5 82 4 . 00 0 0.31 6 0 . 50 1 1 .66 2 .82
1 . 5 82 4 . 000 1 . 000 20 . 6 92 1 .49 2 . 32
1 . 5 82 4 . 000 3 . 1 62 1 0 .41 4 1 . 3� 1 .95
1 . 582 4 . 000 1 0 . 000 6 . 8 38 1 .2 1 . 73
1 . 5 82 4 .000 31 . 6 20 5 . 6 �2 1 . 22 1 .6 1
1 . 5 82 4 . 000 1 00 . 000 5.2 9 1 22
• 1 . 57
2 . 5 03 2 .503 0.010 1 3 . 4 58 1 .79 2 . �5
2 . 503 2 . 50 3 0 . 032 4 . �1 � 1 78
• 2. 9
2 . 5 03 2 . 50 3 0 . 1 00 1. 2 1 .7 4 2 . 65
Recta ngular 2 . 50 3 2 . 50 3 0 . 31 6 o . g 26 1 .58 2 . 86
Br i ck 2 . 50 3 2 . 503 1 . 000 22 . 07 1 . 35 2 .6 6
2. 50 3 2 . 503 3 . 1 62 1 1 792
• 1 17
• 2 . 21
2 . 5 03 2 .503 1 0 . 000 7 . 5 60 1 .12 1 .85
2 . 503 2 . 503 3 1 .6 20 6 . 2 30 1 10
• 1 .7 1
2 . 503 2 . 503 1 00 . 0 00 5 . 8 07 1 . 10 1 .66
2 . 50 3 4 . 0 00 0 .0 1 0 1 4 .7 0 4 1 .64 3 . 08
2 . 503 4 . 000 0 . 032 4 . 7 28 1 .62 3.14
2 . 503 4 . 000 0 . 1 00 1 . 5 87 1 .5 6 3 . 30
2 . 503 4 . 0 00 0.316 0.591 1 . 41 3 .34
2 . 503 4 . 000 1 . 000 25 . 1 1 4 1 . 23 2. 73
2 . 503 4 . 000 3 . 1 62 1 2 .621 1 .10 2 . 15
2 . 50 3 4 . 000 1 0 . 000 8 . 1 36 1 .04 1 .82
2 . 503 4 . 0 00 31 . 6 20 6 .61 5 1 .0 4 1 .66
2 . 50 3 4 . 000 1 00 . 000 6. 154 1 .04 1 .61
4 . 000 4 . 000 o.o 10 1 6 . 1 7� 1 .49 3. 15
4 . 000 4 . 000 0 . 0 32 5.21 1 . 47 3 . 5l
4 . 000 4 . 000 0 . 1 00 1 . l 72 1 .40 3 .9
4 . 000 4 . 000 0 .31 6 0 . 72 1 . 24 3 . 88
4 . 00 0 4 . 000 1 . 000 28 . 2 7 4 1 .09 2.89
4 . 000 4 . 000 3 . 1 62 1 � . 6 43 1 01
• 2 . 09
6 .· � 25
4 . 000 4 . 000 1 0 . 0 00 53 1 .0 1 1 .6 8
4 . 000 4 . 000 3 1 .6 20 1 01
• 1 .55
4 . 000 4 . 000 1 00 .000 6 . 350 1 01
• 1 . 51
------ - -
Append ix C 28 1
Table C . 2 Resu l t s of F i ni te Elemen t M ethod Calculat ions To De t ermi ne

Geome t r i c Fac tor s For Mu l t i - D i mens ional Irregular Shapes
U s i ng Ty lose the rmal property data ( Tabl e 5 . 1 ) , h..O . o w m- 2 oc - 1 or

h = 1 000 . 0 w m- 2 oc - 1 • T a - 30 . 0 oc . T in = 20 . o °C . T f i n - 1 0 . 0 oc .
Shape 1 Bi EHTD MC P
& Code
o.o 2 . 00 1 . 00
2DI 1
92 . 4 2 . 00 1 . 00
0.0 1 61
• 1 . 00
2DI 2
67 . 6 1 . 34 1 . 20
0.0 1 . 84 1 . oo
2DI 3
83 . 0 1 .70 1 .08
0.0 1 .5 6 1 . 00
2DI 4
60 . 0 1 . 24 1 . 27
0.0 2 . 00 1 . 00
2DI 5
63 . 6 2 .00 1 . 00
0 .0 1 73
• 1 . 00
2DI 6
51 .5 1 .5 1 1 .16
o.o 1 . 82 1 . 00
2DI 7
55 . 2 1 . 65 1.11
0.0 1 .32 1 . 00
2DI 8
28 . 8 1 .05 1 . 30
o.o 2 .37 1 . 00
Pyram i d
50 . 0 1 . 48 1 . 72
0.0 3 . 00 1 . 00
Sphere
77 .0 3 .0 0 1 .00
0.0 2 .7 5 1 . 00
Egg
1 03 . 0 2 . 49 1.11
0.0 2 .23 1 . 00
F i sh
72 . 7 1 . 26 1 .82
1 2DI z two-dimens ional i r r e gular shape , code from Tabl e 6 . 6 , geometry

parame t ers a r e g i ven in Tab l e 1 0 . 1 .

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A thes i s prese nted in par t i a l fulf i lment of the

DONALD JOHN C LELAND

A study of methods to predi ct the free z i ng and thawing times of both

For mul t i- d imensional shapes ther e w er e two e x i s ti ng geometri c factors

I woul d l ik e to thank the fol l ow i ng :

- Pr ofessor R . L . Earle , Dr A . C . Cl eland , Dr S . J . Byrne for the ir

- Andy for his ex tra gu i dance and encourag ement .

- Mr J . T . Alger , Mr P . Shaw, Mr D . W . Coul i ng for the ir sub t l e sk i l l s ,

- Mr M . P . F . Loef f en for h i s t i me and ass i s t anc e in compu t i ng mat ters .

- Mr R . Trott for h i s t i me and the P . N . H . B . for the u se of the ir vac uum

- Mr N . B oy d for h i s help i n supply ing tuna for exper imental work .

- M . I . R . I . N . Z . for the resear ch grant that made th i s work poss i b l e and

- J oanne for p roof- read i ng , encouragement and h eap s of TLC .

2 L I TE RATURE REV IEW • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 3

2.�.3 Empi r i cal Solut i ons • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 23

3 RESEARCH OBJECTI VES • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 33

� NUMERI CAL METHOD FORMULAT I ONS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 37

5 EXPERI MENTAL P ROCEDUR E AND DATA COLLECTION • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 57

5.5.3 Meas ur ement and Control of Sur f ace H eat

6 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND RESULTS• • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •••• • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • 1 21

6.5 T HAWIN G OF RECTAN GULAR BRICKS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 2 6

7 PREDI CTION OF THAWIN G T IMES FOR SLABS , INF IN ITE CYLINDERS

1 2 OVE RALL EVALUATI ON OF FREEZING AND THAWIN G T I ME

REFE RENCES • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 240

APP ENDI X A . SUMMARY OF PUBLISHE D SOL UTIONS TO PHASE

APP ENDI X B . ESTIMATION O F E DGE HEAT TRANSFE R IN SLAB

APPENDIX D . F IN ITE E LEMENT METHOD COMPUTE R PROGRAM L IST INGS

APP ENDI X E . SAMPLE CALCULATIONS FOR S IMPLE FREEZING AND THAWING

3.1 D esirable A t t r i but es of Free z i ng and Thawing T ime Predi c tion

3.3 Factors Aff ec t i ng Freezi ng and Thaw i ng T i mes 36

4.1 C ompari son of R es ul t s Fr om the F i n i t e El ement Method Progr ams

4.2 Compar i son of R es ul ts F rom the F i ni te E l ement Method Programs

4.3 Compari son of R es ul t s Fr om the F i n i t e El ement Method Progr ams

4. 4 Compar i son o f R es ul ts F rom the F i ni te E l ement Method Progr ams

4.5 C ompari son of R es ul t s Fr om the F i ni t e C yl i nder F i n i te

5.2 Thermal Proper t y Dat a U sed In Calcul at i ons By Simpl e Formul ae 62

6.1 Typi cal Condi t i ons i n Food Fr ee z i ng and Thawing Processes 1 28

6.2 Experiment al Data For Thawing of Slabs o f Tyl ose 1 29

6.3 Exper i mental D at a For Thaw i ng o f Inf i ni te Cyl i nders of Tyl os e 1 30

6.4 Experimental Data For Thawi ng of Spher es of Tyl ose 1 31

6.6 Experimental D at a For Free z i ng and Thawi ng o f Two-D i mensional

6.8 Exper iment al D at a For Free z i ng and Thawi ng of Slabs and

7.1 Summar y of Per c entage D i f f er ences Between Experimental Free z i ng

7.2 Summary of Per cent a ge D i f f erences Between Experiment al Thawi ng

7.3 Summar y of Per centage D if f er ences Between Exper i ment a l Thawi ng

8. 1 Summar y of P er centa ge D i fferences Between Experiment al Free z i ng

9.1 The Effect of B i , Ste and Pk on the R a t i o of Freezi ng and Thawi ng

9.2 Constants For Pred i c tion of EHTD and MCP 1 94

9.3 Summar y of Percent age D i f f er ences Bet ween N umer i ca l l y Calcul at ed

9.4 Summar y of Percent age D if f er ences Between Exper i mental Freezi ng

9.5 Summar y o f P er c entage D i f f er en c es Between Experi ment al Free z i ng

1 0 . 1 Par ameters For Cal cul at i on of The E ffect of Geomet r y

1 0 . 2 Summar y of Per centage D if f erences Between Numer i cally Cal cul at ed

1 0 . 3 Summar y of Percentage D if f er en ces Between Exper i mental Freezi ng

1 1 . 1 C om pos i te Dat a Set For Tes t i ng o f Free z i ng and Thawi ng

1 1 . 2 Summar y of Per centage D if f er ences Between Exper i mental Thawi ng

1 1 . 3 Summar y o f P er cent a ge D i ffer ences Between Experimental Fr eezing

1 1 . 4 Summar y of P er centage D i ffer ences Between Experiment al Free z i ng

1 2 . 1 Summar y of the Percentage D if f er ences Between Exper i m en t al

A. 1 Exact Anal y ti cal Sol u t i o ns Assuming a Uni que Phase

A.7 Empi r i cal Sol u t i o ns For Phase Chan ge Over a R ange