Tribology International 128 (2018) 397–409

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Tribology International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/triboint

The impact of biodiesel B100 on a small agricultural diesel engine T

∗
Tongchit Suthisripok , Pattawee Semsamran
Automotive Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Rangsit University, Thailand

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: To use the engine with confidence over the long term, it is necessary to test the engine's reliability and durability.
Biodiesel Field tests that used a 14-hp Kubota RT140 Di diesel engine fueled with palm biodiesel B100 were conducted
B100 after approximately 800 h of operation, running with a heavy load continuously at low speed for 12-h to aerate a
Alternative fuel fish pond from dusk till dawn. Multi-grade lubricating oil was changed and collected after every 100-h of op-
Agricultural diesel engine
eration. The laboratory analysis and the ferrographic results suggested degradation of oil. Provided that the
Used lubricating oil
Ferrography
lubricating system was maintained, the B100 engine's operating condition was as good on biodiesel as on diesel
fuel, undergoing the usual rate of wear without sacrificing mechanical reliability and durability.

1. Introduction combustion process is more complete, which results in low CO emis-

Biodiesel is easily produced from the transesterification of vegetable
oils (both edible and non-edible), animal fats, used cooking oil, and
algae oil [19–23,27]. Hence, biodiesel is a renewable, biodegradable,
nontoxic and environmentally friendly biofuel. For example, biodiesel
can be derived from palm oil, which is an edible oil; Jatropha, which is
a non-food plant growing in dry and marginal land [4,5]; or used
cooking oil, which reduces the health risk from the repetitive re-use of
oil. Biodiesel has similar properties to diesel, which is selectively used
as an alternative fuel for diesel engines. Two important fuel properties
for diesel engines are its cetane number and fuel viscosity. The cetane
number is defined as the measure of the fuel's ignition quality, which is
very important to determine a diesel engine's operating characteristics.
High cetane fuels having shorter ignition delay usually produce more
complete combustion of the fuel, which results in a smoother engine
operation, ease of cold starts, reduction of smoke during engine
starting, better fuel efficiency, quieter operation (reduced noise and
vibration), less harmful emissions, and reduction of varnish formation
rate and carbon deposits [7,12,26]. The diesel engine is a compressed
ignition combustion engine whose combustion process details depend
on the fuel's characteristics, the design of the engine's combustion
chamber and fuel injection system, and the engine operating condi-
tions. High fuel injection pressure, small fuel injector diameter, op-
timum fuel viscosity and high cylinder pressure at the time of injection
provide good atomization [7]. If the fuel's viscosity is too high, poor
fuel atomization occurring in the combustion chamber may cause de-
posits in the engine, particularly around the piston rings [7,9–11].
Typically, a diesel engine operates in a lean air-fuel mixture; the
sions and unburned HC (hydrocarbons). In the diesel engine, the fuel is
injected into the cylinder to mix with compressed air, which then starts
the process of combustion. The fuel distribution inside the chamber is
non-uniform. The fuel distribution and the process of distribution
change over time and strong mixing affects the pollutant formation
processes. Exhaust gas composition depends on the relative air-fuel
ratio, fuel composition and the completeness of combustion [7]. Due to
its high cetane number, which contains oxygen and trace amounts of
sulfur biofuel, the use of substituted biodiesel fuel substantially miti-
gates its environmental impact. It was reported that various biodiesel/
diesel blends that were used in diesel engines reduced the harmful
engine emissions of CO, CO2, HC, PM (particulate matter), except NOx
[11,19–29].
Biodiesel has a high cetane number, but a lower heating value,
which does not make a significant difference in overall fuel economy
[6,11,15,27]. The major disadvantages of biodiesel relate to its effects
on engine operation, in particular, the clogging of the fuel lines and
injector [11,19,22–27]. Biodiesel is solvent, so it can leave deposits in
the fuel system, plug the fuel filter or cause deposits to accumulate in
the fuel tank. Such problems are usually corrected by replacing the fuel
filter [11]. It was reported that the engine pump failure at 650 h ter-
minated the intended 1000-h durablity test on B20 fuel operation [24].
During the brief shut down at 700 h, the fuel line, the fuel filters, and
the fuel transfer pump were replaced. The engine was disassembled at
the end of the final 250 h and substantial deposits were found on many
engine components. Those deposits were apparently from the lu-
bricating oil. More soot, worn metal in the oil, and softening of the fuel
sysem seals were observed. Also, broken fire and compression rings

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tongchit.s@rsu.ac.th (T. Suthisripok).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2018.07.042
Received 18 May 2018; Accepted 26 July 2018
Available online 07 August 2018
0301-679X/ © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
T. Suthisripok, P. Semsamran
Nomenclatures
ηf fuel conversion efficiency
lb Belt pitch length (mm)
df Driven pulley diameter (mm)
dm Driving pulley diameter (mm)
lfm Center distance between the pulleys (mm)
were found on several cylinders. Despite these problems, the use of
biodiesel is encouraging because it forms less soot, which means that
there is less PM reduction and more lubricity, resulting in less wear of
vital moving parts [24,29]. Lubricity prevents wear on contacting metal
surfaces. Low lubricity diesel fuel may cause high wear and scarring,
whereas high lubricity biodiesel fuel may reduce wear and provide
longer component life [6]. Though biodiesel showed a similar engine
wear rate to diesel fuel, more in-depth investigation on biodiesel engine
endurance is needed for a better understanding of the wear mechanism.
Due to the fact that the tests are time consuming and costly, few in-
vestigations have been devoted to durability tests of biodiesel engines
and these studies have been insufficient [11,24,29].
Durability studies were focused on the following: carbon deposit
Fig. 1. 14-hp Kubota RT140 Di engine tested and its components before conducting the test.
398
Tribology International 128 (2018) 397–409
(soot formation during combustion and fuel oxidation), engine wear,
and problems in fuel system [29]. Tribological results of the lubricating
oil from the biodiesel fueled engine showed that the amount of wear
debris and contaminants - soot, resineous compounds, oxidation pro-
ducts, and moisture content -were lower than those of engines fueled
with diesel oil [29]. Moreover, wear metal debris such as Fe, Cu, Al, Pb
was decreased with the use of a higher palm biodiesel blend ratio. The
level of wear concentration was lower, as was the effect of the corrosion
inhibitor in fuel and lubricating oil [29]. Since the reliability and per-
formance of diesel engines depends directly upon the effectiveness of
their lubricating system, adequate and effective lubrication prolongs
the engines' life [11–13]. Effective lubrication must perform the fol-
lowing: minimize friction between the bearing surfaces of moving parts,
dissipate heat from the fluid friction and combustion reaction, remove
debris and foreign matter to keep the engine parts clean, and form a
seal on the cylinder wall. Oil film lubricates the area between sliding
surfaces and prevents high friction losses and the rapid wear of engine
parts. Strong oil film forms a seal between the piston and cylinder wall
so that spent fuel and exhaust gases cannot pass the piston rings to form
a sludge which causes premature wear of the engine's parts wear and
the eventual breakdown of the engine [7,12,13]. In general, a machine's
useful life and that of its components ends with fatigue failure and
T. Suthisripok, P. Semsamran
surface detrioration [8]. Typically, the initial rate of wear on rubbing
surfaces during the running-in period is relatively high and then de-
creases to a constant value as the actual contact area increases after the
distinct surface peaks are worn off. Afterwards, the rate of wear may
increase again due to contaminated lubricants or higher surface tem-
peratures [7,8]. It is therefore crucial in machinery design to keep
foreign particles from rubbing metal surfaces by using appropriate oil
filters, air cleaners, dust covers, shaft seals, etc.
Thailand is the third producer of palm oil in the world after
Indonesia and Malaysia [3]. The development of biodiesel as an alter-
native fuel for diesel engines would greatly support the country's energy
security and economic sufficiency and sustainability in various sectors,
such as agriculture, transportation and the related industries. In Thai-
land from 2011 to 2015, energy consumption for agriculture was
5.0–5.2%, commercial energy consumption was 7.6–8.3%, residential
energy consumption was 14.1–15.6%, energy consumption in trans-
portation was 35–36.6%, and energy consumption for industry was
35.3–36.6% [1,2]. Agriculture was the lowest fuel energy consumption
sector and consumed 99% petroleum products - mainly high speed
diesel (HSD) and 1% electricity [2]. The previous study [15] verified
that biodiesel B100 can be effectively used as an alternative fuel in a
small agricultural diesel engine with fuel conversion efficiency (ηf)
15.1, similar to that of diesel 15.3, without making any engine mod-
ifications. With a lower specific energy content of 12.4%, the average
specific fuel consumption of biodiesel B100 was about 14% more than
that of diesel. Owing to the presence of 11 wt% oxygen in biodiesel's
molecule, it gives more complete combustion, resulting in better engine
performance and fewer pollutants in the exhaust. For all operating
conditions the engine is run for long periods of time under those con-
ditions and dimensionless fuel conversion efficiency (ηf) is used to de-
scribe the engine's efficiency [7]. Though high power loss was observed
when used to drive a small flatbed truck in farms, the small agricultural
engine was effectively used to drive a small generator for electric
lighting on farms or to propel aerated equipment in fish farming
[16,17]. If the lubricant was changed after every 100 h, there was no
perceptible power change during the normal operation of the engine
and there were no particular technical problems with the engine over
the life of the engine. After the end of the tests, the amount of normal
wear observed from visual inspection was similar to that of the engine
run on diesel fuel. However, full laboratory and ferrographic analysis of
used oil samples collected at each change are recommended.
These field tests were conducted to study the impact of biodiesel
B100 on the diesel engine's condition to determine long term me-
chanical durability and reliability. They used a small agricultural diesel
engine [15] which ran on palm biodiesel B100 for about 800 h with a
heavy load, running continuously at low speed for 12 h daily to aerate a
fish pond from dusk to dawn. The lubricating oil was changed after
every 100 h and samples of the used oil were collected for full labora-
tory analysis and ferrographic analysis in a certified laboratory.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Equipment and engine tested preparation
From the previous study [15], the field experiments which used a
14-hp Kubota RT140 Di diesel engine running on palm biodiesel B100
for about 800 h were repeated. The test study focused on mechanical
durability and reliability. Therefore, field tests of normal daily engine
use with a high load and long-hours of operation were conducted (re-
ferred to 2.2). Since the engine tested had been used over 2700 working
hours, its engine condition needed to be clean and it was thoroughly
inspected, as displayed in Fig. 1. Only a connecting rod and its bearing
needed to be replaced. The fuel pump components were washed and
dried with compressed air. Then the engine that had been tested was
reassembled. For test fuels, diesel was the commercial grade available
in public fuel stations, whereas pure biodiesel B100 was the commercial
399
Tribology International 128 (2018) 397–409
palm biodiesel supplied directly from Bangchak Biofuel Company
Limited, a subsidiary of Thai Energy Company. Photo Tachometer
MDT-2244B and Kitch Digital temperature gauges were used for speed
and temperature measurements. The lubricating oil grade and oil
change schedules followed the manufacturer's guide; multi-grade
Pulzar Super HD SAE40 was changed after every 100 engine running
hours.
2.2. Testing conditions
1. To aerate the fish pond, a paddlewheel aerator, which consisted of a
825-cm long length of 5-cm OD steel pipe hub fitted with 15 paddles
of 62.5-cm wide each, was driven by the 14-hp Kubota RT140 Di
diesel engine tested as shown Figs. 2 and 3. It was located in an area
where it was exposed to less sunlight and less wind. The paddle was
turned, churning the pond water and letting oxygen transfer from
the air to the water. This was necessary to keep sufficient dissolved
oxygen (DO) at tolerable levels 3–5 mg/l (or safe level at ≥5 mg/l) to
support fish life [18]. To monitor the DO level in the fish pond, a
dissolved Oxygen Instrument YSI 550A was periodically used.
2. The fish pond was aerated daily during 18:00 h to 06:00 h due to
insufficient sunlight, less wind circulation, and warmer water tem-
perature at night. The engine tested ran at about 1000 rpm; about
40% of the maximum output rotational speed 2400 rpm, to ac-
commodate the high load and long hours of operation 12 h a day
from dusk till dawn. The lowest oxygen levels are just before sunrise
every morning, and the aerator needed to be started before the DO
level fell below 3 mg/l [18]. Note that the paddlewheel aerator
needed to be inspected regularly every 4–5 days to ensure efficient
operation.
3. Using a commercially available belt driven length of 190 cm, we
calculated the following belt pitch length (lb). Equation [14] was
187.8 cm;
d π df π ⎞ ⎡ (df − dm)2 ⎤
lb = ⎛ m ⎞ + ⎛ ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎢ ⎣ 4lfm ⎥
⎦ (1)
lb = 1,878 mm
where the driving pulley diameter (dm) = 10 cm, the driven pulley
diameter (df ) = 45 cm, and center distance between the pulleys (lfm)
= 47.5 cm. The following data; engine speed (rpm), water cooling's
temperature, lubricant's temperature, voltage and ampere, ambient
temperature, and fuel consumption, were recorded throughout the test
period.
Fig. 2. Floating Paddlewheel in fish pond.
T. Suthisripok, P. Semsamran
Fig. 3. Fish pond aeration.
2.3. Used lubricating oil sampling
In accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations, Multi-
grade Pulzar Super HD SAE40 lubricating oil was changed after every
100-h running. Used lubricating oil samples were collected after every
oil change for full laboratory analysis of the condition of the oil, the
wear elements and the contaminants, including ferrographic analysis.
Following standard sampling procedure, the sampling area was always
clean and the samples were taken while the engine was still warm, the
samples were collected directly into the sample bottle. In Fig. 4, used oil
was pumped into a sample bottle up to about 80% of the bottle volume.
Ullage or unfilled volume is needed to ensure that samples mix evenly
in the laboratory. Certified Oil Analysis FOCUS Company sample kits –
120 ml bottle, pump and plastic tubes, were provided courtesy of
FOCUS Company, with standard sampling training and full laboratory
analysis including ferrographic test [39].
3. Results and discussion
After the 14-hp Kubota RT140 Di diesel engine had been thoroughly
inspected, it was set to drive the paddlewheel aerator in the fish pond
about 12-h running continuously at average speed of 1000 rpm daily
from 18:00 h to 06:00 h. This was to maintain DO not less than 3–5 mg/
l to support fish life. The 14-hp diesel engine that was tested running on
pure palm biodiesel B100 was monitored approximately 800 running
hours. The used lubricating oil samples collected after every 100-h-oil
change were fully analyzed to determine their physical and chemical oil
condition, wear elements, contaminants; and for ferrographic analysis.
All tests were performed in the certified FOCUS Oil Analysis Laboratory
[39]. The diesel engine was first run on diesel for 100 h and the used
lubricating oil was collected for full laboratory analysis. After that, the
diesel engine tested was run on pure biodiesel B100 for about 800 h,
and used lubricating oil samples were collected after every 100-h
scheduled oil change.
3.1. Fuel consumption
By carefully maintaining the fuel pump pressure, pure palm bio-
diesel B100 can be alternately used to fuel a small agricultural diesel
engine without making any modifications to the diesel engine [15].
Based on the previous field tests at over 85% engine tested efficiency,
giving the average engine speed of 2040 rpm to drive the 3-kW gen-
erator to produce 2,000W lighting for about 110 h, the average specific
consumption rate of B100 was 630.9 g/kW-h, which was about 14%
more than that of diesel [15]. In Table 1, the specific heating value of
biodiesel was 37,732 kJ/kg; about 11% lower than that of diesel
42,402 kJ/kg. As a result, the fuel conversion efficiency (ηf) for
400
Tribology International 128 (2018) 397–409
biodiesel B100 was 15.1 and 15.3 for diesel. That showed that for small
agricultural diesel engines, biodiesel B100 performed as efficiently as
diesel oil. In Table 2, the average consumption of biodiesel B100 run-
ning with a heavy load with an average speed of 1000 rpm was 10.6%
more.
3.2. Impact on the engine's conditions
Full laboratory analysis results of all used lubricating oil samples
collected after every 100-h schedule change were summarized in Tables
3–5. The analysis categories were physical and chemical oil conditions,
wear elements of both fine and coarse particles, and contaminants.
These categories are interconnected and interdependent; one fault leads
to the others [39]. Ferrographic and filtergram analyses of all used
samples from running diesel and biodiesel B100 were illustrated in
Fig. 8. Oil analysis data; viscosity@100OC, oxidation and TBN, and fine
wear elements were selected to display graphically within ± 5% error,
including each warning limit, in Figs. 5–7. However, the success of the
oil analysis depends upon the proper setting of limits which function as
trip wires to alert for abnormal oil analysis data or trends, i.e. abnormal
machine wear or operating condition, oil contamination, or the use of
the wrong oil. The general warning is based on the OEM's re-
commendation and/or lubricant suppliers, which are good starting
points for a new machine warranty, whereas true warnings are statis-
tically based limits derived from the analysis and calculation of data
sampling gathered from machines. For example, the caution level is set
at plus SD (standard deviation), plus 2SD for the warning level, and plus
4SD for the abnormal level. Goal-based limits or targets are a set of
limits for stabilizing the health of the engine, particle counts to control
cleanliness and abrasive wear, viscosity to control oil film, and AN (acid
number)/BN (base number) to control the potential for corrosion. This
is intended to be proactive to target the root causes of the degradation
of the engine. Another set of limits is the aging limits in which pre-
dictive characteristics signal the approaching end of the useful life of
the engine, such as viscosity/FTIR for impending oxidation, AN/BN for
additive depletion and impending oxidation, and copper production for
crankshaft bearing wear. In addition, a positive or negative rate of
change is set for predictive characteristics that include elemental wear
Fig. 4. Used lubricating oil sampling.
T. Suthisripok, P. Semsamran Tribology International 128 (2018) 397–409

Table 1
Typical fuel properties – diesel and biodiesel [6].
Characteristics Method Diesel Biodiesel**

Fuel Standard ASTM D975 ASTM D6751

Lower Heating Value, kJ/l ASTM D240 ∼35,970 ∼32,940
Kinematic Viscosity @40 °C, cSt ASTM D445 1.3–4.1 1.9–6.0 (4.51**)
Specific Gravity @ 60 °C, kg/l 0.85 0.88
Density @ 15 °C, kg/l(∗) ASTM D4052-09 0.8483 0.8781 (0.8730**)
Water and Sediment, vol% ASTM D2709 0.05 max 0.029
Carbon, wt% 87 77
Hydrogen, wt% 13 12
Oxygen, wt% 0 11
Sulfur content, wt% ASTM D5453 0.05 max 0.0 to 0.0024 (0.0003**)
Carbon residue, wt% ASTM D4530-06 0.05**
Water content, wt% EN ISO 12,937-00 0.029**
Total contamination, wt% EN 12,662-03 0.0009**
Copper Strip corrosion ASTM D130-04 1a
Boiling Point, oC ASTM D445-06 180 to 340 315 to 350
Flash Point, oC ASTM D93-10** 60 to 80 130 to 170 (136**)
Cloud Point, oC ASTM D2500-09** −15 to 5 −3 to 12 (18**)
Pour Point, oC −35 to −15 −15 to −10
Cetane Number ASTM D613 40–55 48-65 (72.5**)
Lubricity SLBOCLE, g ASTM D4052-09 2000–5000 > 7000
Lubricity HFRR, microns ASTM D4052-09 300–600 < 300

(*)
1 kg/l = 8.345,337 lbm/gal and 1 US gallon = 3.7854 l.
(**) palm biodiesel laboratory test results provided by Bangchak Biofuel Company Limited.

Table 2
Operating conditions.
Test fuels Diesel Biodiesel B100

Engine running hours (h) 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Average speed (rpm) 1096.4 1005.3 1009.1 1006.7 1006.7 1008.5 1009.9
Average Temperature (°C)

Air 30.5 29.2 29.0 29.7 29.5 29.7 29.7

Water 53.5 56.5 52.7 53.1 53.2 50.8 53.5
Oil 61.6 62.8 56.5 62.7 62.9 63.4 62.6

Fuel consumption (ml/h) 377.4 415.2 413.6 413.0 418.1 420.4 424.8
(%) – 10.0 9.6 9.4 10.8 11.4 12.6

Table 3
Oil conditions - physical and chemical properties.
Oil conditions Unit Test method New oil Diesel Biodiesel B100

Engine running hours (h)

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Viscosity @ 40 °C cSt ASTM D-445 160 117.9 118.4 111.5 112.1 108.9 125.7 121.2 113.9
Viscosity@ 100 °C cSt ASTM D-445 15.2 13.2 13.6 12.9 13.3 12.9 14.2 13.4 13.3
Oxidation Abs E−2412 M 1.5 2.8 8.8 10.4 8.1 8.5 7 7.3 11.1
Nitration Abs E−2412 M 3.7 4.2 4.9 5.0 5.4 5.7 5.2 5.5 5.8
TBN mg KOH/g ASTM D-4739 4.7 4.9 4.9 5.3 5.3 4.2 5.3 5.4 5.5

Bold is to highlight the change variation of oil quality.

debris for wear metal production rates (ppm/100 h) and particle counts
(unfiltered system) for change in ingression, wear, or filtration. Using
industrial guidelines or the OEM guidelines, the goal-based limit
(upper) of fuel contamination is 1.5% for caution and 5% for critical,
and for soot contamination it is 2% for caution and 5% for critical. The
aging limits of viscosity are set at +5% for caution and +10% for
critical and BN are set at −50% for caution and −75% for critical. For
elemental analysis, the caution limit of wear metals is plus 1SD and plus
2SD for critical limit [39].
• The viscosity at 100 °C of all used oil samples was 13–15% lower
than that of the new oil, indication that the oil was diluted, it
became less viscous and the oil film quality deteriorated [31,38,39].
The required viscosity of lubricating oil was low enough for cold
start pumping and undue cranking resistance, it maintained the
minimum viscosity so that there was no risk of metal-to-metal
contact (adhesive wear) under the varying conditions of tempera-
ture, speed and load, and it was sufficiently high at high tempera-
tures to reduce frictional resistance and to assist sealing [7]. Ad-
hesive wear affects certain parts of the engine; metal-to-metal
contact between the piston, rings and cylinder walls (particularly
during cold starting), and on components i.e. cams, tappets, rocker
arms, and valve stems [7]. The probable cause of oil dilution was
fuel contamination (see Table 5), which was likely from worn liners

401
T. Suthisripok, P. Semsamran
Table 4A
Wear Elements - Fine particles < 8 μm.
Table 4B
Wear Elements - Coarse particles 5–150 μm.
or piston and fuel leaks due to the age of the engine and its long
service over 2700 h. However, in an engine in good condition, op-
erating continuously at low speeds and idle conditions, dilution will
occur as a result of the blow-by of unburned fuel particles which
accumulate in the combustion spaces [12].
• Oxidation results indicate the potential useful life of oil, load, or
operating temperature [39]. Fig. 6 illustrated that the oxidation
results when running on pure biodiesel B100 were much higher than
when running on diesel; there are fewer acidic products from the
oxidation process under the same operating conditions (see Table 2).
The oxidation of hydrocarbons which occurs in the presence of
oxygen and heat produces carboxylic acids and depletes antioxidant
additives in the oil. These weak carboxylic acids can cause corrosion
of engine parts if the concentrations are high enough. Temperature
and engine load accelerate the oxidation process, which can be
noted in the form of corrosion, oil thickening, formation of deposits,
and accelerated wear [32,39].
• Nitration is oil degradation in a reduced oxygen environment re-
acting with nitrogen oxides during combustion and high tempera-
ture yielding organic nitrates (results of the reaction in the cylinder
wall) and nitro compounds (products of blow-by gas reacted with oil
in the sump). These nitrogen compounds react with moisture to
form acidic products which cause sludge formation and accelerate
the oxidation process [34–36]. In Table 3, nitration results increased
throughout the course of field tests over 100-h running on diesel and
402
Tribology International 128 (2018) 397–409
700-h running on biodiesel B100; it appears that nitration con-
tributed to oil quality degradation. Note that a diesel engine is
normally operated in a lean air-fuel mixture, or excess oxygen en-
vironment. In addition, high NOx compounds are usually observed
when using diesel fuel.
• Total base number (TBN) measures the capability of the lubricating
oil to neutralize the acid products from combustion and lubricating
oil degradation, which normally decrease with operating time [39].
In Fig. 6, TBN increased. There were fewer acidic products to neu-
tralize, except the 400-h running on biodiesel B100 sample had
lower TBN and high nitration.
3.2.1. Oil conditions
The analysis of the oil clearly suggested that the quality of lu-
bricating oil deteriorated. Thinner oil film was caused by dilution from
fuel contamination due to the engine's age and being kept in long ser-
vice. Diesel engines are mostly operated in a lean air-fuel mixture or
excess air environment; high NOx compounds are formed and degrade
the oil quality. The oxidation results were higher than for engines
running on diesel, which meant that fewer acidic products were pro-
duced. These conformed to high TBN. Therefore, an effective lubrica-
tion system is necessary to keep the engine condition clean and healthy
throughout its life. Biodiesel B100 provides sufficient lubrication to
maintain the cleanliness and health of the engine during operation.
T. Suthisripok, P. Semsamran Tribology International 128 (2018) 397–409

Table 5
Contaminants.

3.2.2. Wear elements

Most machines are used differently, i.e. load variations, duty cycle
and maintenance practices, identical pieces of equipment show dif-
ferent levels of wear. It is more practical to review the trend history of
each machine and use the Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM)'s
recommendation as a benchmark [31]. Particles of any size entering
lubricating oil can cause serious damage to machines [30].

• In Tables 4A and 4B, quantities of both fine and coarse Fe particles

Fig. 5. Viscosity@100 °C of all samples.
• In Fig. 7, the detected quantity of Pb and Cu fine particles (likely
• The detected quantity of Al fine particle (particularly from the
Fig. 6. Oxidation and TBN of all samples.
were unusually high in 100-h and 500-h running samples from en-
gines using biodiesel B100 are shown in Fig. 7(a) at the 200-h and
600-h engine running hours. Both fine and coarse Fe wear elements
were detected in similar quantities. The engine that was tested was
normally rested for 2–3 days after each oil change, except after 300-
h running it was deliberately rested for 2 weeks. When the engine
resumed the 400-h running test, it experienced fuel filter clogging
(level gauge flooding was noted) at the 420-h and 430-h runnings, at
which point the fuel filter was removed and thoroughly cleaned.
Consequently, there was no plugging problem and the engine ran
smoothly throughout the course of 700 h of field tests. It is well
known that biodiesel has solvent properties which will easily wash
out deposits and dissolved materials.
from the piston ring, camshaft bearings and connecting rod bear-
ings) in all samples were fairly steady; suggesting a normal rate of
wear.
connecting rod and its bearing) was high at the beginning of the test
period, which was in line with the running-in period of new con-
necting rods and bearings, and afterwards, the quatity declined.
When both Al and silicon are found, the oil has been contaminated
with atmospheric dust [39]. In Table 5, the detected quantity of
silicon was high at the beginning and lower towards the end of the

403
T. Suthisripok, P. Semsamran Tribology International 128 (2018) 397–409

Fig. 7. Fine (< 8 μm) wear particles (ppm) in all samples. Note: The warning limit is a general warning based on the OEM's recommendation and/or Lubricant
Suppliers, which is a good benchmark for new machines. The true warning can be constructed later by gathering sampling data from such machines and performing
statistical analysis [33,37,39].

test period as the air filter was cleaned out after every oil change.
Overall, when running on pure biodiesel B100 over a 700-h test
period, similar quantities of fine wear elements – Fe, Sn, Pb, Cu, Al, and
Cr, were detected in all used oil samples. This indicated that the engine
experienced normal wear rate. Though the small deisel engine tested
had been used over 2700 h, its life was prolonged and its condition
remained healthy with the effective lubricating system provided by
biodiesel B100, the proper grade of oil, a regular oil change schedule,
and cleaning of the fuel and air filters. If the engine is not used longer
than 3 days, it would be better to flush the system with clean fuel to get
rid of dissolved materials from the fuel system.
3.2.3. Contaminamts
Since oil contaminations - solids, water, fuel, antifreeze (glycol), air
and heat, cause engine damage, control of contaminants is necessary to
build reliability and to reduce the risk of mechanical wear. Adhesive
wear occurs in highly loaded, poorly lubricated sliding machine con-
tacts and abrasive wear occurs in sliding contacts, usually due to par-
ticle contamination [7,12,13,39].
• Water contamination of oil exists in 3 different forms - dissolved
water, emulsified water and free water, all of which are problems
[13,31,39] causing hydrolysis and oxidation, aeration (foaming and
air entrainment), viscosity effects and dielectric effects. Ineffective
oil/water separation can lead to corrosion, poor lubrication and
rapid oil oxidation and hydrolysis. In addition, water contamination

404
T. Suthisripok, P. Semsamran Tribology International 128 (2018) 397–409

Engine running Image of Wear & Contaminants

hours Ferrogram 50X Ferrogram 500X Filtergram 500X
Normal Condition

Diesel 100 h

Detect white metal particles which may indicate wear from plane/journal bearing and shaft.
Oil condition test result indicates that the base oil is slightly degraded.
Dirt (silicon) is present and results in abrasive wear. It is recommended to determine how
dirt enters the system and corrects the problem to prevent further dirt entry.
Cutting wear indicates abnormal wear mode in progress (Suspected from abrasive wear).
Biodiesel 200 h
B100

Abnormal iron quatity detected in wear elements laboratory results.

Note the presence of white metal particles which may indicate wear from plane/journal
bearing and shaft
Dirt (silicon) is present and resulting in abrasive wear. It is recommended to determine
how dirt enters the system and corrects the problem to prevent further dirt entry.
Oil condition test results indicates that the base oil is slightly degraded.
300 h

The presence of white metal particles which may indicate wear from plane/journal bearing
and shaft.
Note that viscosity is severely lower than normal limits (oil dilution and degrade oil film).
Dirt (silicon) is present and results in abrasive wear. It is recommended to determine how
dirt enters the system and corrects the problem to prevent further dirt entry.

Fig. 8. Ferrographic and filtergram analyses of all used oil samples.

can generate other contaminants i.e. microbes, rust particles, soot
agglomeration, wax curd, sludge and acids. In terms of water ha-
zard, free and emulsified water causes most of the damage to lu-
bricating oil and machines [39]. In Table 5, significant amounts of
water contaminant were detected in all of the oil samples and they
were higher when running biodiesel B100. Because water can lead
to premature failure of an engine's components, water contamina-
tion needs to be closely monitored and kept at a minimum to lessen
the problems.
• The causes of fuel contamination are blow-by (excessive idling,
worn rings/liner), decayed fuel injectors, worn fuel pumps, leaking
fuel lines and over extended periods between oil changes [13,39].
Fuel contamination affects oil quality; it lowers oil viscosity, and
causes poorer additives quality and poorer film strength. In Table 5,
the fuel contamination found in all oil samples was stable at 0.1 %
wt. which diluted the oil and decreased its viscosity as discussed in
3.2.1. The fuel contamination was likely from the engine's age and
its long service.
• Atmospheric dust, metallic debris from corrosive and adhesive wear,
and soot cause abrasive wear. To solve the problem, the air filters
must be cleaned regularly. As reported in Table 5, soot amount was
high and it increased towards the end of the test study, likely due to

405
T. Suthisripok, P. Semsamran Tribology International 128 (2018) 397–409

400 h

Abnormal wear metals detected in wear elements laboratory results.

Note the presence of white metal particles, which may indicate wear from plane/journal
bearing and shaft.
Oil condition test results indicate that the oil is near the end of its usefule service life.
Recommend to change oil and flush the system with clean oil, if the oil from this sample is
still in use in this component.
500 h

Cutting wear indicates abnormal wear mode in progress. Suspect misalignment or abrasive
wear.
Oil conditions test results indicate that the oil is near the end of its useful service life.
Recommend to check for other unusual operating parameters and monitor to confirm the
abnormalities closely.
Recommend to change oil and flush system with clean oil, if the oil from this sample is
still in use in this component.
600 h

Abnormal iron detected in wear elements laboratory results.

Oil condition tests indicate that the base oil is slightly degraded.
Dirt (silicon) is present and resulting in abrasive wear. It is recommended to determine
how dirt enters the system and corrects the problem to prevent further dirt entry.
Recommend to change oil and flush system with clean oil, if the oil from this sample is
still in use in this component (Predictive).
700 h

Trace amount of black oxide and fatigue wear, but not likely indicate a problem.
Oil condition test results indicate that the base oil is slightly degraded.
Note some test values are near to the Alarm Limits, or slightly over the Alarm Limits, but
are not considered serious.
Recommend to check for other unusual operting parameters and monitor to confirm the
abnormalities closely.
800 h

All wear conditions and wear elements test results appear in normal working range.
Oil condition test results indicate that the base oil is slightly degraded.
All contaminant conditions and contaminant levels appear in normal ranges.
Recommend to check for other unusual operating parameters and moonitor to confirms the
abnormalities closely.
Wear metals indicate possible abnormal wear of plane/journal bearings and shaft.
Continue routine sampling interval.

Fig. 8. (continued)

blow-by and dirty air filters. Soot causes sludge to form, accumulate, period between oil changes [39].
and then clog the fuel line. Note that the soot load normally in- • The silicon contaminated in the oil sample collected after 100-h
creases linearly with oil service. It is recommended not to extend the running on diesel was 43.4 ppm, which was particularly high

406
T. Suthisripok, P. Semsamran Tribology International 128 (2018) 397–409

compared to the new oil containing only 3 ppm. The amount of si-
licon contamination decreased sharply to 3.5 ppm at the end of the
test period after 700-h running on biodiesel B100, as the air filter
was carefully cleaned at every oil change to correct the problem.
Proper filtration and periodic oil changes are essential to eliminate
abrasive particles from the lubricating oil system. Hence it is the best
practice to follow the oil change schedule as per the manufacturer's
guide and to clean out both the fuel and the air filters at every oil
change, and, if necessary, to replace them with new filters.
3.2.4. Ferrographic analysis (ASTM D7690M)
Ferrography testing, a qualitative analysis, categorizes particles
based on size, shape and metallurgy, and takes samples from which
conclusions can be drawn regarding the rate of wear and the engine
component's health [31,39]. Fig. 8 illustrates comparative analysis re-
sults of all the used oil samples collected at every oil change schedule
after 100-h of running time.
3.3. Visual inspection
For visual inspection, the engine tested was disassembled after 100-
h of running on diesel and cleaned before reassembled for running on
Biodiesel B100. The engine was disassembled again after running for
100-h and again after running for 700-h. Fig. 9 displays the engine's
condition after running for 100-h on diesel, and running for 100-h and
700-h on biodiesel B100. Varnish-like deposits were clearly seen around
the fuel injector tip area and both the intake and the exhaust valves
after running on diesel, whereas dry deposits were found after running
on pure biodiesel B100. No unusual wear developed on the pistons,
cylinder head, or intake and exhaust valves over 700-h running on pure
biodiesel B100.
4. Conclusions
To study the diesel engine's durability and reliability running on
alternate biodiesel B100, field tests on a small diesel engine, 14-hp
Kubota RT140Di, fueled with palm biodiesel B100 were conducted for

Diesel fuel Biodiesel B100

after 100-h running after 100-h running after 700-h running
Fuel Injector
vanish-like deposit dry deposit dry deposit

Piston
vanish-like deposit dry deposit dry deposit

Cylinder head
vanish-like deposit
p dryy deposit
p dry
y deposit
p

Intake and Exhaust Valves

vanish-like deposit dry deposit dry deposit

Fig. 9. Engine parts conditions after running on diesel fuel and Biodiesel B100.

407
T. Suthisripok, P. Semsamran
about 800 engine hours with a high load, at a slow speed averaging
1000 rpm for 12-h daily, running continuously to aerate a fish pond
from dusk till dawn. Multi-grade Pulzar Super HD SAE40 lubricating oil
was used and regularly changed after every 100-h of engine running.
Used oil samples were collected at every change for full laboratory
analysis - physical and chemical oil conditions, wear elements, and
contaminants, including ferrographic tests. The condition of all used oil
samples degraded towards the end of the oil's useful service life, that is,
the viscosity decreased at @100OC (the oil was diluted and the quality
of the oil film had deteriorated) 13–15%, oxidation and nitration in-
creased, and TBN increased. Oil dilution was likely due to fuel con-
tamination, causing lower viscosity, degraded additives, thinner oil film
and increased adhesive wear to engine parts. From the wear element
results, similar quantities of fine particles (< 8 μm) - Fe, Pb, Cu, Sn, Al
and Cr, were detected in all used oil samples, which indicated the usual
rate of wear. However, unusually high quantities of fine and coarse Fe
wear particles were observed in the samples taken at 100-h (after
changing from diesel fuel to B100) and 500-h running on biodiesel
B100. In addition, the fuel filter plugged twice, after running for 420-h
and again after running for 430-h, and the problem was solved by
cleaning the filter. When running on biodiesel B100, the amount of
water found in all samples was almost double the amount in the new
oil. Fuel contamination was steady at 0.1% wt. and soot contaminants
were high after running for 700-h and higher after running for 800-h.
The amount of silicon contaminated was particularly high after running
for 100-h and sharply then decreased, close to the amount in the new
oil, towards the end of test period. Soot and silicon caused abrasive
wear to the engine's components. Both Al and silicon detected in the
used oil samples were from dust contamination. Therefore the air filter
was regularly cleaned after every 100-h oil change. The amount of
contaminated silicon was reduced significantly in both fine and coarse
sizes. From ferrogram and filtergram results, it confirmed that the en-
gine that was tested running on palm biodiesel B100 developed the
usual rate of wear, and the worn particle shapes suggested the me-
chanism of wear, both abrasive and adhesive wear.
For visual inspection, the engine was disassembled after 100-h of
running on diesel fuel, and varnish like deposits were observed at the
cylinder head, pistons, valves and fuel injector, while dry black deposits
were observed at the cylinder head, pistons, valves and fuel injector
after 100-h and 700-h of running on biodiesel B100. No apparent wear
on the engine's components was observed.
In conclusion, biodiesel B100 can be efficiently and effectively used
as an alternate fuel for small diesel engines, providing that the engines
are adequately and effectively lubricated with the proper grade of oil,
the oil is changed on a regular schedule, and the cleaning filter and oil
filters are regularly cleaned. This maintenance will prevent problems of
mechanical durability and reliability and enable the engine to suc-
cessfully employ biodiesel B100 over the long term.
Acknowledgements
This research did not receive any specific grants from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or non-profit sectors. The study was
conducted successfully with great support from Bangchak Biofuel
Company Limited (which provided commercial grade palm biodiesel
B100), FOCUSLAB Co. Ltd. (which provided full laboratory analysis and
ferrograpic tests) and the College of Engineering, Rangsit University.
References
[1] Energy Balance in Thailand. Department of alternative energy development and
efficiency. Ministry of Energy; 2015. ISSN2408-2775 http://www.dede.go.th.
[2] Thailand Energy Efficiency Situation. Department of alternative energy develop-
ment and efficiency. Ministry of Energy; 2015. ISSN2286-7465 http://www.dede.
go.th.
[3] Nisha. Top ten palm oil producing countries in the world. Aug. 1, 2015http://www.
perfectinsider.com/top-ten-palm-oil-producing-countries-in-the-world/, Accessed
408
Tribology International 128 (2018) 397–409
date: 8 October 2016.
[4] Prueksakorn K, Gheewala SH. Full chain energy analysis of biodiesel from Jatropha
curcas in Thailand. Bangkok, Thailand: The Joint Graduate School of Energy and
Environment, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi; January 2008,
Accessed date: 19 January 2016.
[5] Goswami K, Saikia J, Choudhury HK. Economic benefits and costs of Jatropha
plantation in north-east India. Agric Econ Res Rev January-June 2011;24:99–108.
[6] Biodiesel Fuel Specifications and Comparison to Diesel Fuel. Crimson Renewable
Energy. http://www.crimsonrenewable.com/specs.php ; [accessed 26 January
2016)].
[7] Heywood JB. Internal combustion engine fundamentals. first ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill; 1988.
[8] Juvinall RC, Marshek KM. Fundamentals of machine component design. Updated
third ed. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; 2000 Chapter 3,6,9,13.
[9] Suthisripok T, Ruechakiatdtikun T. Biodiesel B10 – an alternative fuel for diesel
pick-up trucks. Adv Mater Res 2014;931–932:1007–14https://doi.org/10.4028/
www.scientific.net/AMR.931-932.1007.
[10] Patel HM, Chaudhari VH, Shah SA. Design and optimization of fuel injection system
in diesel engine using biodiesel – a review. Int J Innovat Eng Technol (IJIET)
2013;2(1):70–7. ISSN: 2319-1058.
[11] Hofman V, Weisenborn D, Rosendahl M, Webster J. Biodiesel use in engines. NDSU
extension services. North Dakota State University; January 2006.
[12] Integrated Publishing. Chapter 8 Engine Lubricating Oil Systems, http://www.tpub.
com/engine3/en32-35.htm; [accessed 12 May 2016].
[13] Marine Engine & Propulsion System. Chapter 4 lubrication System, http://www.
splashmaritime.com.au/Marops/data/text/Med3tex/Engpropmed2.htm#_Chapter_
4:_Lubrication; [accessed 12 May 2016].
[14] Belt Transmission – Length and Speed of Belt, Length and speed of belt and belt
gearing, https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/length-belt-fans-motors-d_872.
html; [accessed 9 February 2016].
[15] Suthisripok T, Rengdech D, Chipnpakdee W, Petkong W. Biodiesel B100 - an al-
ternative fuel for small agricultural diesel engines. 3rd international symposium
energy challenges & mechanics - towards a big picture. 7-9 July 2015. [Aberdeen,
Scotland, UK].
[16] Bietresato M, Friso D. Durability on an agricultural tractor engine fuelled with pure
biodiesel (B100). Turk J Agric For 2014;38:214–23https://doi.org/10.3906/tar-
1302-51.
[17] Volpato CES, AdoP Conde, Barbosa JA, Salvador N. Performance of cycle diesel
engine using biodiesel of olive oil (B100). Cienc. agrotec. Lavras
2012;36(3):348–53.
[18] Wurts WA. Low oxygen and pond aeration - updated from world aquaculture
24(2):108-109, Senior State Specialist for Aquaculture, Kentucky State University
Cooperative Extension Program, http://www.ca.uky.edu/wkrec/Wurtspage.htm.
(Accessed 9 March 2016).
[19] Datta A, Manda BK. A comprehensive review of biodiesel as an alternative fuel for
compression ignition engine. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;57:799–821https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.resr.2015.12.170.
[20] Musthafa MM. Synthetic lubrication oil influences on performance and emission
characteristic of coated diesel engine fuelled by biodiesel blends. Appl Therm Eng
2016;92:607–712https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2015.12.011.
[21] Obed MA, Mamat R, Audullah NR, Abdullah AA. Analysis of blended fuel properties
and engine performance with palm biodiesel-diesel blended fuel. Renew Energy
2016;86:59–67https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2015.07.103.
[22] Bang-Quan He. Advances in emission characteristics of diesel engines using dif-
ferent biodiesel fuels. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;60:570–86https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.ser.2016.01.093.
[23] Mwangi JK, Lee W, Chang Y, Wang L. An overview: energy saving and pollution
reduction by using green fuels blends in diesel engines. Appl Energy
2015;159:214–36https://doi.org/10.1016/apenergy.2015.08.084.
[24] Shahir VK, Jawahar CP, Suresh PR. Comparative study of diesel and biodiesel on CI
engine with emphasis to emission – a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2015;45:686–97https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ser.2015.02.042.
[25] Yasin MHM, Paruka P, Mamat R, Yusop AF, Najafi G, Alias A. Effect of low pro-
portion palm biodiesel blend on performance, combustion and emission char-
acteristics of a diesel engine. The 7th international conference on applied energy -
ICAE2015. Energy Procedia, 75. 2015. p. 92–8http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
[26] Broatch A, Tormos B, Olmeda P, Novella R. Impact of biodiesel fuel on cold starting
of automotive direct injection diesel engine. Inside Energy 2014;73:653–60https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.06.062.
[27] Sadeghinezhad E, Kazi SN, Badarudin A, Oon CS, Zubir MNM, Mehari M. A com-
prehensive review of bio-diesel as alternative fuel for compression ignition engines.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;28:410–24https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ser.2013.08.
003.
[28] Hunt CL, Johnson DM, Edgar DW. NOx emissions and performance of a compact
diesel tractor fueled with emulsified and non-emulsified biodiesel. J Agric Sys
Technol Manag January 2013;24:12–22.
[29] Xue J, Grift TE, Hansen AC. Effect of biodiesel on engine performances and emis-
sions. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15:1098–116https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.
2010.11.016.
[30] Dai W, Kheireddin B, Gao H, Liang H. Roles of nanoparticles in oil lubrication.
Tribol Int 2016;102:88–98https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2016.05.020.
[31] McMahon M. How to Interpret Oil Analysis Reports, TestOil, http://www.
machinerylubrication.com/Read/30443/oil-analysis-reports; [accessed 7 July
2016].
[32] Wooton D. Oxidation - The Lubricant's Nemesis, Wooton Consulting, http://www.
T. Suthisripok, P. Semsamran
machinerylubrication.com/Read/1028/oxidation-lubricant; [accessed 7 July
2016].
[33] Bots S. A practical approach for evaluating oil analysis results with limit values.
OELCHECK GmbH. Machinery lubrication. August 2014http://www.
machinerylubrication.com/Read/29829/a-practical-approach-for-evaluating-oil-
analysis-results-with-limit-values-, Accessed date: 7 July 2016.
[34] Winterfield C, Fvd Voort. A new approach for determining the acid and base
number of used oils. Machinery lubrication. June 2015http://www.
machinerylubrication.com/Read/30156/acid-base-number, Accessed date: 7 July
2016.
[35] Doyle D. Nitration occurrence in engine oil. ALS Tribol September 2015:1–2http://
409
Tribology International 128 (2018) 397–409
esource.alstribology.com/WB083_Sept2015/Nitration%20Occurrence.html,
Accessed date: 7 July 2016.
[36] Noria Corporation. Causes of Nitration in Engine Oil, http://www.
machinerylubrication.com/Read/30020/engine-oil-nitration; [accessed 7 July
2016].
[37] Fitch J, Troyer D. Setting Limits and Targets for Effective Oil Analysis. Noria
Corporation, http://www.machinerylubrication.com/Read/28520/setting-oil-
analysis-limits; [accessed 7 July 2016].
[38] Fitch J. The Meaning of a Low Viscosity Reading, Noria Corporation, http://www.
machinerylubrication.com/Read/1020/low-viscosity; [accessed 7 July 2016].
[39] Focus-Noria Thailand. Oil analysis basics. FOCUSLAB Co. Ltd. Bangkok, Thailand.