SME 3013

HISTORY OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES

DR. NUR HAMIZA BT ADENAN

NAMA NO MATRIK
SITI ROHAIZA BINTI SUPRI D20161073881
NOOR HIDAYAH BINTI MOHD KAMAL D20161073888
SITI NUR IRDINA BINTI ZINI D20162075613
GOK CHONG XIAN D20171078254
SITI NUUR BASIRAH BINTI ISHAK D20172080304
NORIZWANA BINTI YUMAT D20181084226
Introduction

The medieval period began from the 5th to the 15th century. It starts from the fall of the

Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance and the Age of

Discovery. However, the dissemination of knowledge at that time was still spread. The

development of mathematics in medieval Europe was driven by Plato's Timaeus that

frequently justified that mathematics provided the key to understanding the created

order of nature. So, one of the greatest European mathematicians of the middle age is

Fibonacci. The one who contributed a lot in mathematics development during that time.

Fibonacci portrait

Background of Fibonacci

Fibonacci full name is Leonardo of Pisa or Leonardo Pisano in Italian. He was born in

Pisa (Italy) 1170 and died in 1250 at Pisa (Italy). During that time Pisa was one of

important commercial town and had linked with many Mediterranean ports. As

Fibonacci grew up with a North African education, studied mathematics in Bulgia,

Algeria. He later traveled extensively around the Mediterranean coast. During his

expedition to around the Mediterranean coast, allowed him to meet with many
merchants and learned of their systems of doing arithmetic. By doing so, he studied

about “Hindu-Arabic” system and soon realized there are many advantages of the

system all over the others. As a result, he had contributed many things in the

development of mathematics during the medieval periods. Its include his published

works such as Liber Abaci ( The Book of Calculation), Practica Geometriae (The

Practice of Geometry) and Liber Quadratorum (The Book of Square Numbers).

Contribution by Fibonacci / Leonardo of Pisa

a. Introducing the decimal number system into Europe

The decimal number system is a number system that we use in our daily life that is

based on 10 digits that are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. This decimal number system is

also known as the Hindu-Arabic numbering system that was promoted by Fibonacci to

replace the Roman numeral system. This system also is known as the most common

system for symbolic representation of the numbers in the world. The main reasons why

Fibonacci promoted this number system is because the Roman numeral system did not

have zero value and lacked place value. So, he decided to used the Hindu-Arabic

numbering system instead of using Roman numerals system.

In the year of 1202, Fibonacci wrote a widely influential book called “Liber

Abaci” and also known as “Book of Calculation” in which he promoted people to use

Hindu-Arabic numeral system. This book also is known as the first western book to

describe the Hindu-Arabic numeral system and use traditional symbols described as

Arabic numerals. This numeral system is many ways better than the clumsy and
complicated Roman numerals and this will make people daily activities went smoothly

especially for merchants and mathematicians.

Unfortunately, this Hindu-Arabic numeral system was banned in the city of

Florence in 1299 due to the time of Crusades against Islam and known as the time

where anything about Arabic is viewed with great suspicion. However, by the 15th

century, the Roman numeral system obsolete due to the common sense among the

people that was prevailed and a new system was adopted throughout Europe by the 15th

century. During this time, the fraction sign which is the horizontal bar sign was first

used in this work.

Hindu-Arabic numeral system

The “Liber Abaci” of Fibonacci and there was Arabic letters inside it

Roman numerals

The various numeral system

b. Fibonacci Sequence and Golden Ratio

In 1202, Liber Abaci (Book of Calculation) was published after Fibonacci’s return to

Italy, was dedicated to Scotus. The book, which went on to be widely copied and

imitated, introduced the Hindu-Arabic place value decimal system and the use of Arabic

numerals into Europe. Certainly, many of the problems that Fibonacci considers in

Liber Abaci were similar to those appearing in Arab sources.

In Liber Abaci has many problems and one of it is a problem in the third section

which led to the introduction of the Fibonacci numbers and the Fibonacci Sequence. In

this book, he discovered the sequence, the first recursive number sequence known in

Europe while considering a practical problem in the “Liber Abaci” involving the growth

of a hypothetical population of rabbits based on idealized assumptions. He noted that,

after each monthly generation, the number of pairs of rabbits increased from 1 to 2 to 3

to 5 to 8 to 13 etc, and identified how the sequence progressed by adding the previous

two terms and in the mathematical terms, , 𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛−1 + 𝐹𝑛−2 a sequence which could in

theory extend indefinitely.

Fibonacci Sequence
 In the 1750s, Robert Simson noted that the ratio of each term in the Fibonacci

Sequence to the previous term approaches with ever greater accuracy the higher the

terms, a ratio of approximately 1: 1.6180339887. This value referred to the Golden

Ratio, also known as the Golden Mean, Golden Section, Devine Proportion and is

usually denoted by the Greek letter phi. Golden Ratio is closely related to the Fibonacci

Sequence. The Golden Ratio that can be related to Fibonacci Sequence also can be

written as a Rule of sequence and series. First, the terms are numbered from 0 onwards

like :

𝑛 0 1 2 3 4 …

𝑥𝑛 0 1 1 2 3 …

So we can write the rule as:

𝑥𝑛 = 𝑥𝑛−1 + 𝑥−2

𝑥0 + 𝑥1 = 𝑥2

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 𝑥3

𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 𝑥4

𝑥3 + 𝑥4 = 𝑥5

Golden Ratio can be formed by using this rule. The number of Fibonacci can be

applied to the proportions of a rectangle, called the Golden rectangle most visually

satisfying of all geometric forms, hence, the appearance of the Golden Ratio art that

similar like spiral (Picture 2).

 Golden Ratio

In the Renaissance art of Leonardo da Vinci and his contemporaries have

proportioned their works approximately using Golden Ratio. An arc connecting

opposite points of ever smaller nested Golden Rectangle forms a logarithmic spiral,

known as a Golden Spiral. Golden Ratio and Golden Spiral can also be found in nature,

from shells, flowers, animal horns, and human bodies.

c. Geometry

Fibonacci has a great contribution to geometry. Especially in the right-angled triangle.

Starting with 5, every second Fibonacci number is the length of the hypotenuse of a

right triangle with integer sides, or in other words, the largest number in a Pythagorean

triple. The length of the longer leg of this triangle is equal to the sum of the three sides

of the preceding triangle in this series of triangles, and the shorter leg is equal to the

difference between the preceding bypassed Fibonacci number and the shorter leg of the

preceding triangle.
 The first triangle in this series has sides of length 5, 4, and 3. Skipping 8, the

next triangle has sides of length 13, 12 (5 + 4 + 3), and 5 (8 − 3). Skipping 21, the next

triangle has sides of length 34, 30 (13 + 12 + 5), and 16 (21 − 5). This series continues

indefinitely. The triangle sides a, b, c can be calculated directly:

An=F2n+1

Bn=2FnFn-1

Cn=𝐹𝑛2 − 𝐹 2 𝑛 + 1

These satisfy 𝐴2 𝑛 = 𝐵 2 𝑛 + 𝐶 2 𝑛, for all n. but only true for triangles which n>2.

Any four consecutive Fibonacci numbers Fn, Fn+1, Fn+2, and Fn+3 can also be used to

generate a Pythagorean triple in a different way

A=FnFn+3

B=2FnFn+1

C=𝐹𝑛2 − 𝐹 2 𝑛 + 1

Another than that, Practica Geometriae which a book that Fibonacci wrote in

1220. The book that contains a lot of geometry problems that had been discussed into

eight chapters. Plus, all the problems are based on Euclid’s Element and Euclid’s On

Divisions. One of the problems includes information for surveyors that explain how to

calculate the height of tall object using triangles. While the final topics in that books are

geometrical subtleties.
d. Trigonometry

In trigonometry, we can identify some trigonometric identities by using the Fibonacci

sequence. By using the formula of trigonometric identities,

tan 𝑥 + tan 𝑦
tan(x + y) =
1 − tan 𝑥 tan 𝑦

We can identify the following identities,

1 1
a) atan−1 1 = tan−1 2 + tan−1 3

1 1 1
b) tan−1 (3) = tan−1 (5) + tan−1 (8)

2 1 1
c) tan−1 ( 3) = tan−1 (2) + tan−1(8)

1 1 1
d) tan−1 (4) = tan−1 (5) + tan−1 (21)

In general, the general formula for these identities is:

1 1 𝑦
tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( ) + tan−1( )
𝑥 𝑥+𝑦 1 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦

For example, the first identity (a) also known as Leonhard Euler identity follows

by putting x = y = 1 in this general formula. Note that x and y can be any two real

numbers for which inverse trigonometric ratios are valid. A very interesting geometric

proof of this general formula is given, where x and y are positive.

e. Square Number

Fibonacci also contribute to a square number. One of the problems that he solved after

he was challenged by Johannes of Palermo gives the accurate approximation to a root

of. Fibonacci prove that the root of the equation is not an integer or fraction or the

square root of a fraction. Well, without explaining his method, he then gives an
approximate solution in sexagesimal notation as 1.22.7.42.33.4.40 (this is written to

base 60, so it is 1 + 22/60 + 7/602 + 42/603 + ...). By convert to decimal, the value was

1.3688081075.

Another of his impressive piece of work is Liber Quadratorum, written in 1225.

The book that explained about square number and method to find Pythagorean triples.

At first, Fibonacci assume that square number can be constructed as sums of odd

numbers, essentially describing an inductive construct using the formula n2 + (2n+1) =

(n+1)2. While for construct Pythagorean triples, Fibonacci proceed as follows:

Thus when I wish to find two square numbers whose addition produces a square
number, I take any odd square number as one of the two square numbers and I
find the other square number by the addition of all the odd numbers from unity
up to but excluding the odd square number. For example, I take 9 as one of the
two squares mentioned; the remaining square will be obtained by the addition of
all the odd numbers below 9, namely 1, 3, 5, 7, whose sum is 16, a square
number, which when added to 9 gives 25, a square number.

Fibonacci also discover many interesting number theory such as there is

no x, y such that x2 + y2 and x2 - y2 are both squares also x4 - y4 cannot be a square.

Besides, he also invents the concept of congruum, a number in form ab(a + b)(a - b),

if a + b is even, and 4 times this if a + b is odd. Plus, he stated that congruum must be

divisible by 24. Another than that, he showed that c is a congruum with x2 + c and x2 -

c are both squares.

References

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https://www.slideshare.net/alfiramitahertanti/history-of-hindu-arabic-numerals

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1954, p. 148 et seq.

Hindu-Arabic numeral systems. (2019). Wikipedia the free encyclopedia. Retrived on

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Arabic_numeral_system

History of mathematics. (2019). Retrieved from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics#Medieval_European

Hom, E. J. (2013). What is the Golden Ratio. In LiveScience. Retrieved from

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appear.

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M. Wunderlich, On the non-existence of Fibonacci Squares, Maths. of Computation, 17

(1963), p. 455.

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