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CE 308

WATER SUPPLY

◦ Municipal water supply systems

 selection of feasible sources
◦ Water quantity and quality

economic analysis
Availability of water  indicator of degree of civilization

Water can be obtained from:

rivers
lakes
groundwater
Municipal water demand is composed of:
domestic + public +
commercial + industrial +
fire fighting + losses

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Factors affecting water use:

◦ climate  more water is consumed in warmer climates
◦ characteristics of population  socio-economic status
◦ population size  per capita use is bigger in big cities due to
greater industrial use, more parks, etc.
◦ life standards  US (500 L/cap/day) versus Turkey (100 L/cap/day)
◦ environmental concerns
◦ water quality
◦ sustainable development
◦ use of flow reduction devices
◦ reuse of waste water

◦ water rates and metering  cost of water ↑es consumption ↓es

◦ industry and commerce  1 ton of paper consumes 250 m3 water
◦ operating pressures

Design steps of municipal water supply systems:

1. Estimation of future population and total demand
2. Examination of sources of water supply  quality & quantity
3. Examination of storage facilities
4. Design of storage and transmission facilities
◦ dam(s)
◦ municipal water supply systems
transmission lines
city network
5. Water treatment and quality control
6. Construction of the system
◦ use of sound and proper material
◦ minimization of water loss = f(type, age, operating pressure)
7. Establishment of operational organization

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◦ System should meet future demands

Life time of the system ? = f(type of system, availability of techn., mat’l.s,

econ. factors)

◦ Future demand (D) ⇔ good quality supply (S)

Municipal Water Requirements:

◦ domestic use (L/cap/day) – drinking and sanitary purposes

◦ public use – schools, hospitals, parks
◦ commercial and industrial uses – ex: textile, food
◦ use for fire fighting
+
municipal demand
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◦ Future demand forecasting  population estimation

End of life time of project, tn

Projected population, Pn

◦ Factors to be considered in population estimation:

◦ Topographic and climatic conditions

may impact
◦ Socio-economic facilities available in the city
migration
◦ Past records of census results
◦ Population growth rate & characteristics of community

55/45

Population estimation methods

1- Arithmetic extrapolation
TURKEY

2- Geometric (logarithmic) extrapolation  good for communities

3- The Turkish Bank of Provinces method with large resources
and power
4- Mathematical curve fitting method
5- Logistic S-curve method
6- Decreasing rate of increase method
7- Ratio and correlation method
8- Component method
9- Employment forecasts

Before selecting the population projection method:

examine previous census records
socio-economic developments in the region
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Population growth phases in settlements

P
Psat
since available resources &
Declining growth phase
facilities are limited to
support population growth
beyond a certain value,
Arithmetic growth phase
the population growth
follows a declining phase
& the population tends
Geometric growth phase to a saturation value, Psat

Idealized Growth Pattern

57/45

Arithmetic Extrapolation Method

Rate of population growth is constant

constant P

slope = Ka

projected population
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Geometric Extrapolation Method

rate of change of population

is assumed to be proportional
to the population
P

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Turkish Bank of Provinces Method

P2 = population at the end of

the life time of the project
ρ/100 =population increase ratio

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Next step: estimate average

total demand corresponding
to the projection year daily average
demand
Average total demands
Pn Dad Dad
(lt/cap/day) (lt/s)
3000 60 2.1
5000 70 4.1
10000 80 9.2
30000 100 34.7
50000 120 69.4
100000 170 196.8
500000 230 1330.0
1000000 280 3240.0
2000000 330 7640.0
3000000 370 12850.0

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Hourly, daily, monthly fluctuations in water use depend on:

◦ climatic conditions
◦ size of the urban area
◦ socio-economical structure of community

300

Maximum
day for year
200
% of Dad

100 Typical winter

day

12 a.m 8 a.m 4 p.m Midnight

6 pm
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D D

Dmd
Dmh

Dad
avr. demand
Dah
for a day

1 year 1 day
t (day) t (hr)
Jan.1 0 24
Dec.31

(P.F.)day = daily peak factor (P.F.)hour = hourly peak factor

Dmd = maximum daily demand Dmh = maximum hourly demand
Dad = average daily demand Dah = average hourly demand 63/45

Elements of municipal water supply systems

Water is conveyed from a source(s):

◦ storage reservoir(s)
◦ river(s)
◦ fresh water lake(s) to community mainly in closed
◦ groundwater conduits because of:
◦ sea

The requirement of pressurized flow

Less likelihood of pollution

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◦ Use of closed conduits:

◦ requirement for pressurized flow

◦ environmental concerns

◦ Necessary energy for flow:

◦ Gravity  when source is located substantially above the level of the city
◦ pumping
◦ gravity + pumping  In Ankara there are over 60
pumping stations & distribution reservoirs

◦ Selection of suitable conduits and routes:

◦ topography
◦ available materials
◦ economy

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Storage
reservoir, Treatment Dmd Distribution Dmh
river, or plant reservoir
well field Main
transmission
Transmission Main City
line
line feeder network

Transmission line is designed to carry

Dmd = Dad * (P.F)day Are designed to

meet hourly fluctuations
Main feeder is designed to carry store water for fire fighting
stabilize pressures in the
Dmh = Dad*(P.F)day*(P.F)hour distribution system

Codes of the Turkish Bank of Provinces

Dmd for the transmission line

Dmd + fire discharge for the main feeder

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Each reservoir
serves for its
pressure zone
Carries Dmd

Carries Dmh for PZ1

Carries Dmh for PZm

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Distribution Reservoirs
◦ In large cities (P > 100000)

◦ Pumping stations and distribution (service) reservoirs are operated in

conjunction with each other

◦ Pressure requirements dictate level of interference !

Pumping schedule  capacity of distribution reservoir

a) Pumping of Dad 24 hours  Small capacity  Not feasible!
b) Pumping during off-demand hours

Greater capacity  Feasible

◦ Location of the distribution reservoir  should be located close to the center

of use.
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Types of distribution reservoir

◦ elevated tanks
Usually reinforced-concrete used
◦ buried reservoirs Circular x-section
Top is sloped for proper drainage

Active
Ground
storage
surface

Inlet pipe Outlet

pipe
Overflow
Buried reservoir drain
Elevated tank

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◦ Maximum capacity: Cylindrical container

◦ Capacity determination:
a) Storage to meet hourly fluctuations:
1. Obtain demand values of maximum demand day
2. Apply mass curve technique
b) Required storage to put out a fire
c) Storage to meet emergencies

P ≤ 10 000, Cfire = 36 m3
10 001 ≤ P ≤ 50 000, Cfire = 72 m3 Turkish Bank of
P ≥ 50 000, Cfire = 360 m3 Provinces values

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◦ Pipe material should be strong enough to resist:

◦ the forces produced by the static pressure of water

◦ centrifugal forces at the bends
◦ external loads like soil load and traffic load
◦ changes in temperature
◦ water hammer

◦ Pipe materials:

◦ reinforced concrete
◦ asbestos cement
◦ ductile iron Each type of material pipe is available
◦ steel at different sizes &
◦ plastic can take different pressures & stresses

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Hydraulic design criteria

◦ velocity: 0.5 m/s ≤ u ≤ 2.0 m/s
◦ pressure: 3-5 m ≤ P/γ ≤ 80 m  transmission line
◦ 20 - 30 m ≤ P/γ ≤ 80 m  city network

HGL Hp
Intake
tower (P/γ)min
Dam Air relief E
(P/γ)max C valve Distribution
A
reservoir
Pump
Transmission
line Blowoff D
B
valve

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Hydraulics and Operation of Gravity Pipelines

A Q≥Qmax

Hmax
Q0≤Q<Qmax
HA

zA Q<Q0

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The energy equation between points A and B:

PA=PB=0, zB=0, and u2/2g≈0 for u<~2.0 m/s:

Using Darcy-Weisbach equation:

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K

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Q
A Q≥Qmax
For given f, L, and D: Hmax
H
Q0≤Q<Qmax
A

zA Q<Q0

Q0 is minimum pressurized flow rate.

When Q>Qmax, Q-Qmax spills
When Q<Q0, open channel flow! (use exit valve)

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Air entrainment
Consider a gravity pipeline with L=5000 m, f=0.02,
and φ800 for all pipes.
Energy equation between points A and D gives Q=1.1 m3/s (!!!)
130 m

Lac=3333.33 m
1.1 m3/s Lcd=1666.7 m
125 m
115 m
A

X C

100 m 100 m
Y
B D

a) Air suction due to negative pressure

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Air or surrounding groundwater is sucked into the pipeline

through the joints and HC will rise to atmospheric value
(HC=115 m and Q=0.95 m3/s)
130 m

125 m 0.95 m3/s

A
115 m

C 107.5 m

hv=7.5 m
100 m
Free surface flow,
100 m
B valve fully open
D

b) Air blockage from dissolved air

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Hydraulic design criteria

130 m ◦ pressure: 3-5 m ≤ P/γ ≤80m

0.78 m3/s
125 m
120 m
A
115 m
Air
valve C hv=15 m

100 m
100 m
B
D
c) Air free operation

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Example

Consider the following criterion:

0.5 m/s ≤ u ≤ 2.0 m/s and 3 m ≤ P/γ ≤ 80 m.
Take f = 0.02, D = 0.15 m, and L = 2000 m for all pipes.

1.It is desired to keep the water surface elevation at 207 m in the upper
reservoir. Determine the discharge that can pass through this system.
Determine also the maximum pressure head in the pipeline system.

2.Determine the minimum possible pressurized flow rate that can pass through
this system. Determine also the headloss at the exit valve.

3.Determine the maximum possible discharge to be transmitted through this

system.

211 m

203 m 190 m

A C 175 m
173 m

130 m
D

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211 m
207 m

200 m
203 m 193 m

186 m
A C
190 m 175 m
173 m

130 m
D

a) B

hL AB = hL BC = hL CD = hL hL = 7 m
hL = [ (8*f*L) / (π2*g*D5) ] * Q2
A= π*D2 / 4 A = 0.018 m2
7 = [ (8.0.02*2000) / (π2*9.81*0.155) ] * Q2
Q = 0.013 m3/s = 13 lt/s Max pressure is at B = 70 m
V = Q / A = 0.722 m/s OK!

b)

Minimum velocity = 0.5 m/s A = 0.018 m2

Qmin = 0.5 * 0.018 = 0.009 m3/s = 9 lt/s

hL = [ (8*f*L) / (π2*g*D5) ] * Q2
193 + hL BC + hL AB = Hres [ (8*0.02*2000) / (π2*9.81*0.155) ] * 0.0092

Hres = 193 + 2 * hL = 200 m NOT OK!

hL = 3.5 m

Hres = 203 (min. value) 203 – 193 = 2 * hL

hL = 5 m  Qmin = 0.011 m3/s = 11 lt/s headloss at the exit valve:

HCD = 193 – hL CD = 193 – 5 = 188 m 188-175=13 m.

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c)

Maximum velocity = 2 m/s A = 0.018 m2

Qmax = 2 * 0.018 = 0.036 m3/s = 36 lt/s

Hres = 193 + hL AB + hL BC

hL = [ (8*0.02*2000) / (π2*9.81*0.155) ] * 0.0362 = 56 m

NOT POSSIBLE !!! Hres cannot be greater than 211 m

211 – 193 = hL AB + hL BC

hL = 9  Qmax = 0.0143 m3/s = 14.3 lt/s

CE 308

WASTEWATER AND STORMWATER

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Chapter 8
Wastewater & Stormwater Collection &
◦ Sewerage is the process of
Removal
◦ collection
◦ transmission
◦ treatment
◦ disposal of waste water  Receiving water body
after proper treatment
◦ Sewer
◦ the closed conduit in which sewage is transmitted
◦ normally partially filled

◦ Sewage (sanitary, storm)

◦ wastewater to be removed

Municipal
◦ Comparative characteristics Sewage Water Supply

◦ Change in discharge Q and d increases in

Opposite
◦ Change in sewer size the direction of flow
◦ Type of flow
Gravity (partially filled) Pressurized
◦ Pattern of network
◦ Reuse of wastewater

◦ Combined systems and seperate systems

◦ Capacity problem
◦ Cost Storm water & sanitary ww from
◦ Feasibility during lifetime residential units or ww from public
& industrial establishments are combined

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The capacity of combined system

is not enough to carry a heavy storm
runoff together with ww component

Rainwater
inlet

Gas
Water
PTT Manhole
Combined
Electricity
sewer
a) Combined
system
87/23

In seperate systems
treatment of sanitary sewage
is more effective

Rainwater
inlet

Gas
Water Storm
PTT sewer
Electricity Sanitary
sewer
b) Seperate
system
88/23

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Sewers are designed as open channels,

Flow in sewers flowing partially full or at most just full

◦ mainly gravitational flow

◦ pumping may also be required if topographic conditions are not favorable
◦ circular cross-section

a = flow area
Ɵ = central angle
Diameter of sewer = D

a d = depth of flow

p
p = wetted perimeter

89/23

Avr. x-sec. velocity

Hydraulic radius = a/p
Friction slope
◦ partially filled parameters : d, a, p, r, u, q, sf, τ
◦ full-flow parameters : D, A, P, R, U, Q, Sf, τ

a d

a = flow area
p = wetted perimeter
r = hydraulic radius 90/23

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r = hydraulic radius
n = Manning’s roughness coeff.
sf = friction slope (equals slope
of pipe for uniform flow)
S = pipe slope
From Manning’s Eqn.

dimensionless
velocity

ratios are called hydraulic elements of sewer 91/23

percent
fullness

92/23

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Example: Given φ300 (D=300 mm), S=0.03. N=0.016 (variable)

Maximum allowable velocity is 3 m/s. Determine,
•Full flow discharge and velocity
•Partially-filled discharge and velocity for 60% fullness
•Central angle and flow area for 30% fullness

θ=132°

domestic sewage contains some

Remarks on chart solid material and
storm runoff contains some
sand, gravel and debris
◦ In practice, sanitary sewers are designed for: if flow velocity is low,
◦ d/D < 0.75 suspended material may settle
◦ d/D ~ 0.50 under low flow conditions down  hydraulic efficiency
decreases
◦ For small percent fullness values, i.e. d/D<0.5, greater slopes a minimum allowable velocity
are needed to maintain the same self-cleansing effect as that should be maintained
of full sewer, for SELF-CLEANSING
large slope  cost ↑  smaller slopes
e.g. for d=0.20D, S0.20D ≈ 2S +
flushing systems

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Design of storm sewer systems

as urbanization ↑es

capacity of combined
Rainfall sewer becomes insufficient

Overland
separate systems
flow Gutter
flow
Grate inlet

Design discharge of a storm sewer is

Lateral determined from a surface runoff
Manhole sewer Main having a high return period.
sewer
Trunk Qdes = f(rainfall, surface properties)
sewer
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◦ System carries surface runoff with high Tr (return period)

◦ Amount of storm sewage :

◦ duration & intensity of rain

◦ size of drainage area
◦ surface characteristics of drainage area

◦ Rainfall / runoff relation → design storm runoff

 hydrographs

◦ In case of lack of relevant information:

◦ simple relations (eg. rational method)

◦ synthetic unit hydrographs
◦ geomorphologic synthetic unit hydrographs

96/23

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Turkish Bank of Provinces Codes

0.5 m/s ≤ u≤ 4-5 m/s

Dmin= φ300

Design of sanitary sewer

systems: sanitary sewage
&
industrial wastes
Rainfall are
collected & removed
by
Domestic sanitary sewer systems
wastes
Street Industrial
wastes
House sewer

Rainfall leakage Service connection

manhole
Lateral sewer
Proper design
↓
Groundwater
Infiltration
Main sewer elimination of
Trunk sewer accumulation

98/23

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System carries sanitary sewage and industrial wastes

Qav : (70 - 130) % of Dad average daily consumption
per capita water use at the end
Consider future projection for Dad of the lifetime of the project

There exist fluctuations in wastewater flows since it is a

function of daily water consumption.
partially filled
sewer provide
PFmax
a degree of
equalization

PFdry
max. possible variation of ww
flow over the design period

max. daily variation of dry

weather flow

99/23

Minimum required full flow velocity (ufull,min) for self-cleansing may be

taken as 0.6 m/s. The slopes necesary for the minimum full velocity of 0.6
m/s under N=0.016 is given in the figure below:

100/23

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◦ Codes of Turkish Bank of Provinces:

storm water may also leak
◦ umax= 2.5 - 3.0 m/s from manholes & improper
◦ Dmin=φ200 connections of the storm
high gw table may cause water collection system
leakage into the system
◦ Design flow:

◦ Qdes= Qav*(PF)max + GW infiltration + Some portion of rainfall

◦ If the percent fullness under design flow conditions exceeds 0.75 or the
design velocity exceeds the maximum allowable value  increase the
diameter

◦ Check the system performance under smaller flows !

◦ Dry weather flow:

◦ Qlow = Qav* (PF)dry + GW infiltration

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Constructional Details of Sewers:

Lay-out of the system ?

◦ Underground surveys are required to detect:

◦ location of existing sewers,
◦ water and gas mains
◦ electrical and telephone cables, etc

◦ Excavate trenches and place sewers deep enough

◦ to protect them against
breakage
traffic load
freezing
◦ to permit them to drain the lowest basements

◦ Common values for sewer depth:

◦ 1.0 m below the basement floor or
◦ about 3.0 m below the top of building foundations

102/23

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Typical layout of a wastewater collection system

1. Domestic sewage to
lateral sewer
Building 2.
Lateral
Building sewer sewer

Main
sewer street
3.
house house
Manhole sewer sewer
Trunk lateral
sewer
sewer
4.

must be at the lowest

elevation so that all
sewers transport to
Intercepting sewer intercepting sewer with
GRAVITY
To ww treatment plant Junction chamber
103/23

◦ Manholes are placed

◦ where there is a change in diameter or slope &
◦ at street junctions

◦ The codes of the Turkish Bank of Provinces:

Maximum spacing between two manholes is 150 m

Changes  for small

0.61 m
diameters
every 50 meters

Manhole enlarged compartments

1.2 m
used for inspection
& cleaning purposes

104/23

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selection of material is governed by the

Sewer materials: quality and quantity of sewage
&
◦ plain concrete the stresses applied
◦ reinforced concrete
◦ asbestos cement
◦ cast iron or corrugated steel

◦ Selection of a specific type depends on:

◦ quantity of sewage
◦ stresses applied

For water supply  pressurized flow  internal pressure For wastewater collection  gravity flow
Internal pressure  some of the traffic &  no internal pressure
soil load is taken by internal pressure No internal pressure  traffic & soil load
more critical

Sewage disposal

Therefore sea water

will not enter the pipe
Pumping
station

Diffusor
Ports

106/23

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CE 308

IRRIGATION

◦ Irrigation is the application of water to soil to supply the necessary moisture for plant growth
which cannot be provided by natural precipitation.

Wise use of land and water resources potentials

Development of effective irrigation systems

Increase in agricultural outputs

Design and construction of irrigation systems  CE

Operation of irrigation systems  Agricultural Eng.

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◦ Presence of enough moisture in the topsoil facilitates the build up of plant

tissues through photosynthesis.

◦ Plant roots extract:

◦ soluble nutrients in the soil
◦ irrigation water

◦ The necessary energy for this extraction  oxidation of organic matter in the
roots with the oxygen which is present in the pores

◦ Fully saturated soil  No air entrainment!

∴ roots cannot extract the required soluble nutrients

◦ Excess water in the pores  proper drainage

◦ In Turkey, 26 million ha of land is irrigable

◦ Economically irrigable amount of this value:

◦ ∼15 % by surface waters
◦ ∼2 % by groundwater

◦ Benefits of irrigation:

◦ physical conditions in the soil are improved

◦ excessive salt in the soil is leached
◦ local hydrometeorological conditions are improved
Ex: Atatürk Dam changed the humidity of the region, so that
different crops can be grown.
◦ a variety of crops may grow
◦ multiple cropping may be achieved

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Determination of Irrigation Water

Demand:
◦ Consumptive use (EP from planted areas) = ?

◦ Consumptive use = transpiration + evaporation

◦ Some of the methods for EP:

◦ Modified Penman method
◦ Jensen-Haise method
◦ Hargraves method
◦ Blaney - Criddle method  widely used in Turkey
◦ Direct measurements using tanks and lysimeters  expensive

Blaney-Criddle method (1950)

uc = consumptive use in mm/month Multiple crops

k = k1*k2 (crop coefficient) 
k1 = seasonal coefficient total consumptive use
must be calculated wrt
k2 = monthly coefficient areal percentage of each crop
f = climatic factor

t = mean monthly temperature in oC

P = ratio of monthly to annual day time hours

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Crop Irrigation Requirement, CIR

portion of the consumptive use
that must be supplied by irrigation

CIR = crop irrigation requirement (mm/month)

uc = consumptive use (mm/month)
Peff = monthly effective precipitation (mm/month)

For multiple crops

Irrigation Efficiencies:
Losses in irrigation systems are due to:
conveyance (taşıma, nakletme)
application
storage
use

Total delivery requirement, TDR (mm/month):

CIR = crop irrigation requirement

e = overall irrigation efficiency

Irrigation modulus (water duty):

water requirement of an avg. unit area at the max. demand
month on a continuous flow basis

Q = canal capacity in lt/s

F = flexibility coefficient (>1.0) Read F from Table 10.8
qmax = irrigation modulus in lt/s/ha by using qmax and A.

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Example
Preliminary layout of a classical irrigation – drainage
network is shown in figure. Areal crop distribution in the
project area is as follows: 25% rice, 35% corn and 30%
sugar beet. Rest of the area is kept fallow (empty). The
area lies at a latitude of 34º in the northern hemisphere.
The irrigation soil is of sandy loam type. The overall
irrigation efficiency is 60%. Distribution of effective
precipitations and temperatures during the growing
season (June 1 and September 30) is as follows:
Peff = 16 mm, 13 mm, 8 mm, 14 mm and t = 20oC, 25oC,
30oC, 27oC, in June, July, August and September,
respectively.

a) Determine the capacities of irrigation canals at the

points indicated on the figure using demand method.

b) Determine the section dimensions of the trapezoidal

irrigation channels at points A & C having side slopes of
1V:1.5H and bottom widths of b = 1.5 m & 1.0 m (at A &
C respectively). Compute the average flow velocities in
the channels. Take S0 = 0.0006 and n = 0.015.

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*All units are in hectares

Solution
a) Blaney-Criddle Method

Crop irrigation requirement;

Total delivery requirement; (e=60%)

Irrigation modulus;

Demand Method
(lt/s)

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Table 10.3 k=k1*k2

Table
10.4
k1 k2 k

Sugar Sugar Sugar

Month t(ºC) P Rice Corn Rice Corn Rice Corn f
Beet Beet Beet

June 20 9.70 1.33 0.46 2.42 1.46 0.37 1.70 6.60

July 25 9.88 1.31 1.46 1.92 1.44 1.17 1.34 7.61

1.10 0.80 0.70
August 30 9.33 1.35 1.62 1.00 1.49 1.30 0.70 8.02

September 27 8.36 0.48 1.00 0.42 0.53 0.80 0.30 6.74

Uc=25.4*k*f Percentage*CIR

Sugar
Sugar Peff Rice Corn Total TDR qmax
Month Rice Corn Beet
Beet (mm) (0.25*CIR) (0.35*CIR) CIR (CIR/e) (l/s/ha)
(0.3*CIR)

June (30) 244.75 62.03 284.99 16 57.19 16.11 80.70 154.00 256.66

July (31) 278.34 226.15 259.01 13 66.34 74.60 73.80 214.74 357.90 1.34
August (31) 303.52 264.82 142.60 8 73.88 89.89 40.38 204.15 340.25

September
90.73 136.96 51.36 14 19.18 43.04 11.21 73.43 122.38
(30)

**All tables are provided in Yanmaz, M.

Table 10.8

Point Area (ha) qmax F Q (lt/s)

A 990 1.198 1589.27

B 476 1.34 1.267 808.14

C 514 1.274 877.48

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b)

y 1

For point A;

O.K.
For point C

O.K.

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