How can an Aircraft be Designed to be Marketable to the Average

Person?

Robert Henry Haggart

Advisor: Dan Thurber

Abstract

The joy of flight is something that everybody should have the opportunity to experience. Current
general aviation aircraft are too hard to operate, require too large of a time commitment to own,
are still unsafe, and cost too much. For these reasons, many people do not have the opportunity
to fly. In this paper, the limiting factors of general aviation and the existing technologies that
could reduce or eliminate these factors are researched. The research on the limiting factors of GA
was primarily composed of articles by experts in aviation, and an AOPA study. The research on
technology is comprised of scholarly articles, and specifications sheets. The research shows that
SAS systems are advanced enough to decrease the difficulty of flying, and the systems are small
enough to fit in a GA aircraft. The research also shows that electric propulsion can decrease
maintenance time and cost, as well as make aircraft cheaper. Overall, technologies such as
microelectromechanical sensors, microelectronics, electric propulsion, and a mass marketing
strategy can eliminate the limiting factors of general aviation.

12th-grade Humanities

Animas High School

March 8, 2019
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 Introduction

“In that moment I experienced the freedom of flight under my own power... and it was like

nothing I had felt before… the joy of flight ” (Connie Sue White).

When inventors all over the world and throughout time attempted to build flying

machines they were not doing so with innovations in mass transport or combat in mind; to fly

freely like a bird has been a dream for many since ancient times. Now that modern engineering

has made human flight possible for over 100 years most people experience flying on massive

airliners. On these airliners, the only signs that you are flying are the noise from the engines, and

the clouds wisping by the small window. Flying an aircraft opens up opportunities for

experiences that would not be possible otherwise. There are areas only accessible by plane and

feelings only attainable when flying. Even after that 100 years of innovation, many people who

want to fly simply do not have the opportunity to. Through innovations in microtechnology,

inexpensive sensors, and electric propulsion, sport flying can be made more accessible and safe

for the average person.

History

General aviation (GA), a term referring to all aviation besides commercial, large cargo,

and military operations, has a history almost as long as aviation itself. The history of aviation is

highly rooted in military developments. In 1909 the Wright Brothers Aeroplane Company built

the first military aircraft as the 5th airplane design they ever produced. The addition of aircraft to

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the military created huge combat and intelligence advantages which have kept aviation in the top

spot for war. The history of general aviation did not begin until after the first major conflict

where aircraft were widely used, World War One. After the first world war many soldiers that

were trained as pilots left the military and used their instruction to fly for utility purposes, such

as photography, and crop-dusting. After the war, there were also many military surplus airplanes

which expedited the growth of general aviation into a major industry. These former military

pilots were also the start of other industries such as airmail and commercial flying. Decades later

a similar situation gave GA an even bigger boost. World War Two involved many more aircraft

than the first world war, and many of the trained pilots, that made it back became GA pilots, and

many of those flew just for fun. The design of GA aircraft has reflected this history. These

aircraft have the same instruments and same controls as the airplanes that the retired pilots were

trained in. The appearance of an airplane cockpit has barely changed over the last 50 years.

Today the world is more peaceful than it has ever been, and modern innovations have made

military aircraft much more combat efficient requiring fewer aircraft and pilots.

A shift in pilot demographics over the last 20 years has led to a decline in general

aviation pilots. In a publication analyzing the trends in general aviation, a graph showed that at

the beginning of the year 2000 there were just over 40,000 licensed general aviation pilots in the

U.S., and by mid-2010 that number dropped to less than 11,000 (​Shetty​ et al. 16). Another chart

shows that in 2009 personal aviation pilots accumulated more hours than any other GA group,

including business, air medical and air observation (​Shetty​ et al. 16). Though there is still a great

interest in personal aviation, the industry continues to shrink. It is possible that the public has just

lost interest in aviation, but at the same time as the decline, alternate forms of piloting are

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growing much more popular. These alternatives, such as flight simulators and remote control

flying have gained massive popularity as cheaper alternatives to flying real planes, showing that

there is still a desire to fly. An article by AIN States that 80% of student pilots do not complete

their private license (Thurber 2). This 80% represents lots of people who are interested enough in

flying to pay for lessons but are held back by some factor of General Aviation.

Research and Analysis

In a survey by the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA), the majority of

student pilots said that the most negative part of the instruction experience was

“Cost/Expense/Finances/Money” (AOPA 16). Though it might seem that aircraft are needlessly

expensive, there is a simple economic principle that explains it: Cost Volume Profit Analysis.

This principle tells a simple story; all of the costs of the development of a product are roughly

divided up among all of the units the company expects to sell. A product that sells a lot of units

will be significantly cheaper than one that does not. To decrease the cost of an aircraft we first

have to analyze how to increase the number of people who are able to and want to fly an aircraft.

There are many different opinions on why there are fewer GA pilots flying today than in

the past 30 years, but one source gives invaluable insight into how the pilots are changing. The

AOPA survey was a survey of students, pilots, and instructors. This survey included lapsed

students, which are students who completed instruction but did not finish certification for their

private license. Studying this demographic gives great insight into the current challenges for the

sport aircraft industry. The second most negative component in the study was “Poor or Unclear

Instructions/Training” and the fourth and sixth most frequent responses were “Difficulty

Learning How to Fly” and “Long Hours/Time Commitment” (AOPA 16). These answers show a

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clear disconnect with this group of people and aircraft manufacturers. This survey gives insight

into the aspects of aviation that the participants did not like. The students dislike the difficulty of

learning to fly and even flying after instruction. The students also dislike the time commitment

required to own an airplane, much of which is devoted to maintenance, and safety checks on the

ground. These include visual engine inspections, control checks, and instrument checks. If these

barriers to entry were removed, many more people would start flying. But, there is still one

important factor to consider, safety.

Not surprisingly, the safety risks of flying may be another reason for many of the lapsed

students. Poor instruction can prevent pilots from feeling competent enough to fly, and create

dangerous pilots. In an article on the decline of general aviation, Matt Thurber mentions that

”Safety problems are a significant factor in the decline of GA” (4). Thurber quotes an expert on

aviation accidents, Bob Miller, who mentioned that fatal accidents are still common “80 percent

of which are attributable to pilot error... well over 75 percent [of those pilot error accidents] can

be traced back to faulty instruction” (4). Though faulty instruction is a significant problem,

safety systems such as parachutes or stall indication systems could prevent these accidents from

being fatal, or prevent the accidents at all. Crashes due to technical problems are not as common

but still occur. The correct upkeep of an aircraft prevents these accidents but can be

time-consuming and expensive. In an article on reducing the costs of owning an aircraft, Pia

Bergqvist et al. writes that “in most cases, maintenance will be your heftiest bill” (7). In the

article, Bergqvist recommends doing much of the preventative maintenance yourself to save

money (7). This maintenance, which is the only maintenance that an unlicensed mechanic can

perform includes the following: “Such tasks as changing the oil; changing tires; cleaning and

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greasing wheel bearings; replacing damaged safety wires or cotter pins; replenishing hydraulic

fuel; replacing safety belts, spark plugs and light bulbs; and more” (Bergqvist et al. part 4). A

reduction in necessary aircraft maintenance could reduce the cost of aircraft ownership on top of

reducing time commitment. Reducing maintenance could also improve safety, as people would

not be inclined to perform maintenance that they do not know how to do properly. The high

horsepower engines of airplanes require lots of moving parts, and will always need to be

regularly checked so that a failure does not occur in the air.

New innovations in electric propulsion, thanks to the electric car industry, have motors

powerful and light enough to drive aircraft. Electric motors are known for reduced maintenance

costs and periods, greatly reducing the time commitment needed to own an aircraft making them

a perfect replacement for internal combustion engines in a more accessible aircraft. In a manual

on the best practices used to extend the lifetime of an electric motor, ​Getting The Most From

Electric Motors​ by The Electro-Mechanical Authority (EASA) recommends that electric motors

are inspected regularly, which consists of looking for “missing, broken or damaged parts,

blocked airflow paths, and contaminants” as well as “abnormal operating temperatures” (14).

Besides regular visual inspection, which is already required by the FAA, the only regular

maintenance that electric motors need is bearing lubrication. According to a chart in the manual

for a normal radial ball bearing the smallest amount of time between lubrication for any motor

would be 100 hours of operation and for a normal electric drive motor, the chart would

recommend a time of around 1,000 hours of operation before bearing lubrication is needed

(EASA 18). In contrast, the FAA requires scheduled maintenance every 100 flight hours for

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general aviation aircraft (Airplane 2). Electric motors are much more simple in principle, and

design than internal combustion motors, and have many advantages.

Because of the well understood and predictable behavior of electronics, tests can be made

to accurately and quantitatively assess the condition of the motor. These tests are quantitative,

and they can be used to predict how long the motor will function normally before risking a

malfunction or failure. The EASA defines Preventative Maintenance (PM) as a way to “assess

motor health through inspections and tests” (EASA 13). The manual also defines predictive

maintenance (PdM): “Predictive maintenance forecasts when to perform corrective maintenance

(Action), or when to expect a failure… PdM consists of trending and assessing most of the

activities associated with PM” (EASA 13). Predictive Maintenance tests such as an “insulation

resistance test,” and a “winding resistance” test can assess the health of a motor winding by

measuring its electrical properties, and how isolated the coil is from the case ground (EASA

14-15). Another test “motor current signature analysis” assesses the health of the rotor by

spinning it and analyzing the currents induced in the coils. Lastly “vibration analysis” can

determine the health of the bearings on the motor, by separating the signal from an accelerometer

into different waveforms, and looking at the number of waves and their amplitude (EASA 16).

All of these tests yield quantifiable data so technicians can predict when each part of the motor is

likely to fail, or when to come for maintenance again. Not only does this technique possibly

reduce visits to the mechanic's shop, but it also makes flying much safer. When the condition of

a motor is quantifiable, you do not have to rely on a technicians inspection and rough predictions

based on signs such as wear and soot. An electric motor’s simplistic design gives them many

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modern advantages over an internal combustion engine, but use in an aircraft is still very

uncommon due to some of its bigger disadvantages.

Currently, Electric motors have low power yields, and battery technology severely limits

flight time. Though battery technology has been making rapid improvement in recent times, they

are still the biggest limiting factor for electric propulsion. An electric glider startup claims that

their glider the ElectraFlyer-ULS has a running flight time of 2.00 hours, whereas a Cessna

182S, a commonly used GA aircraft, has a flight time of 6.00 hours at a much higher cruising

speed. Batteries also need to be charged, and refuel times on a gas tank are much shorter than the

time it takes to fully charge a large battery bank. Another problem is that although electric

motors do not require maintenance batteries do. According to a maintenance manual for lithium

polymer batteries published by electrical engineering firm Tektronix: “the typical estimated life

of a Lithium-Ion battery is about two to three years or 300 to 500 charge cycles, whichever

occurs first” (Lithium 1). For our example plane that means 600 to 1000 flight hours, or if you do

not fly that much then 2-3 years. Large battery banks are expensive, and adding batteries to

maintenance costs brings electric aircraft close to the cost of maintaining an internal combustion

engine aircraft. The other disadvantage is that high power electric motors are too heavy. Though

electric motors can have high power ratings, more powerful motors are too large and heavy to be

used for flight. Smaller motors have a much better power to weight ratio, so many companies

trying to develop electric flight have large arrays of between 8-36 motors on an aircraft. Though

electric propulsion does have its downsides, it is still competitive at reducing maintenance costs

and is a great tool for reducing time commitment. For these reasons, electric motors are still

better suited for this application than internal combustion engines.

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 Another technology taking advantage of modern electronics to reduce the hurdles that

new pilots face is a stabilization augmentation system (SAS). They can be designed to make

flight easier for the pilot, and reduce the chance that a faulty pilot input will cause a loss of

control, all by using inexpensive micro-electronics and micro-sensors. A Stabilization

augmentation system is a computerized system that gathers inputs from various sensors on the

aircraft and input from the pilot to keep the aircraft stable and continue on the desired heading.

Many aircraft that would be impossible to pilot manually use a stabilization augmentation

system, allowing them to have the same control characteristics as a normal aircraft. A common

example is a quadcopter. Quadcopters use differing motor rotation rates to control their heading

and speed. If a pilot had to manually control the throttle of all four motors, then the quadcopter

would be impossible to fly. Instead, a computer uses input from the pilot and sensors to keep the

quadcopter stable and perform the maneuvers directed by the pilot. SASs are not only used in

aircraft that are uncontrollable on their own, they are also used in aircraft that are already flyable

like the Boeing 777. The authors of an article on new ways to increase the performance of

automatic flight control systems, “Dynamic Performances of the Automatic Flight Control

System” reference the capabilities of the SAS of the Boeing 777: “The Fly-By-Wire system is

often able to detect atmospheric turbulence via the air and inertial data sensors and can

subsequently smooth the ride by making many adjustments per second” (Stroe et al. 2). That

article also said that “If the pilot attempts to configure the aircraft in a manner that might induce

a stall, the Actuator Control Electronics react by sending a signal to shake the controls” (Stroe et

al. 3). The article even mentions that the Boeing 777 can convey information about the forces on

the control surfaces through resisting movement of the controls in different axes. According to a

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navy training manual, these systems could be made to have even more authority over the aircraft.

Systems with this amount of authority over the aircraft have been implemented in supersonic jets

where “aircraft speed is so great that the pilot's normal response time is far too slow” (Center for

Naval Aviation Technical Training 1). A system with authority over the control surfaces could

prevent the need for rudder pedals by automatically adjusting yaw to maintain the maneuver

indicated by the controls. The system could also automatically maintain the ascent/descent rate

and heading of the aircraft when the pilot lets go of the controls to allow the pilot to attend to

other tasks. A SAS could even prevent the pilot from performing a maneuver that would cause a

loss of control. These computerized systems are powerful tools and could make flying much

easier and safer, but these systems do not have to cost more than the aircraft itself or weigh much

either.

In accordance with Moore's Law, integrated circuits, and other technologies like sensors

have been getting smaller and more powerful every year. 20 years ago gyroscopes could be as

large as modern desktop computers and cost thousands of dollars, but today a highly accurate

gyroscope such as the Silicon Sensing PinPoint can fit on your fingertip and only cost $50 USD.

Sensors such as this are part of a new wave of MEMS or Microelectromechanical system

sensors. A Stabilization augmentation system needs sensors to tell it about the environment

around it so that it can react accordingly. According to the Center for Naval Aviation Technical

Training, the sensors needed for a SAS are a Three-Axis Rate Gyro also called Attitude Heading

Reference System, a Compass sensor, an airspeed sensor, altitude sensor, a flap position sensor,

and an accelerometer (Center for Naval Aviation Technical Training 18-31). All of these sensors,

except for the flap position sensor now have MEMS equivalents, which are low cost, and just as

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accurate. For example, MEMS gyroscopes use micromechanical principals to detect rotation in

their axis, instead of the conventional use of rotational inertia in normal gyroscopes. The newer

MEMS gyroscopes drift slowly over time, but a group of engineers published a paper titled

“Attitude Heading Reference System Using MEMS Inertial Sensors with Dual-Axis Rotation.”

The article outlined how the group used a “dual-axis rotation structure with a proper rotary

scheme” to correct for the drift (​Li part 1​). A graph in the paper showed that the rotation scheme

allowed them to decrease the drift from 15​o​ per hour to less than a degree of accuracy with no

drift (​Li Et al. part 8​). Drawings and pictures of their designs also showed that they used only a

single MEMS gyroscope to measure all 3 axes of rotation, as well as kept the whole system small

enough to hold in one hand (​Li part 3​). Other MEMS sensors, such as accelerometers, are better

than their mechanical counterparts on their own. MEMS sensors are integral to making SAS

systems possible on smaller aircraft. Though these micromechanical wonders are complicated,

they even contribute to lowering cost.

Many different factors contribute to an affordable aircraft. The relevant factors include

inexpensive parts, maintenance period and cost, and a low Contribution Margin Ratio. The past

paragraphs explain how electric motors and MEMS sensors contribute to reducing the cost of

manufacturing, and the Contribution Margin Ratio. A lesson on Cost Volume Profit Analysis

defines Contribution Margin Ratio as “what percentage of every dollar of Sales Revenue goes to

help pay off the Fixed Costs” (​Constas 5​). The formula for this relationship is fixed costs divided

by expected units sold. So, if the fixed costs are larger, or the number of units sold is smaller the

Contribution Margin Ratio increases. The GA market is full of aircraft that sell very few units.

For example one of the most popular aircraft Cessna has ever produced the Cessna 172 has sold

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around 40,000 units over 60 years, while the Subaru sells around 170,000 Foresters a year in the

U.S. Because of these tiny sales numbers, the Contribution Margin Ratio on GA aircraft is much

greater. A mass-marketed aircraft, such as what is proposed in this thesis would be able to sell

many more units than the average GA aircraft reducing a significant portion of the price.

Conclusion

From the evidence presented it is obvious that the aircraft being produced for the GA industry do

not satisfy everyone. There are indicators that plenty of normal people are interested in sport

aviation and the AOPA survey shows what these normal people want in an airplane. They want

aircraft to be easier to learn how to fly, they want less of a time commitment needed to maintain

an aircraft, for aircraft to be safer, and for owning an aircraft to be less expensive. All of these

changes to what people want in an airplane come from a changing demographic in a stagnant

market. All of this is attainable, through proven technology and somebody willing to make a

change.

Electric propulsion helps fulfill two of these changes, to reduce the time commitment

needed to maintain an aircraft, and to make aircraft safer. The simplicity of an electric motor is

something unique that makes them competitive against internal combustion engines. Knowing

when a failure will happen, or more importantly, knowing that one will not happen is invaluable

to the safety of a pilot. Though battery storage limits flight time, many sport flyers never fly

cross-country, making current flight times sufficient as they are. The biggest problem with

electric motors is short battery lifetime. Replacing the batteries in a vehicle is very expensive,

and batteries hold less charge at the end of their lifetime, but the simplicity of an electric motor

outweighs the problems it faces especially when marketing to the average person.

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 A stabilization augmentation system is another key feature in increasing the ease of

operation. There is no denying that flying is hard. Every action you make induces another

unwanted action. For example, in an airplane, pitching up to climb faster will slow down the

plane, so you have to increase throttle. A SAS could manage the steps for you while you worry

about where you point the airplane. When a person can fly without having to know all of the

secret interconnections between controls people will be more inclined to try flying. Stabilization

augmentation systems can also warn, or correct people when they are making a mistake which

will further reduce the anxiety around flying. Not only are flight computers that do this possible,

but they have been in operation for many years already. From the fighter jets of the past to

Boeing’s newest passenger jets plenty of bigger aircraft have already implemented this

technology. Now, with smaller lighter and cheaper sensors and computers, it can be implemented

in smaller, and subsequently much more affordable aircraft.

A lowered cost would attract more buyers, and more buyers would reduce the cost even

more. In a market where price reflects the number of units you expect to sell instead of the cost

of manufacturing, a mass-marketed aircraft would be very competitive. Interestingly a startup

company backed by a founder of Google, Larry Page, is taking this very same approach to

aviation. The all-electric vertical takeoff and landing Black Fly claims to be so easy to fly that

almost no prior training is required. The company claims that the single person aircraft will

release later this year, for the price of an SUV. If the claims on their website are true, this type of

aircraft will leave its mark on general aviation history, making the “Joy of flight” accessible to

everyone.

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