b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 5 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 2 6 0 8 e2 6 1 8

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Generation of bioenergy and biofertilizer on a sustainable

rural property

Sonia Valle Walter Borges de Oliveira 1, Alexandre Bevilacqua Leoneti*,

Glauco Mateus Magrini Caldo, Marcio Mattos Borges de Oliveira
Department of Administration e FEA-RP e University of São Paulo (USP) - Av. Bandeirantes 3900, Monte Alegre, 14040-905, Ribeirão Preto,
SP, Brazil

article info abstract

Article history: Energy sources have become a focus of legal, ethical, social and economic pressures due to
Received 4 February 2010 increasing environmental problems. Nonrenewable energy sources are being increasingly
Received in revised form replaced by other sources that are renewable and less pollutive, with technologies aimed at
21 February 2011 sustainability. Companies that adopt alternative forms of energy will be able to increase
Accepted 22 February 2011 their competitiveness and use wastes to generate energy, which is an ecological and
Available online 3 April 2011 economical efficiency approach. In the interior of the state of São Paulo, Brazil, a rural
producer of pork crackling and coffee evaluated the entire production cycle of his products
Keywords: and wastes, seeking to achieve energy self sufficiency and identify new possibilities for
Sustainability gains through cost reductions. Biodiesel, soap and detergent are produced with the waste
Biodigester animal fat left from the production of pork crackling. Pig farm wastes become biomass for
Biodiesel a biodigester, which produces sufficient biogas to keep the piglets warm, dry the coffee, fry
Biofertilizer the pork crackling, and generate electricity, among other uses. The biofertilizer produced
Biogas by the biodigester helps fertilize coffee and corn plantations. The purpose of this article is
to demonstrate the ecological and economic feasibility of the project. The research method
used here is a case study involving qualitative analyses of environmental and social
variables and quantitative analyses of economic variables. It is concluded that the
investment made in this project yields excellent returns, with savings of 100% in fuels, 50%
in electric energy and 40% in fertilizer, in addition to gains from the products developed
with the wastes.
ª 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The energy crisis and the environmental problems resulting
from the use of pollutive and nonrenewable sources of energy
have changed the worldwide scenario on this theme, leading
to the search for sustainable solutions in the three ambits:
economic, environmental and social. These aspects can be
translated by the volatility of the world’s fossil fuel markets
and by the risk of climate changes cause by the intensive use of
energy sources that generate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
New models of energy production and consumption must
be developed using renewable sources of energy such as wind,
solar, biomass, and ocean energy produced by waves, currents
and tides. The adoption of green and sustainable technologies
in the lifestyle of societies is an important solution to the
problem of energy [1]. However, one of the greatest challenges

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ55 16 3602 4751 (USP).

E-mail addresses: soniavw@terra.com.br (S.V. Walter Borges de Oliveira), ableoneti@usp.br (A.B. Leoneti), mmattos@usp.br (M.M.
Borges de Oliveira).
1
Tel.: þ55 16 3602 4751 (USP)
0961-9534/$ e see front matter ª 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2011.02.048
 b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 5 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 2 6 0 8 e2 6 1 8
of this task is the introduction of major changes in environ-
ments adapted to traditional forms of energy, not only from
the technological standpoint but also from the human aspect
of adaptation to and comfortableness with existing installa-
tions, which may be the more difficult aspect to overcome.
Any possible alternatives for the solution of environmental
problems will be strongly weighted by the economic factor.
According to Nagel and Meyer [2], ecological solutions usually
lead to economy savings because reducing the consumption
of raw materials and energy, recycling or reusing products are
both ecologically and economically sound. Hence, ecological
and economic efficiency must be achieved.
Although biomass has a high energy potential, the prac-
tices of its exploitation require comprehensive management,
since these practices may be very harmful to the environ-
ment, not only in terms of undesirable emissions but also due
to the environmental degradation resulting from unbalanced
exploitation.
The guidelines of the Kyoto Protocol encourage the use of
renewable and less pollutive energy sources in developing
countries. The goal proposed at the United Nations Climate
Change Conference held in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, is an average
reduction of 5.2% in GHG emissions between 2008 and 2012.
The goal refers to the level of gases emitted into the atmo-
sphere in 1990. This reduction is encouraged by the possibility
for developing countries to negotiate their reductions, ach-
ieved by Clean Development Mechanisms (CDM), with devel-
oped countries through the sale of carbon credits.
In Brazil, the use of biomass as an energy source is
increasing year after year, seeking to encourage the valuation
of environmental and economic aspects. Thus, alcohol, bio-
diesel, biogas, sugarcane bagasse-powered thermoelectric
plants, and others, have been gaining ground in the Brazilian
scenario, replacing traditional fossil fuels.
In the 1970s and 80s there was a strong incentive for the
installation of rural biodigesters in northeastern Brazil,
although the program subsequently lost momentum. With
the possibility of carbon credit sales, this energy modality
regained its former position, as did other methane generating
processes.
Biodiesel, another renewable source of energy, has become
a focus of attention in recent years, mainly due to its char-
acteristics of reduced pollution and its reasonably simple
production technique. The use of biodiesel reduces the
emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), particulate material (PM),
sulfur oxide (SOx), total hydrocarbons (HC), and a large part of
the toxic hydrocarbons with carcinogenic potential. From the
economic standpoint, biodiesel can be produced from several
types of oils and fats, both vegetable and animal, including
waste fats.
Concomitantly to the use of alternative energy sources,
wastes and by-products of production processes have also
gained ground, demonstrating the importance of cost reduc-
tions with a view to sustainable development.
2. Objectives
This paper aims to demonstrate the ecological and economic
feasibility of a rural enterprise for pig breeding and
2609
processing, and coffee and corn production, based on the
concepts of sustainability.
The specific objectives were to evaluate the possibility of
using the wastes generated on the property; evaluate the
possible energy sources compatible with the enterprise; and
analyze the its environmental and social variables.
3. Theoretical references
Energy is one of the most important resources for the
economic development of a country [3]. Energy sources can be
divided into two groups: biomass (also called traditional) and
non-biomass (also called commercial) [4].
Biomass, which is composed of organic matter produced by
biological processes involving the capture of solar energy, has
a high energy potential which is also renewable. The various
forms of biomass include wood, plants, food rests, animal
excrements, domestic sewage, industrial wastewaters, and
several other elements or residues of organic composition. Upon
undergoing conversion processes such as burning, digestion by
microorganisms, fermentation, chemical reaction, and others,
these products generate caloric energy or biogas.
In the paper of Demirbas and Demirbas [3], the authors say
that the decreasing reserves of fossil fuels and their potential
risk to the environment, such as the emission of greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere, has led to the development of
renewable energy sources, sustainable development and eco-
friendly concepts. Nevertheless, although renewable energy
has been the object of special attention in many countries, on
a global scale less than 15% of the main supply of energy
comes from this modality [5]. According to Brazil’s Ministry of
Mines and Energy (MME) [6], the energy matrix of 43.8% of the
country’s energy sources is renewable, due in large part to the
intensive use of wood and hydroelectric energy. However,
solar and wind energy still represent only a minor fraction of
the total energy supply in most countries, including Brazil.
The major challenge lies in integrating a high fraction of
intermittent resources as a large part of the renewable energy
in the electric power supply, and in including the transport
sector in these strategies [5].
3.1. Generation of biogas by biomass
Methane (CH4) is one of the GHGs with a global warming
potential 23-fold greater than that of carbon dioxide (CO2), and
a high energy power. Methane emissions into the atmosphere
originate from many sources, such as anaerobic biodegrada-
tion, ruminant digestion, biomass burning, etc [7]. These
sources are natural and anthropogenic, the former repre-
senting 40% and the latter 60% of the total methane emissions.
Both natural and anthropogenic sources may involve
degradation processes by microorganisms, which can be
divided into aerobic, facultative and anaerobic degradation [8].
The conditions of the medium in which degradation occurs,
with the presence or absence of oxygen, will define the
consortium of microorganisms that act in the decomposition
of the organic matter. In anaerobic degradation, oxygen is
toxic to microorganisms, and carbon dioxide and methane,
which are present in biogas, are eliminated as degradation by-
2610 b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 5 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 2 6 0 8 e2 6 1 8
products. The production of methane in anaerobic systems is
due to methanogenic microorganisms.
The average composition of biogas produced by anaerobic
degradation varies from 50 to 80% of methane and 20e50% of
carbon dioxide, besides traces of other gases [9].
Biodigesters are optimized anaerobic degradation systems
that use about 50% of organic wastes to 50% of dilution liquid,
which may be water (especially rainwater), sewage, or any
other liquid effluent that is not harmful to the system [10]. If
the organic wastes are not sufficiently dissolved in water, the
percentage of liquid should be increased in order to reach
a moisture content of about 90%.
It is important to point out that anaerobic degradation, and
therefore the biodigester, requires high temperatures to achieve
its maximum efficiency, as demonstrated in a study by Castro
and Cortez [12], who found that 31  C is the optimal temperature
for the degradation of cattle manure. One of the possible solu-
tions to maintain these high temperatures is proposed by
Axaopoulus and Panagakis [9], who suggest the use of solar
heating in biodigesters treating pig manure in Greece, where
solar collectors were installed on the canvas cover, providing an
average temperature of 35  C inside the biodigester.
Some of the advantages of the use of biodigesters, in
addition to the possible use of biogas, are the use of wastes
that would otherwise be pollutive if discharged directly into
the environment, due to their high load of organic matter, and
the reduction of odors resulting from this practice [13]; the
removal of pathogens that reinfest the animals that feed on
pastures fertilized with untreated wastes; the production of
biosolids that can be used as organic fertilizers in agriculture;
the production of biofertilizers or bioliquids, also rich in
nutrients, for farming, aquaculture or as leaf fertilizers [11].
Domestic sewage can be treated by anaerobic processes
such as upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactors,
which remove 60e80% of the biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD) and generate 65e80% of methane [14]. According to
Liedl, Bombardiere and Chatfield [15], degradation-generated
biosolids or bioliquids can be used jointly with mineral
fertilizers in a variety of vegetable cultures, providing a yield
comparable to that obtained with the exclusive use of mineral
fertilizer, and reducing the cost of the production process.
Biogas generated by anaerobic degradation contains about
65% of methane and 35% of carbon dioxide [16]. One cubic meter
of biogas is equivalent to 3.47 kg of wood, 0.63 L of kerosene,
0.61 L of diesel oil, 1.5 kg of coal, 1.25 kW/h of electricity, 0.45 kg of
liquefied petroleum gas, and 0.5 kg of butane, and can be
generated from the degradation of 13 kg of manure [17].
Methane can be used as an energy source in various types
of equipment, such as stoves, engines, generators, lighting in
general, heaters for homes and animals, refrigerators, green-
houses, grain dryers, incubators, etc [18]. Although anaerobic
degradation may produce unpleasant odors, methane is
odorless. Biogas that emits unpleasant odors probably
contains other gases such as hydrosulfuric gas.
The methane generated in the above described biomass
degradation processes can be channeled to small plants
where it will be used to run engine-driven power generators.
Methane production is advantageous if it involves the opti-
mization of processes, reaching high efficiency as a function
of investments in installations [19].
In economic terms, biogas can provide significant energy
benefits when its production is controlled and investments
can generate financial returns, including the costs of fines and
alignment with environmental legislation [11]. The solid
wastes of agriculture represent a potential energy source if
converted into methane [16].
In rural areas or villages not connected to the energy grid,
or which seek to reduce their electric power expenses, the
availability of biogas represents not only an improvement in
the quality of life of their residents but also a business
opportunity [3]. It should be kept in mind that, in addition to
the aforementioned benefits, there is the possibility of selling
carbon credit.
Brazil already has several projects that include clean
development mechanisms (CDM) for the sale of carbon
credits. According to the Ministry of Mines and Energy [20], 45
of the 207 carbon sequestration projects registered at the
United Nations up to April 2006 were Brazilian projects. The
reduction of methane emissions is present in three projects
that are already issuing Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs):
the sanitary landfills of NovaGerar (RJ) and Bandeirantes (SP)
and the Sadia biodigester project in which 3.5 thousand small
farmers participate, mainly pig farmers in the states of Santa
Catarina and Paraná.
The search for energy self sufficiency is a strong incentive
for the development of projects that take the best possible
advantage of the energy potential of a productive plant, be it
rural, industrial or urban.
An example of this search is presented by Angonese et al.
[21], who evaluated the energy efficiency of a swine produc-
tion system with treatment of wastes in a biodigester in the
municipality of Ouro Verde do Oeste (PR). The authors
demonstrated the possibility of maximizing the energy
potential of pig farm waste, within the production structure
itself, reducing the environmental impacts caused by the
disposal of these untreated wastes in the environment.
According to their study, the production of wastes has
a considerable energy value of about 30% of the system’s total
energy output, since its use can minimize the importation of
energy for the entire system.
3.2. Biodiesel
Biodiesel is an economically competitive and environmentally
friendly alternative fuel obtained from renewable sources [22].
In Brazil, the National Petroleum Agency’s (ANP) Adminis-
trative Rule no. 255/2003 established a preliminary specifica-
tion for the use of biodiesel in mixtures of up to 20% (B20),
which is similar to the European and American specifications,
but with some measure of flexibility to meet the characteris-
tics of the national raw materials.
As for the economic aspects, Demirbas [16] compares the
costs of projects involving biodiesel (originating from both
vegetable oils and animal fat) against diesel prices, presenting
numbers that demonstrate that the latter is still a cheaper
energy source, at least in the United States and in some
European countries (i.e., while the cost of biodiesel oscillates
from US$ 0.30 to 0.69, the price of diesel varies from US$ 0.20 to
0.24). The use of biodiesel is justified by positive externalities,
some of the main ones being the interest and engagement of
 b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 5 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 2 6 0 8 e2 6 1 8
a significant portion of local populations in the cause of
environmental conservation.
Biodiesel production costs depend essentially on the cost
of the raw material, the vegetable oil or any other fatty
substance, and the costs of industrial processing. Thus, the
cost of vegetable oil generally represents about 88% of the cost
of biodiesel when it is produced in high capacity plants, which
is the reason for the interest in reducing the costs of raw
materials, so that eventually the fatty material can be
obtained from industrial wastes, such as used frying oil and
animal grease [23].
The potential market for biodiesel in Brazil is determined
by the market of petroleum-derived products and by the
obligatory mixture of up to 5% of biodiesel in diesel, as
established by Law 11097 of 13 January 2005. The purpose of
this law, which regulates the introduction of biodiesel in the
Brazilian energy matrix, is to increase the participation of
biofuels in the national energy matrix, based on economic,
social and environmental considerations [24]. The total
demand for diesel oil in Brazil in 2007 was in the order of 41.5
million cubic meters, while the production of biodiesel that
year was 402 thousand cubic meters [25].
The use of biofuels in general reduces the main local
emissions associated with diesel, notably that of particulate
material, as well as carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons, SOx
e sulfur oxide, except NOx e nitrogen oxides (þ2e4%, with
B20) [26]. Moreover, biofuels are nontoxic and biodegradable
forms of energy whose widespread use would contribute
considerably to reduce pollution in large urban centers and
population conglomerates around the world.
3.3. Alternative uses of wastes on rural properties
With the reduction of the profit margin in every productive
sector, the aim should be to seek the minimum loss of any
input and the maximum efficiency of every process. In this
sense, rural properties should see their wastes as raw mate-
rials, encouraging research and the quest for sustainable
alternatives for their processes [10]. A description is given
below of several researches and cases of exploitation of by-
products from coffee cultivation and the production of bio-
diesel, expanding the list of wastes mentioned earlier herein.
Rathinavelu and Graziosi [27] present several alternatives
for the use of coffee processing by-products. In studies of pig
feed, the authors claim that corn may be replaced by dehy-
drated coffee pulp in up to 16% of the total feed, with no
harmful effects in terms of weight increase or food conver-
sion. Another use for coffee pulp they mention is the
production of organic fertilizer by composting, with a reten-
tion time of three weeks. Coffee husks can also be used to
generate energy by burning.
Another study on the use of coffee by-products was pre-
sented by Ribeiro Filho et al. [28], who studied their substitution
of ground corn with husks and cobs (GCHC) in Fresian-Zebu
crossbred bullocks in the post-weaning phase. The authors
concluded that it is feasible to substitute up to 30% of GCHC
with coffee husks in the feed concentrate.
In the production of biodiesel, the main residue is glycerin,
which is often used as a raw material in the production of
soaps. However, the literature lists other possible uses of
2611
glycerin, as a component of animal feed and as a co-substrate
in biodigesters [29].
The use of glycerin in pig feed is discussed in the work of
Holtkamp, Rotto and Garcia [30]. These authors state that raw
glycerin from biodiesel production contains approximately
85% of glycerol, 10% of water and 3e7% of salts, with a gross
energy of 3600e3750 kcal/kg, depending on its purity (pure
glycerol contains 4305 kcal/kg of gross energy). The authors’
studies on pigs in the fattening phase indicate that glycerol is
highly palatable and digestible and that 10% can be added to
pig feed, improving it and maintaining the pigs’ growth
performance.
Another use for glycerin from biodiesel production is in bio-
digesters [31]. This researcher reports that the addition of 6% of
glycerin in a biodigester degrading swine manure can increase
the production of methane in the system by about 180%.
4. Method
The present research was based on the case study method,
which Yin [32] defines as “empirical questioning that investi-
gates a contemporary phenomenon with its real life contexts,
when the boundaries between the phenomenon and the
context are not clearly evident, and in which multiple sources
of evidence are used”.
It was decided to study a single case because this
phenomenon is a recent one in Brazil. This research was
conducted on a rural property in the municipality of Caconde
(SP), situated 290 km from São Paulo, on the border with Minas
Gerais. The property covers 250 ha and involves different
activities: pig production and pork processing, coffee planta-
tions, and corn plantations for the production of pig feed.
Through this research, we sought to ascertain “how” and
“why” the changes on the analyzed property were imple-
mented, and to make a subsequent evaluation of the advan-
tages gained from the investment.
Yin [32] suggests that six sources of evidence should be
used, as far as possible, to obtain a good case study, namely:
(1) documentation, (2) file records, (3) interviews, (4) direct
observations, (5) participant observations, and (6) physical
artifacts.
In documentation used in this research consisted of
certificates presented by one of the owners, Mr. João Paulo
Muniz, as well as analyses of the quality of the biodiesel, the
patents for biodiesel production from pig and cow fat, and
newspaper and journal articles about the enterprise.
The principal data for the study were collected from semi-
structured interviews with Mr. Muniz, which were held at the
study site. The direct observations of the different activities on
the property enabled us to follow-up on the data presented by
the interviewee, and provided a more detailed and safe view
of the research objects.
As for the physical artifacts, the visit covered the activities
and products developed or used on the farm, providing direct
contact with practically all of them, thus facilitating our
understanding of the pig breeding process, pork processing, and
the production of pig feed, biogas, biofertilizer, electric power,
biodiesel, soap, toilet soap, detergent and composted fertilizer.
2612 b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 5 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 2 6 0 8 e2 6 1 8

The theoretical foundation for the case study was a research processed pork cuts come from the farm itself, with pork
of national and international bibliographic sources. The envi- crackling representing the most traditional product of the
ronmental and social variables were analyzed qualitatively, mix.
and several quantitative analyses were used to evaluate the To maintain the hygiene in all the pig breeding facilities,
economic variables. constant washing is done, which renders the manure suffi-
ciently moist to be sent to the farm’s biodigesters.
After the piglets are weaned at the age of 21 days, they are
taken to a compartment where biogas is used for heating to
5. Case study: Pork-Terra
about 35  C (Fig. 1 e left). Two biodigesters receive the wastes
from these activities. The pig fattening and slaughtering
The case study was carried out on a rural property of 250 ha
facilities supply the wastes for a third biodigester, including
located in the municipality of Caconde (SP), whose main
the blood left after slaughtering.
activities are pig breeding, pork processing, coffee plantations
Pork processing is carried out using 100% of gas produced
and corn grown for animal feed. The family business, called
in the biodigesters, which drives the boiler that heats the
Pork-Terra, is owned by three partners, a father, son (João
water used for skinning the animals. The product mix consists
Paulo Muniz) and uncle.
of prime cuts, sausages, smoked pork and pork crackling. The
The pig breeding activity on the property dates back to
products are vacuum-packed, many of them requiring only
1980, but the processing of prime pork cuts and the fabrication
cooling and not freezing.
of pork crackling started about 20 years ago. Several hygiene,
The fat is rendered and sent to the biodiesel production
environmental and economic aspects led the partners to
plant.
review the farm’s productive process.
The expansion of pig production led to a significant
5.2. Processing of swine wastes: biogas and biofertilizer
increase in the volume of manure, causing problems with
neighbors and with the environment, with unpleasant odors,
Three biodigesters called “minibiodigesters”, whose
flies and the launching of wastes into a stream. Feeding the
construction is simple and fast, were installed to process the
animals required planting corn, which began in 1980,
wastes from pig production and pork processing. The
requiring fertilizers, as did the coffee plantations, an older
construction of a biodigester consists of digging a trench with
activity dating back to 1920. The areas occupied today by
an earth digging machine, lining the bottom and sides of the
plantations consist of 90 ha of corn and 75 ha of coffee. It
trench with a plastic canvas to prevent percolation of the
should be noted that 100% of the corn grown on the farm is
liquid into the ground, and covering this “tank” with another
destined for the production of feed for the farm’s pigs.
canvas, which inflates as biogas is produced (Fig. 2 e left).
The various forms of energy (electric, diesel and gas)
Muniz states that in the coldest season, biogas production
needed for meat processing, as well as for the farm’s other
decreases, recovering promptly in the warmer months. It
activities, the employees’ homes and the farm’s vehicles, was
should be pointed out that there is no unpleasant odor in the
also substantial. In addition to energy, large quantities of soap
surroundings of the biodigester-biofertilizer tank set.
are also used to maintain proper hygiene conditions in the
After 30e40 days of degradation, the residue from the
facilities.
biodigester is transferred to an open trench, also lined with
With the help of qualified professionals, evaluations were
canvas, next to the biodigesters, where the biofertilizer is
made of the possibilities for eliminating problems and,
collected (Fig. 2 e right). The analysis of the biofertilizer
particularly, the use of wastes to generate energy, fertilizers,
produced on the farm indicated concentrations of 0.5e4.0% of
animal feed, and other products required for the farm’s
nitrogen, 0.5e5.0% of phosphorus, and 0.5e3.0% of potassium,
processes.
and about 90e95% of water.
Approximately two years ago, the biodigesters were
The biofertilizer is used in the coffee and corn plantations,
installed and studies on biodiesel production from pig fat were
although it contributes with only 40% of the total fertilizer
initiated. Today, Muniz holds a patent for the production of
required, and is complemented with industrial fertilizer, since
biodiesel from pig fat and is awaiting news about a patent he
the exclusive use of biofertilizer has proved insufficient to
filed for biodiesel production from cow fat, which he expects
supply the nutrients needed to maintain production at the
will take another five months.
level obtained using only industrial fertilizer.
The initial investment in the modifications on the farm
All the biogas produced in the biodigesters is used on the
was about R$ 100,000.00, including the biodigesters and the
property itself to generate 50% of its electric power needs,
mini biodiesel processing plant. However, the businessman
including the 17 homes of employees and 50% of the of the
claims that the savings resulting from the enterprise more
cold storage warehouse, as well as the various stoves for
than compensates for the investment, besides the environ-
pork processing and fat rendering, preparation of
mental and social benefits it has yielded.
employees’ meals, production of biodiesel and purification
of glycerin, as well as for heating the piglet nursery, and for
5.1. Pig breeding and pork processing coffee drying.
To reduce the corrosion power of the biogas, Muniz
The pig breeding enterprise comprises 200 breeder sows (Fig. 1 explains that a purifier in the form of a coil was built a few
e right), from which originate the 80 pigs slaughtered per meters underground, through which the biogas passes,
week for the pork processing enterprise. 100% of the starting at about 35  C, the temperature at which it exits the
 b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 5 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 2 6 0 8 e2 6 1 8
Fig. 1 e Piglet nursery with biogas heating (left) and breeder sows (right).
biodigester, and cooling down to about 14  C, which is the
ground temperature at this depth. This thermal shock causes
the gas to condense, removing the impurities that are harmful
to the equipment in which the biogas is used. In addition to
the buried purifiers, there are another two filters preceding the
compressor (Fig. 3 e left), which is required to produce the
necessary service pressure for the 6-cylinder, 121 hp engine
that drives the electric power generator with a capacity of
32 kW/h (Fig. 3 e right). According to Muniz, the average
composition of the biogas produced on the farm is 70%
methane and 30% carbon gas.
5.3. Biodiesel production: process and residues
Biodiesel is produced about three times per week, starting
from 100 L of fat. The main source of fat is the animal tissue
left over from pork processing on the farm. To increase
production, Muniz has also been using cow fat and used
cooking oil, forming a composition of 80% animal fat to 20% of
used cooking oil.
To obtain used cooking oil, Muniz has conducted campaigns
in the city to get the three thousand primary and secondary
school students from the city’s four public schools to bring
used oil from their homes to their schools, where he then
collects it. The average monthly amount collected is 1 L of
cooking oil per home. In addition to not polluting the region’s
waters, this oil is considered the best raw material for biodiesel
Fig. 2 e Biodigester (left) and tractor removing biofertilizer from the tank (right).
2613
production, which is also an indication of the concern with the
issue of social responsibility of the enterprise.
Both pig and cow fat must be rendered for use in biodiesel.
The stove used for this purpose is fueled by biogas (Fig. 4 e left)
and the residues (Fig. 4 e right) are used in composting,
together with the coffee husks, which, after 60 days, are
transformed into fertilizer that is used in the plantations.
The rendered fats are transferred to the transesterifier
(Fig. 5 e left), and ethanol and a catalyzer are added for the
production of biodiesel. The proportions are 100 L of fat to 20 L
of ethanol and 1.5 L of catalyzer. One liter of rendered fat
yields 1 L of biodiesel, 300 mL of soap and 150 mL of glycerin.
Fig. 5 (right) shows the biodiesel tank for supplying vehicles.
The biodiesel produced on the farm is consumed by the
farm’s vehicles and its quality is certified by the National
Petroleum Agency (ANP), based on analyses carried out in
a certified laboratory.
The principal by-product of biodiesel is glycerin. One of the
uses for the glycerin is in the production of soap (Fig. 6 e left),
toilet soap and detergent, which are widely used in cleaning
and hygiene on the farm itself. The other use is as a comple-
ment of the pig feed (Fig. 6 e right).
As mentioned earlier, the pig feed is produced on the farm
from corn grown on the farm and stored in a silo, as well as
from coffee husks, also produced on the farm. The husks are
used in place of wheat bran, which often contains mycotoxins
that are harmful to the animals’ health.
2614 b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 5 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 2 6 0 8 e2 6 1 8
Fig. 3 e Biogas compressor (left) and engine that drives the generator (right).
5.4. Social aspects
The farm’s 30 employees live on the property, in the 17 houses
which are supplied with electricity from the generator and
from outside, spring water, and a cesspit system for sewage
degradation. It is worth noting that the water supply system
for the homes is continuous, without passing through water
tanks in order to avoid contamination, since it is not
chlorinated.
Breakfast and lunch are served to all the employees at the
company’s cafeteria.
Muniz mentions some of the improvements he intends to
make on the farm soon, which will affect the quality of the
employees’ lives directly or indirectly. One of them is the
installation of shower stalls for use at the end of the workday,
using biogas-heated water, thus minimizing the use of electric
showers in the homes, especially at peak times. Another
planned improvement is landscaping on the farm, to add
more trees and gardens, aiming to create a visually pleasant
environment. Muniz is also concerned with his employees’
leisure time, since as they live and work on the farm, spending
most of their time there, they have few cultural and leisure
alternatives, which consist basically of television programs.
He goes so far as to state that in future, he would like to build
multiple-sports courts and a swimming pool for the
employees and their families.
Fig. 4 e Biogas-fueled stove for rendering fat (left) and residue from the rendering process which is used for composting
(right).
6. Discussion
The firm has already implemented several solutions for the
sustainable destination of its wastes, reducing energy-related
costs or possible environmental fines and exploiting the
various types of wastes generated on or outside the property.
The company’s activities are illustrated schematically in
Fig. 7, indicating the generated wastes and their exploitation.
Although the actions adopted so far have resulted in
numerous economic, environmental and social advantages,
there are still unexploited opportunities, such as the use of
domestic sewage on the property, the use of glycerin in the
biodigester, and the use of solar energy to heat the biodigester
or for other purposes.
The 17 houses on the farm, as well as the other facilities
that generate sewage, have cesspit systems for treating the
sewage. The installation of optimized anaerobic sewage
treatment systems such as a UASB reactor can provide
economic and environmental advantages. From the economic
standpoint, the use of the biogas produced by such a system
could add another fraction of energy to the farm’s matrix,
while the biosolids generated in the process would also
contribute, together with the residues from the existing bio-
digesters, to reduce the deficit of fertilizer in the plantations,
as suggested by Liedl, Bombardiere and Chatfield [15]. From
 b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 5 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 2 6 0 8 e2 6 1 8
Fig. 5 e Transesterifier (left) and biodiesel tank for supplying vehicles (right).
the environmental standpoint, the farm’s current 40e50%
organic matter removal efficiency would be augmented to
about 60e80% [14] in the UASB, which would also provide
a new source of biogas not produced in the cesspits. Another
possibility to be studied is the use of 6% of glycerin in the
biodigesters [31].
The use of solar energy has already become widespread
and even offers possibilities of low cost, using alterative
materials and even scrap. However, this energy modality has
not yet been exploited on the farm. Three possibilities could
be evaluated: heating of the biodigesters to increase their
efficiency [9], the use of solar energy to heat water for the
farm’s activities, and the use of photovoltaic solar energy.
These three cases would allow for a reduction of the need for
external electric power supply, be it through the increase of
biogas to feed the generator, through the substitution of
electric showers, or even through the substitution of electric
power by the photovoltaic source.
Feasibility studies of these alternatives should consider
several aspects of the cost-benefit ratio, since they require
investments in equipment and research and their return on
investments is often medium or long-term.
The main economic factor that should be taken into
account when calculating the cost of biodiesel production is
the starting materials of the reaction (in this case, pork lard
and ethanol), since they represent 80% of the production costs
[16]. At Pork-Terra these costs represent 81% (Table 1) of the
Fig. 6 e Production of soap from glycerin (left) and Muniz adding glycerin to pig feed (right).
2615
cost of biodiesel production. As can be seen in Table 1, the cost
per liter of biodiesel produced on the farm is about R$ 1.17.
Considering the average cost of a liter of diesel in Brazil in
October 2008, which, according to the National Petroleum
Agency [33], was about R$ 2.15 (Table 2), this represents
savings of almost 46% per liter of fuel. Moreover, considering
that the cost of fat is low, since it exists on the farm as a pork
processing waste, the economic advantage of biodiesel
production is even greater.
It is difficult for companies to decide about processes for
improving environmental quality, since each case is unique
and implementation is uncertain [34]. However, the decision
to invest the capital required for the installation of bio-
digesters and the biodiesel processing mini-plant allowed
Pork-Terra to save about R$ 8,000.00 per month through the
elimination of 100% of its diesel costs, 100% of its LPG costs,
40% of its fertilizer costs, and 50% of its electric power costs.
Considering the time elapsed since the implementation of
the biodigesters in July 2005 (about 36 months), the cash flow of
the investment Muniz made, adjusted to the current value, has
yielded a return of approximately R$ 242,950.88, with an internal
rate of return (IRR) of 7.38%/month, which is far superior to
practically every type of financial investment. For example,
supposing that in July 2005 Pork-Terra had invested R$
100,000.00 (the same value as the investment) in Brazilian
government bonds that were yielding a SELIC rate of 15%/year
(1.17%/month), the cash flow of this investment, adjusted to the
2616 b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 5 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 2 6 0 8 e2 6 1 8

Fig. 7 e Schematic flowchart of the company’s activities, wastes generated and their uses.

current value, would represent approximately R$ 114,504.47,
which means an internal rate of return of only 1.42%/month.
Even considering that, to make this investment, Pork-Terra
were to resort to a loan of R$ 100,000.00 at a premium of 2%/
month, the savings achieved through the project would still
yield a higher cash flow adjusted to the current value than the
financial investment. In this case, the current net value would be
approximately R$ 123,805.18, which represents an internal rate
of return of about 2.24%, indicating that even with the use of
third-party resources, this investment is still economically
viable. Fig. 8 compares the return on the investment using own
or third-party resources and the possible financial investment.
As can be seen in Fig. 8, if Pork-Terra had made its invest-
ment using third-party capital, it would have obtained a return
on the investment in about 25 months, and the gains obtained
after this period would be considered profits from the project. If
the investment had been made with its own capital, it would
already have recovered the amount invested in about 13
months, by about the 15th month it would already have the
same value, which it could then invest in government bonds
paying a SELIC rate of 15%/year, and by about the 25th month it
would have doubled the initial value that was invested.
In social terms, there is a real need to improve the
employees’ cultural, sports and leisure options, which would
further increase their satisfaction and motivation, keeping the
organizational climate in the company highly positive.

Table 1 e Biodiesel production cost at Pork-Terra.

Ingredients Quantity Price Sub-total Participation
(liters) (Reals) (Reals) (%)
Table 2 e Price of diesel in Brazil in October 2008.
Fat 200 0.50 100.00 45.0
Region No. of gas stations Average price
Ethanol 40 2.00 80.00 36.0
surveyed (R$/L)
Catalyzer 3 2.50 7.50 3.4
Gas 5.00 5.00 2.1 Central-west 2,979 2.19
Labor 30.00 13.5 Northeast 7,492 2.10
Total Cost 222.50 100.0 North 2,906 2.23
Production of 190 1.17 222.50 Southeast 17,260 2.09
biodiesel South 6,683 2.13
Brazil 37,320 2.15
Source: Data collected during an interview with one of the owners
of Pork-Terra. Source: ANP (2008a).
 b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 5 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 2 6 0 8 e2 6 1 8
Fig. 8 e Comparison of the return on investment in the environmental improvements and that of some financial
investments.
7. Conclusions
The Pork-Terra enterprise can be considered positive in terms
of sustainability since, according to Muniz, the investment the
project has yielded a satisfactory return, providing savings of
100% in fuels, 50% in electric power, and 40% in fertilizer, as
well as gains from the products developed with the wastes,
improved environmental quality, and improved quality of life
of the employees.
Within the concept of continuous improvement, the
owners could implement the suggestions listed in the
previous chapter of this paper, after careful cost-benefit
studies to ensure the viability of the activities.
The owners should also be constantly alert to the emer-
gence of new solutions and technologies, as well as to possible
changes in legislation, since they may represent both oppor-
tunities and threats.
Lastly, as in every process in which people are involved, the
owners should invest in raising the awareness of all the
stakeholders involved directly and indirectly in the enterprise,
in view of the possibility of partnerships with the community,
as well as to ensure the support of its employees and the good
image the organization may achieve.
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