Transportation

Engineering
Subject Code – CV0414

Transportation engineering is the application of technology

and scientific principles to the planning, functional design,
operation and management of facilities for any mode of
transportation in order to provide for the safe, efficient, rapid,
comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally
compatible movement of people and goods
Modes of Transport
• Roadways

• Railways

• Waterways

• Airways
 UNIT – IV
Airport Engineering

Punith B. Kotagi
NIE, Mysuru
Definition
Airport Engineering:

“The planning, design, construction, and operation

and maintenance of facilities providing for the
landing and takeoff, loading and unloading, servicing,
maintenance, and storage of aircraft.”
Advantages of air transport
• Rapidity
• Maintains highest speed

• Continuous journey
• Continuous over land and water without loss of time

• Accessibility
• Can reach the regions inaccessible by other means of
transport
Limitations of air transport
• Operating expenses
• Expenses are generally high (including cost of air
vehicles, traffic control systems, freight charges)
• Capacity
• Weight carrying capacity of aircrafts is lowest when
compared to other means
• Weather Conditions
• Weather greatly affect the operation of air transport
• Foggy days are not suitable for take off and landing of
aircrafts
History of air transport
• Reger Bacon (1266) was the first man to predict
that humans can fly like birds

• Orville Wright (December 17, 1903) made the first

flight in a power driven aircraft in Kitty Hwak, North
Carolina, U.S.A.

• During world war (1914-1918) Zeppelin aero planes

were used by Germans for passenger transport
History of air transport
• First International air service started in 1918
Toulose and Barcelona, France

• London – Paris air service started in 1919

• First jet flight was made on August 27, 1939 in

Germany

• World’s first airport was built in 1928 in Croydon

near London (England)
Basic definitions
• Aircraft: “Any machine which finds its support in
the atmosphere due to reactions of the air is
defined as an Aircraft”
• Includes aero-plane, helicopter, rocket, etc.

a) subsonic aircraft- Aircraft speed is less than the speed

of sound

b) supersonic aircraft- Aircraft speed is greater than the

speed of sound.
Basic definitions
• Aerodrome: Any defined area on land or water
intended to be used for the arrival and departure of
an aircraft is called aerodrome

• Airport: It is an aerodrome which is principally

intended for the use of commercial services. It is
provided with custom facilities
• If it service any international traffic, it is designated as
an international airport
• When an airport does not serve international traffic, it is
known as non-international or domestic airport
Basic definitions
• Landing area: Landing area is used for landing and
take-off of an aircraft
1) Runway
2) Taxiway
• Runway: It is paved long and narrow rectangular
strip which is actually used for landing and take-off
of aero-planes
• Taxiway: It is a paved way used to connect runway
with other facilities of airport
Basic definitions
• Terminal area: It includes the following
a) Terminal building
b) Aircraft apron
c) Gate position
d) Hangars (Shelters)
e) Automobile parking area
Layout of an Airport
Components of An Airport Layout
1. Runway
2. Terminal Building
3. Apron
4. Taxiway
5. Aircraft Stand
6. Hanger
7. Control Tower
8. Parking
 1. Runway
• A runway is the area where an aircraft lands or
takes off.

• It can be grass, or packed dirt, or a hard surface

such as asphalt or concrete.

• Runways have special markings on them to help a

pilot in the air to identify the runway (and not a
road) and to help them when they are landing or
taking off.
Runway
 2. Terminal Buildings
• Also known as airport terminal, these buildings are
the spaces where passengers arrive and depart

• These buildings house all the necessary facilities for

passengers to check-in their luggage, clear the
customs and have lounges to wait and relax

• The terminals can house cafes, lounges and bars to

serve as waiting areas for passengers
 Terminal Buildings
• Ticket counters, luggage check-in or transfer,
security checks and customs are the basics of all
airport terminals

• Large airports can have more than one terminal

that are connected to one another through link
ways such as walkways, sky-bridges or trams

• Smaller airports usually have only one terminal that

houses all the required facilities
Terminal Building
 3. Aprons
• Aircraft aprons are the areas where the aircraft park

• Aprons are also sometimes called ramps

• They vary in size, from areas that may hold five or ten
small planes, to the very large areas that the major
airports have

• Unlike the runways or taxiways, vehicles can use aprons

Apron
 4. Taxiway
• A taxiway is a path on an airport connecting
runways with ramps, hangars, terminals and other
facilities

• They mostly have hard surface such as asphalt or

concrete, although smaller airports sometimes use
gravel or grass
Taxiway
 5. Aircraft Stand
• A portion of an apron designated as a taxiway and
intended to provide access to aircraft stands only
 6. Hanger
• A hangar is a closed building structure to hold
aircraft, or spacecraft
• Protect from weather, direct sunlight, maintenance,
repair, manufacture, assembly and storage of
aircraft on airfields, aircraft carriers and ships
 7. Control Tower
• A tower at an airfield from which air traffic is
controlled by radio and observed physically by
radar
 8. Parking
• Parking is a specific area of airport at which
vehicles park
 Aircraft Characteristics
• Prime importance to airport planning and design
• The following characteristics need to be studied:
1. Type of propulsion
2. Size of aircraft
3. Minimum turning radius
4. Minimum circling radius
5. Speed of aircraft
6. Capacity of aircraft
7. Aircraft weight and wheel configuration
8. Jet blast
9. Fuel spillage
10. Noise
Components of an Airplane
 1. Type of Propulsion
• Propulsion: Mechanism to produce thrust to push
an airplane forward
• Size of aircraft,
• Circling radius,
• Speed characteristics, and
• Weight carrying capacity, etc. depend upon type of
propulsion of the aircraft
• Basic runway length also depends on type of
propulsion
 2. Size of aircraft
• Size of aircraft involves:
• wing span
• Height
• distance between main
gears (gear tread)
• wheel base
• tail width
 3. Minimum turning radius
• To decide radius of taxiway, its very essential to
study turning movement of aircraft
• While taking a turn, nose gear is steered and makes
an angle with the axis of the main gear, called angle
of rotation
• The point of intersection of main gear and line
through axis of steered nose gear is called point of
rotation
• The line joining the center of rotation and the tip of
the farthest wing of the aircraft is known minimum
turning radius
 4. Minimum circling radius
• There is certain minimum radius with which the
aircraft can take turn in space
• This radius depends upon the type of aircraft, air
traffic volume and weather conditions
• The radii recommended for different types of
aircraft are as follows:
• Small general aviation aircraft = 1.6 km
• Bigger aircraft = 3.2 km
• Piston engine aircraft = 13 km
• Jet engine aircraft = 80 km
 5. Speed of aircraft
• The speed of aircraft can be defined in two ways.
i.e. cruising speed (land speed) and air speed
• Cruising speed is the speed of aircrafts with respect
to the ground, when the aircrafts is flying in air at
its maximum speed
• Air speed is the speed of aircraft relative to the
wind
• If the aircraft is flying at a speed of 500 kmph and
there is a head wind of 50 kmph, air speed will be
450 kmph
 6. Capacity of aircraft
• Number of passengers
• Baggage
• Cargo
• Fuel
That can be accommodated in the aircrafts depends
upon the capacity of aircraft. Also effects:
• Runway system
• Passenger processing terminal facilities
 7. Aircraft weight and wheel
configuration

• Weight of the aircraft directly influence

• the length of the runway as well as
• the structural requirements
• such as the thickness of runway, taxiway, apron
and hangars
• Wheel configuration is essential to distribute the
aircraft load over a large area of pavement and
hence reduce the pavement thickness
Basic Wheel Configurations
 8. Jet blast
• Blast that comes out of the jet engine at the rear of
the aircraft
• Provides the force movement of the aircraft
• But, if we consider it in case where the aircraft is
standing and the jet blast is coming from the rear
• that is so hot and it creates a severe condition for the
things on which it will be falling
• Its severity depends up on:
• Height of the tail pipe from the round
• Angle of the tail pipe
• Several types of blast fences or jet blast deflector
are used to divert the blast to avoid inconvenience
• Hence the effect of jet blast should be considered
for determining position, size and location of gates
 9. Fuel Spillage
• At loading aprons and shelter it is difficult to avoid
spillage completely, but effort should be made to
bring it within minimum limit
• The flexible pavements are seriously affected by
the fuel spillage
• Constant supervision is necessary
 Airport Classification
• Airport classification helps in design of airport and
to maintain uniformity in design standards
• Assists the pilot in identifying the size and service
which the airport can provide
• Classified by various agencies such as:
• International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO)
• Federal Aviation Agency (FAA)
• United States Airforce
 ICAO - Classification
• Based on the basic runway length of the airport
• Using code letters from A to E
• A type has longest runway
• E type has shortest runway

• Based on the equivalent single wheel load (ESWL)

and the tire pressure of the aircraft
• Using numbers from 1 to 7
 Based on the basic runway length of
the airport

Runway Pavement
Airport Type Basic Runway Length
Width
A 2100 m and above 45 m
B 1500 – 2099 m 45 m
C 900 – 1499 m 30 m
D 750 – 899 m 22.5 m
E 600 – 749 m 18 m
Based on the equivalent single wheel
load characteristics
Tire Pressure
Code ESWL (kg)
(kg/cm2)
1 45,000 8.5
2 34,000 7.0
3 27,000 7.0
4 20,000 7.0
5 13,000 6.0
6 7,000 5.0
7 2,000 2.5
 Regional Planning
The factors to be considered:
• Air traffic needs of the nation
• Airport administration on regional basis to avoid
shortage of airport facilities
• To avoid improper location of airport which could
lead to unrealistic planning
• If airports are located in close vicinity and not
properly coordinated, the total capacity and
efficiency will be reduced
 Regional Planning
• In India, Civil Aviation Organization plans the air
traffic in collaboration with states

• The regional plan provides following information:

• Approximate locations of the airports in national map
• Classification of airports
• Location of air strips
• Routes of air travel
 Regional Planning
• Following data are collected for the scientific
planning on regional basis

1. Population
2. Topographical and Geographical features
3. Existing airports in the vicinity
4. Air traffic characteristics
1. Population
• Population growth of an area to be served

• Characteristics of population based on the income

groups

• Trends and needs of people towards saving travel

time
2. Topographical and Geographical
features
• Sometimes due to the topography, air service is the
only accessible mode of transport

• Geographical location of the area to be served

3. Existing airports in the vicinity
• Distance, population and economic character of
adjoining areas having airport should be studied

• Two nearby airports should be located sufficiently

apart

• The encircling radii of two aircraft landing

simultaneously should not overlap
4. Air traffic characteristics
• Various modes of transport with their merits and
demerits in the area to be served

• Future expected volume of air traffic in terms of

passengers and goods

• Number of aircrafts movements required

 Airport Site Selection
Data Required Before Site Selection

• Peak hourly volume of air traffic to be handled

• Present and future types of aircraft which may use
the airport
• Facilities to be provided for passengers
 Airport Site Selection
1. Regional plan
2. Airport use
3. Proximity to other airport
4. Ground accessibility
5. Topography
6. Obstructions
7. Visibility
8. Wind
9. Noise nuisance
10. Grading, Drainage and Soil Characteristics
11. Future development
12. Availability of utilities from town
13. Economic consideration
2. Airport use
• Site selection depends on use of airport:
• Civilian operations
• Military operations
• During emergency civilian airports are taken over
by defence
• Hence the selected site should provide natural
protection to the airport from air attacks
3. Proximity to other airports
• The selected site should be at a considerable
distance from existing airports
• Separation distance depends on the volume of air
traffic, type of aircraft
• Minimum spacing's:
• Small general aviation – 3.2 km
• Bigger aircrafts – 6.4 km
• Piston engine aircrafts – 25.6 km
• Jet engine aircrafts – 160 km
4. Ground accessibility
• The selected site should be easily accessible to
users
• Door to door time should be considered along with
the actual air travel time
• Time required to reach airport from business or
residential areas should not normally exceed 30
minutes
• The best location is site adjacent to main highways
• Availability of public transportation
5. Topography
• Includes features such as ground contours, trees,
streams
• Raised grounds (hill tops) are usually considered as
ideal location:
• Less obstruction
• Natural drainage as low land may result in flooding
• More uniform wind
• Better visibility
6. Obstructions
• Long clearance should be provided on the either
sides of runway (approach areas)
• Obstructions may be fences, trees, pole lines,
buildings and other natural or man made structures
• These obstructions should be cleared
• Future growth of undesirable structures should be
controlled by zoning laws
7. Visibility
• Poor visibility lowers the traffic capacity of airport
• Selected site should be free from visibility reducing
factors such as fog and smoke
• Fog generally settles in the area where wind blow is
minimum (valley)
• Smoke exist at sites near to industrial areas, hence
future industrial growth should also be studied
8. Wind
• Runway is oriented such that landing and take off is
done by heading into the wind
• Wind data such as, direction, duration and intensity
of wind should be studied for a period of 5 years
• To decide the orientation of runway which
influence the airport design
• Site should be selected so that a minimum smoke
from the city is blown over the site
9. Noise
• The extent of noise depends on: type of engine
propulsion, weight of aircraft and take off and
landing path of aircraft
• Site should be selected such that landing and take
off paths are free from residential and industrial
growth
10. Grading, Drainage and Soil
Characteristics
• Plays important role in construction and
maintenance of airport
• The original ground profile of an airport along with
grading determines the shape of airport
• Drainage and possibility of floods should be
investigated
• The cost of grading and drainage can be reduced by
selecting site with favorable soil characteristics
11. Future development
• Increase in air traffic volume in future should be
considered
• More number of runways may have to be provided
for increased air traffic
• More facilities may be required to process
passengers and goods
• Additional air traffic control devices
12. Availability of utilities from
town
• Airport has to be provided with facilities such as:
• Water supply
• Electricity
• Telephone
• Sewage
13. Economic consideration
• Cost estimate should be prepared for entire airport
construction including:
• Land cost
• Clearing and grading
• Drainage
• Paving and lighting
• Construction of buildings, access roads and parking
area
 Runway and Taxiway Design
The runway configurations
• Capacity of an airport depends on the runway
configuration
• Runway configuration depends on the volume of air
traffic, direction, duration and intensity of wind
Runway configurations
• Basic patterns:
1. Single runway
2. Parallel runway
3. Intersecting runway
4. Non-intersecting
runway
1. Single runway
• Simplest pattern of runway
• Usually adopted when wind blows in one direction
during most of the time in a year
• Air traffic does not exceed capacity in this pattern
• In VFR (Visual Flight Rules) conditions – 45 to 60
operations per hour
• In IFR (Instrument Flight Rules) conditions – 20 to
40 operations per hour
2. Parallel runway
• Capacity of parallel runway depends on:
• Lateral spacing between two runways
• Weather conditions
• FAA recommends a minimum spacing of 1500 m for
planning purposes
• If the spacing is around 900 m, simultaneous
landing cannot be done on two runways
• 100 operations per hour (VFR conditions)
• 80 operations per hour (IFR conditions)
• If spacing is very close (210 m):
• 75 to 95 operations per hour (VFR conditions)
• 40 to 45 operations per hour (IFR conditions)
• Generally the terminal area is located in between
two runways to reduce taxiway distances
3. Intersecting runway
• Adopted when wind in a particular direction does
not provide required coverage
• Whether both runways can be used simultaneously
for L & TO depends on the wind component
• The capacity is maximum when the intersection
point is near the ends of runways, and reduces
when it approaches centre of runways
• Capacity: 35 operations per hour
4. Non-intersecting runways
• Capacity of this pattern depends on wind and
visibility conditions
• When the flight paths are divergent: capacity is in
range of 80 to 110 operations per hour
• When the flight paths intersect: the capacity
reduces to 66 to 80 operations per hour
Basic Runway Length
• It is the length of runway under following assumed
conditions:
• Airport altitude is at sea level
• Temperature at airport is standard (15 degree)
• Runway is levelled in the longitudinal direction
• No wind is blowing on runway
• Aircraft is loaded to its full loading capacity
• There is no wind blowing enroute to the destination
• Enroute temperature is standard
Basic Runway Length
• Basic runway length is determined from
performance characteristics of aircraft
• Following cases are considered:
1. Normal landing case
2. Normal take-off case
3. Engine failure case
• For jet engine aircrafts are three cases are
considered. For piston engine aircrafts only case 1
& 3 are considered
Normal landing case
• The aircraft should come to a stop within 60
percent of the landing distance
2. Normal take-off case
• Normal take-off case requires a clearway which is
an area beyond the runway and is in alignment
with the centre of runway
3. Engine failure case
• The engine failure case may require either a
clearway or a stopway, or both
• Stopway is described as an area beyond the runway
and centrally located in alignment with the centre
of runway
• It is used for decelerating during an aborted
(terminated) take-off
• Strength of stopway pavement should be sufficient
to carry weight of aircraft without causing any
structural damage at engine failure speed
Basic length of runway corrections
1. Correction for elevation
2. Correction for temperature
3. Check for total correction for elevation plus
temperature
4. Correction for gradient
1. Correction for elevation
• Increase in elevation reduces the air density
• Reducing the lift of wings of aircraft
• Hence require additional ground speed
• Can be achieved by increasing runway length
• ICAO recommends basic runway length to be
increased at a rate of 7 % per 300 m rise in
elevation above MSL
2. Correction for temperature
𝑇𝑚 −𝑇𝑎
• Airport reference temperature = Ta +
3
• Ta = Monthly mean average of daily temperature
• Tm = Monthly mean of maximum daily temperature
• ICAO recommends 1 % increase for 1°C rise of
airport reference temperature (at MSL)
• Temperature gradient above MSL: -0.0065 °C per
metre
3. Check for total correction
(elevation + temperature)

• ICAO recommends that, if total correction should

not exceed 35% of basic runway length
• If it exceeds, these correction should be further
checked by conducting site specific studies using
model tests
4. Correction for gradient
• Steeper gradient results in greater consumption of
energy
• Also, longer runway is required to attain higher speed
• ICAO does not recommend any correction for gradient
• FAA recommends 20 % for every 1 % of effective
gradient
• Effective gradient = max. difference in highest and
lowest points of runway divided by total runway length
Problem 1
Month Mean value of average Mean value of
daily temperature maximum daily
temperature
Jan 3 5
Feb 15 17
Mar 20 23
Apr 25 32
May 35 47
Jun 40 50
Jul 32 37
Aug 30 35
Sep 27 31
Oct 22 28
Nov 12 18
Dec 6 9
Factors affecting taxiway layout
• Taxiways should be so arranged that aircrafts which
have just landed and are taxiing towards apron, do
not interfere with aircrafts taxiing for take-off
• At busy airports, taxiways should be located at
various points along the runway so that landing
aircrafts leaves the runway as early as possible
• Such taxiways are called as exit taxiways
• The route of taxiway should be selected that it
provides the shortest practicable distance from the
apron to runway end
• As far as possible intersection of taxiway and
runway should be avoided
• Exit taxiways should be designed for high turn off
speeds. This will reduce the runway occupancy
time of aircraft and increases the airport capacity
Geometric design standards
• Length of taxiway
• Width of taxiway
• Width of safety area
• Longitudinal gradient
• Transverse gradient
• Rate of change of longitudinal gradient
• Sight distance
• Turning radius
Taxiway geometrics (ICAO)
Classifica Taxiway Max. Min. Max. rate of Safety area
tion by width longitudinal Transverse change of width
ICAO (m) gradient gradient longitudinal
(%) (%) gradient per
30m

A 22.5 1.5 1.5 1.0 Turfed or paved

B 22.5 1.5 1.5 1.0 shoulders are
not mandatory
C 15.0 3.0 1.5 1.0 but are
D 9.9 3.0 2.0 1.2 suggested if
E 7.5 3.0 2.0 1.2 needed
Length of taxiway
• Should be as short as possible
• This will save fuel consumption
• No specifications are recommended by any
organization for limiting length of taxiway
Width of taxiway
• It is observed that width of taxiway is much lower
than runway width
• Because the speed of aircraft is lower on taxiway
when compared to runway
• Hence the pilot can easily manoeuvre the aircraft
over a smaller width of taxiway
Width of safety area
• Safety area include taxiway pavement shoulders on
either sides (graded and drained)
• The shoulders must be thick enough to support
airport petrol vehicles and the sweeping
equipment's
• The surface must be impervious, smooth and
should not disintegrate due to hot blast of aircrafts
Longitudinal Gradient
• If gradient is steep, there will be greater fuel
consumption
• ICAO recommends longitudinal gradient should not
exceed 1.5% for A and B type of airport
• And 3% for other airport types
Transverse gradient
• This is essential for quick drainage of surface water
• ICAO recommends transverse gradient should not
exceed a value of 1.5% for A,B,C types and 2% for D
and E
• In case of runways a minimum transverse gradient
of 0.5 % is suggested
Rate of change of longitudinal
gradient
• ICAO recommends rate of change of longitudinal
gradient should not exceed 1 percent per 30 m
length of vertical curve for A, B and C types
• And 1.2 percent for D and E types
Sight Distance
• ICAO recommends the surface of a taxiway must be
visible from 3m height for a distance of 300 m for
A, B and C types
• Distance of 250 m be visible from 2.1 m height for
D and E type of airports
Turning Radius
𝑽𝟐
•R=
𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒇
• R = turning radius
• V = Speed (kmph)
• f = coefficient of friction (0.13)
• For airports serving:
• Subsonic jet – Min. turning radius is 120 m
• Supersonic jet – Min. turning radius is 180 m
Turning Radius
• Horonjeff’s equation
0.388 𝑊2
•R= 𝑇
2
−𝑆

• where:
• W = wheel base of aircraft in metre
• T = width of taxiway
• S = distance between midway point of main gears and
the edge of the taxiway pavement
 Design of Exit Taxiway
Following principles govern the design of taxiway:
• Exit speed of aircraft
• Slightly widened entrance of 30 m gradually
tapering to normal width is preferred
• Total angle of turn – 30 to 45 degrees
• Turning radius for smooth and comfortable turn
• At high turn off speeds (65 – 95 kmph) compound
curve is necessary to reduce tire wear on nose gear
R1 = Radius of entrance curve
L1 = Length of entrance curve
R2 = Radius of central curve
L1 = Length of central curve
 𝑉3
• L1 =
45.5 ∗𝐶 ∗𝑅2

• C (constant) = 0.39

• Stopping Distance
𝑉2
• SD =
25.5𝑑

• d = rate of deceleration
Plan of 80 kmph 30 degree Exit Taxiway