DAC3 March 2012

IIW/EWF Diploma –
Materials and Their Behaviour (Advanced)

MAB3
Training & Examination Services

Granta Park, Great Abington
Cambridge CB21 6AL, UK
Copyright © TWI Ltd
Rev 2 July 2011
Contents
Copyright  TWI Ltd 2012
IIW/EWF Diploma -
Materials and their Behaviour (Advanced)
Contents
Section Subject
1 Crystalline Structure
1.1 Atomic structure
1.2 Chemical bonding
1.3 Crystal structures
1.4 Atomic structure and mechanical properties
1.5 Solidification of metals
1.6 Recrystallisation – solid state transformation
1.7 Crystal structure imperfections
1.8 Types of deformation
1.9 Strengthening mechanisms
2 Phase Diagrams
2.1 Alloying
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Using phase diagrams
2.4 The lever rule
2.5 Solidification and microstructure
2.6 Solidification and coring
2.7 Age hardening
2.8 Solid state transformations
2.9 Introducing the iron carbon phase diagrams
2.10 Advantages and disadvantages of phase diagrams
3 Manufacture of Steels
3.1 Modern steelmaking
3.2 Primary steelmaking
3.3 Secondary steelmaking
3.4 Casting
3.5 Steel processing
4 Material testing
4.1 Mechanical testing
4.2 Tensile testing
4.3 Cross-weld tensile testing
4.4 Validity of tensile data
4.5 Charpy impact testing
4.6 Crystallinity and lateral expansion
4.7 Fracture toughness testing
4.8 Bend testing
4.9 Fatigue testing
4.10 Creep testing
4.11 Corrosion testing
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4.12 Hardness testing

4.13 Vickers hardness test
4.14 Brinell hardness test
4.15 Rockwell hardness test
4.16 Metallographic specimen preparation
5 Heat Treatment
5.1 Purpose of heat treatment
5.2 Heat treatment equipment
5.3 Bulk heat treatment equipment
5.4 Localised heat treatment equipment
5.5 Types of heat treatment
5.6 Full annealing
5.7 Normalising
5.8 Recovery and recrystallisation
5.9 Non-equilibrium heat treatment
5.10 Precipitation hardening
5.11 Postweld heat treatment
6 Fe-C Steels
6.1 Steel
6.2 Steel terminology
6.3 Weldability of steels
6.4 HAZ toughness in C-Mn steels
6.5 Weld metal toughness
6.6 Practical consideration for improved toughness
7 Micro-alloyed/High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) Steels
7.1 Micro-alloyed steels
7.2 TMCP steels
7.3 Weldability of mico-alloyed steels
7.4 Applications for high strength steels
8 Structure of the Welded Joint
8.1 Regions of a weld
8.2 Heat input
8.3 Weld metal solidification and transformation
8.4 Further issues
8.5 C-Mn steel HAZ microstructures
8.6 Intercritical HAZ
8.7 Subcritical HAZ
8.8 Microstructures of multi-pass welds
9 Cracking in welds
9.1 Cracking phenomena
9.2 Hydrogen (cold) cracking
9.3 Solidification (hot) cracking
9.4 Liquation cracking
9.5 Lamella testing
9.6 Reheat cracking
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10 Corrosion
10.1 Definition
10.2 Reactions during corrosion
10.3 Galvanic series
10.4 Types of corrosion
10.5 Common corrosion protection techniques
10.6 Pickling and passivation
11 Welding of Stainless Steels
11.1 Stainless steels
11.2 Predicting the phases in stainless steel
11.3 Constitution diagrams
11.4 Measuring ferrite content
11.5 Austenitic stainless steel
11.6 Duplex stainless steels
11.7 Pitting resistance
11.8 Welding duplex stainless steels
11.9 Weldability problems for stainless steels
11.10 Weld decay (sensitisation)
11.11 SIGMA (δ) phase formation
11.12 475oC embrittlement
11.13 Solidification cracking
11.14 Heat tint
12 Surfacing
12.1 Reasons for using overlays and coatings
12.2 Types of protective layers
12.3 Weld surfacing
12.4 Buttering
12.5 Arc welding surfacing techniques
12.6 Laser weld deposition
12.7 Explosive cladding
12.8 Clad pipes
12.9 Cutting clad or lined plates
12.10 Dilution in weld overlays
12.11 Sensitization of the substrate
12.12 Welding and NDT of clad steels
12.13 Consumable selection
12.14 Standards
12.15 Quality of control and weld overlays
12.16 Thermal spray coatings
13 Creep Resistant Steels
13.1 Creep resistance
13.2 Creep-resistant steels
13.3 Weldability of creep-resistant steels
13.4 Reheat cracking
13.5 Controlling reheat cracking
13.6 Temper embrittlement
13.7 Type IV cracking
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14 Cryogenic Steels
14.1 Cryogenic properties
14.2 Applications of cryogenic steels
14.3 Composition of cryogenic steels
14.4 Weldability of nickel steels
14.5 Weldability of austenitic stainless steels
15 Aluminium and Light Alloys
15.1 Background
15.2 Work hardening alloys
15.3 Heat treatable alloys
15.4 Classification and temper designation of aluminium alloys
15.5 Weldability of aluminium alloys
15.6 Choice of filler metal
15.7 Application of welding processes
15.8 Titanium alloys
15.9 Magnesium alloys
16 Joining dissimilar metals
16.1 Differences in physical properties
16.2 Metallurgical incompatibility
16.3 Recommendations for dissimilar welding
16.4 Welding two different ferritic steels
16.5 Welding ferritic steel to stainless steel
16.6 Welding two different stainless steels
16.7 NDT of dissimilar metal weldments
16.8 Using the schaeffler diagram
17 Welding other Alloys
17.1 Cast iron
17.2 Types of cast iron
17.3 Nickel and nickel alloys
17.4 Weldability problems
17.5 Copper and copper alloys
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Section 1
Crystalline Structure
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1 Crystalline Structure
1.1 Atomic structure
An atom is the smallest possible particle of a chemical element that retains
its chemical properties. An atom contains three main particles:
 Protons.
 Neutrons.
 Electrons.
The protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus of the atom and the
electrons orbit the nucleus.
The number of protons (ie atomic number Z) determines the chemical

element, eg iron, Fe, has 26 protons and so its atomic number is 26. The
number of neutrons determines the atomic mass of an element and atoms
of the same element can have different atomic mass A. Atoms having the
same Z but different A are isotopes of an element. The number of valence
electrons governs the bonding behaviour.
1.2 Chemical bonding

Chemical bonding is the physical phenomenon of substances being held
together by attraction between atoms. Bonding can determine some of the
physical properties of a substance (eg melting point and conductivity). There
are three types of chemical bonding: ionic, covalent and metallic bonding.
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In ionic bonding, a metal atom donates an electron (becoming a positive ion)

and a non-metal atom accepts this electron (becoming a negative ion).
These ions are attracted to each other by electrostatic forces.
Ionic compounds
 Tend to have high melting points.
 Become electrically conductive when melted or dissolved.
 Are generally brittle.
 Eg NaCl (salt).
In covalent bonding, atoms share one or more pairs of electrons to form a

molecule. Covalent bonding occurs between non-metals.
Covalent compounds
 Low melting points.
 Poor electrical conductivity.
 Interatomic (covalent) bonds are always stronger than intermolecular
bonds.
 Eg CO2, H2O and N2.
Metallic bonding occurs as metal ions sit within a lattice surrounded by

delocalised shared electrons. There is electrostatic attraction between ions.
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Metallic bonding accounts for many physical characteristics of metals

 Thermal/electric conductivity.
 Ductility (layers of atoms can slide past each other).
 Strength.
 Lustre.
1.3 Crystal structures

A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms are packed in a regular
order in a repeating pattern extending in three dimensions (space lattice).
The smallest repeating unit of this pattern is called a unit cell. Crystals form
during solidification. If there is a single centre of solidification, then a single
crystal solid will form. If there are multiple centres of solidification, then
multiple crystals, or grains will form. Materials containing many grains are
called polycrystalline solids.
The arrangement of atoms inside the unit cell defines the crystalline
structure and there are many different types of crystal systems. Three
examples are body-centred cubic (bcc) crystal structure, face-centred
crystal (fcc) structure and hexagonal close-packed (hcp) crystal system.
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The co-ordination number is the number of nearest neighbouring atoms to

any atom located in the space lattice, eight for bcc, twelve for fcc and twelve
for hcp. The co-ordination number affects interatomic distances and the
ability to accommodate interstitial atoms within the crystal structure.
1.4 Atomic structure and mechanical properties

Deformation in metals occurs largely by a process of slip, where atomic
planes slide over each other, with the aid of dislocations. Slip occurs on the
most densely packed planes. These planes are called slip planes. FCC has
four close-packed planes (octahedral planes) and three possible slip
directions, giving twelve slip systems. One of these planes is shown here.
Body centred cubic is less closely packed than fcc, however it has six close-
packed planes (on cube diagonals) and two directions, therefore twelve slip
systems. Slip, however, is more difficult than for fcc. Hcp has one close-
packed plane and three slip directions giving three slip systems. Because of
the limited slip systems, hcp metals tend to be more brittle. The slip plane is
shown.
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Different metals have different crystal structures and the slip systems
available to each give them their mechanical properties.
More ductile More brittle

fcc bcc hcp
Aluminium Chromium Cadmium
Copper Iron and most steels Cobalt
Gold Molybdenum Magnesium
Lead Tungsten Zinc
Nickel Zirconium
Silver
Stainless steel (austenitic)
1.4.1 Allotropes
If an element exists in more than one crystal form they are called allotropes.
Iron is an unusual metal in that it is allotropic, which means that it is able to
exist in more than one crystal form eg above 1400°C it is bcc delta iron (),
between 910-1400°C it is fcc austenite () and below 910°C it is bcc ferrite
().
The transition between the two crystallographic structures occurs at a

certain temperature and is called a phase change. The phenomenon of
allotropism makes steel very useful but can also lead to certain problems
including distortion, due to the expansion and contraction that take place
during the allotropic changes.
The low temperature bcc phase of iron or steel exhibits a step change in the
toughness of structural steels, which is known as the ductile-brittle
transition, where the material is brittle at lower temperatures. Fcc materials
such as austenitic stainless steels and aluminium are used for storing
cryogenic liquids such as liquid nitrogen because they do not suffer from a
ductile-brittle transition.
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1.5 Solidification of metals

When metals solidify:
 Nuclei form when the temperature of molten metal falls to its freezing
point, these are sometimes known as seed crystals.dendrites begins to
form in the direction of cooling.
 Secondary arms form on the dendrites.
 Arms grow until they touch the next dendrite when the arms begin to
thicken. Dendrites continue to grow and interlock until the grain structure
is complete. Columnar grains form in weld metal as they follow the
direction of heat dissipation.
 Crystallisation is complete and only the grain boundaries are visible.
 Impurities collect at the grain boundaries. Grain boundaries are linear
imperfections where adjacent grains meet. At grain boundaries, ions are
farther apart than inside the grains giving an amorphous structure.
Columnar structure of weld metal.
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1.6 Recrystallisation – solid state transformation
Grain boundaries have higher energies than the grain interiors, so a fine
grain structure with a large number of grain boundaries is far from the
energetic equilibrium. However, this structure has high toughness and yield
strength. During recrystallisation grain boundaries disappear and the overall
length of grain boundaries reduces, meaning a reduced energy, closer to
energetic equilibrium. This structure also has good conductivity due to a
greater amount of crystalline and less amorphous structure.
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1.7 Crystal structure imperfections

The two types of crystal imperfection are point defects and linear defects.
Point defects can be vacancies, interstitial and substitutional atoms.
Vacancies are where an atom is missing from the atomic arrangement.
Interstitials are where an atom is present between atoms in the normal
crystal structure and a substitutional atom is an atom different from the
matrix but which occupies a position where the matrix atom could be. In the
case of steels, C and N are substitutional alloying elements, while Cr, Mn
and Ni are substitutional.
Vacancy Substitutional Interstitial
Linear imperfections are also known as dislocations and there are two
types, depending on the geometry. Crystalline materials deform by
movement of dislocations along favourable crystal planes.
Edge dislocations consist of an extra half-plane of atoms.
Screw dislocations consist of a step of atoms in the crystal structure.
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If enough stress is applied to the material, it will deform by dislocation

movement along planes of atoms that have a high density of atoms. Plastic
deformation can be made more difficult by the presence of barriers to
dislocation movement. Such barriers may be interstitial atoms, precipitates,
substitutional atoms, other dislocations and grain boundaries. If deformation
is more difficult, then a material is stronger.
1.8 Types of deformation

Elastic deformation is when atomic bonds are stretched but not broken.
Plastic deformation is when permanent deformation occurs. Atomic bonds
are broken and new ones formed and dislocations are generated and move
through the crystal lattice.
ELASTIC PLASTIC
YIELD
POINT
As the temperature increases the strength decreases and the toughness

increases. This occurs because dislocation movement becomes easier as
the temperature increases. If the temperature continues to be increased,
then grain boundaries can also move and grain coarsening will occur.
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1.9 Strengthening mechanisms

Properties of pure metals can be greatly affected and thus tailored for
different applications, by different strengthening mechanisms. In metals, the
most common strengthening mechanisms are: alloying, work hardening,
precipitation hardening, grain refinement and quenching. These are briefly
described below.
1.9.1 Alloying
Alloying with other elements eg adding C to Fe, or adding Si to Al is used to
increase the strength of the Fe and Al matrix, respectively. Depending on
the size of the atom being added, it can occupy an interstitial or
substitutional position in the matrix. Both can be effective in increasing
strength. Interstitial alloying elements are smaller atoms (compared to the
matrix atoms) and are able to fit into the spaces between the larger atoms
eg carbon or nitrogen in iron. Other common interstitial atoms in iron are
hydrogen and oxygen, although these are not effective in increasing the
strength of iron. Substitutional alloying elements are of similar size to the
lattice and replace atoms of the lattice eg chromium, manganese and nickel
in iron (and other atoms whose diameters are within 15% of each other).
Both substitutional and interstitial alloying elements act by deforming the
lattice, which makes it harder for dislocations to move and therefore
increase the strength of the alloy.
1.9.2 Work hardening

Work hardening, also called cold working or strain hardening is an important
industrial process used mainly in alloys that do not respond to heat
treatment, such as austenitic stainless steels and aluminium alloys. Work
hardening occurs as a result of cold-working of the material, which
generates and moves dislocations through the lattice. As the dislocations
start interacting with each other they become increasingly entangled and
further dislocation movement becomes harder, thus increasing the strength
of the material. Cold work is plastic deformation imposed at temperatures
and strain rates where the strain hardening is not relieved. As the
deformation temperature is increased, the work hardening rate is
decreased. Also, in general, hcp metals have a lower work hardening rate
than cubic metals.
As the material is work hardened, it becomes stronger, but also loses some
of its ductility. For recovery of the ductility (at the expense of strength) the
material can be recovery annealed, normalised or full annealed.
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1.9.3 Grain refinement

The only strengthening mechanism which increases both the strength and
toughness of a material is grain refinement. Grain boundaries are effective
barriers to dislocation movement so the greater the number of grain
boundaries (smaller grain size) the harder plastic deformation is. The grain
size is greatly influenced by heat treatment and is thus affected by welding,
maintaining a fine-grained HAZ is desirable from a mechanical property
point of view and normally, excessive coarsening should be avoided through
control of heat input and use of multi-pass welds.
1.9.4 Precipitation hardening

Small, evenly distributed second-phase particles distributed in a ductile
matrix are commonly used for alloy strengthening. Common examples of
precipitation hardened alloys are aluminium-copper and copper-berillium
alloys. Precipitation hardening heat treatment is carried out by solid solution
annealing to put the second phase into solution, followed by quenching to
obtain a supersaturated solution. A further heat treatment or ageing
treatment is performed at a lower temperature than before, which allows the
precipitation of a second phase to occur. For precipitation to occur, the
second phase must be soluble at an elevated temperature and must show
decreasing solubility with decreasing temperature. In steels, precipitation
hardening is possible without an ageing heat treatment and precipitation of
carbides and nitrides can be obtained by slow cooling from the temperature
range where they are in solution. This is used to good effect in HSLA steels.
A fine dispersion of second phase precipitates confers the highest strength

increase, but ductility is reduced. If the ageing treatment temperature is too
high or the time is too long then the precipitates become too large and the
alloy is then said to be over-aged. Over-aged alloys are soft and ductile.
1.9.5 Quenching
Quenching is the rapid cooling of a material. This is used in Fe-C alloys and
steels to transform austenite to martensite. With rapid cooling from the
austenite phase field (face centred cubic), the austenite does not have time
to transform to ferrite and pearlite and instead the carbon atoms are trapped
in special locations (octahedral sites of the body centred cubic structure)
thus producing a new phase, martensite. The carbon deforms the lattice and
thus greatly increases the strength of the material. The strength and
hardness of martensite increase with increasing carbon content. Although
very hard microstructures are possible, fresh martensite is usually brittle and
has very low ductility (unless the carbon content is very low). To improve
toughness and increase ductility, quenched steels are tempered to relieve
stresses and allow carbon to move to reduce the lattice deformation.
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Revision Questions
1 What is the importance of dislocations? How can dislocations affect the strength
of materials?
2 List three types of lattice imperfection and explain how they affect the properties
of metals.
3 Describe three strengthening methods for alloys. Can these also be used for pure
metals?
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Section 2
Phase Diagrams
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Phase Diagrams
2 Phase Diagrams
2.1 Alloying
Alloys are solutions of one or more metals or semi-metals (C and N are
examples of semi-metals) in another metal. Alloys are used to obtain
materials with superior properties, or to match requirements that cannot be
fulfilled by pure metals alone, eg higher strength, corrosion resistance, wear
resistance. The atoms of one element can dissolve in another metal to form
a solid solution either substitutionally (to form substitutional solid solution) or
interstitially (to form interstitial solid solution) depending on the relative sizes
of the atoms. Substitution solubility occurs when the atomic radii of the
solute and solvent atoms are within ±15% of each other (eg Ni in Cu).
Interstitial solubility occurs when the solute atoms are much smaller than the
solvent atom (eg C in Fe), so that the solute atoms can reside in the
interstitial sites in the solvent lattice.
2.2 Introduction
The various structures or phases present when two or more metals are
mixed may be represented by equilibrium phase diagrams, where the stable
phases with corresponding chemical compositions are plotted versus
temperature. These are called equilibrium phase diagrams as they only
apply to thermodynamic equilibrium condition of very slow cooling or
heating. Equilibrium phase diagrams can be thought of as a map giving the
phase or phases of the system at a given temperature and composition.
Alloy phase diagrams are useful to engineers in the development of new
alloys, definition of heat treatment temperatures, fabrication parameters and
evaluation of performance issues such as hot cracking, pitting corrosion and
so on.
There are three main types of binary alloy system phase diagrams:
Binary Alloy Systems
Solid Solution Eutectic Combination
Total solubility in liquid Total solubility in liquid Total solubility in liquid

and solid phase and total insolubility in and partial solubility in
solid phase solid phase
The simplest kind of phase diagram is where the two elements form a solid
solution and there is complete solubility in the solid and the liquid phase (for
example the copper-nickel system). In such an alloy system, there is a
range of temperatures through which the alloy freezes, where both solid and
liquid are present as a mush before complete solidification occurs.
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Phase Diagrams
Solidus is the phase boundary which limits the top of the solid phase in the
phase diagram. Liquidus is the phase boundary which limits the bottom of
the liquid phase field. In other words, the alloy is completely liquid above the
liquidus line and solid below the solidus line.
The second type of phase diagram, called eutectic, is where there is total
mixing in the liquid, but no mixing in the solid phase (eg the lead-antimony,
or bismuth-cadmium system).
An eutectic is a mixture of two (or more) substances which liquefies at the

lowest temperature of all such mixtures. It has a specific composition and it
freezes at one fixed temperature. It can sometimes behave like a phase in
itself and usually consists of a lamellar structure. It is possible an alloy
system can possess more than one eutectic alloy. Some examples of
eutectic alloy systems include that of Bi-Cd, Al-Si, Pb-Sn etc.
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Phase Diagrams
More commonly, there is total solubility in liquid phase and partial solubility
in solid phase (particularly where there is a high percentage of one of the
elements, with a small amount of solute atoms). An example is the copper
(Cu)-silver (Ag) system. Other examples include that of lead (Pb)-tin (Sn),
Pb-magnesium (Mg) alloy systems.
In the diagram (Cu-Ag system) the phases the regions with solid solubility of
Ag in Cu and Cu in Ag are represented by the Greek symbols  and ,
respectively. The black lines (or the phase boundary) that represents the
limit of solid solubility is also called the solvus.
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Phase Diagrams
2.3 Using phase diagrams

Phase diagrams can be used to:
1 Determine the phases present at different temperatures.
2 Find the temperatures at which solidification starts/ends when an alloy

undergoes equilibrium cooling from its melt.
3 Determine the composition of phases at a specific temperature (T).
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Phase Diagrams
4 Determine the quantity of phases present at a specific temperature (T)

using the lever rule (Described in greater detail in the next section):
At 1232oC, the amount of solid phase is given by dividing the length A by

the length C:
6 6
6 6
6 5
0 7
S
o
l
i
d
%
1
0
0
︵︶ 


Therefore there is 66.7% solid at 1232oC. As the only other phase present
at 1232oC is liquid the amount of liquid present at this temperature is
100-66.7=33.3%. The exact same result is also obtained by using the lever
rule:
6 6
0 6
5 5
7 7
L
i
q
u
i
d
%
1
0
0
︵︶ 


2.4 The lever rule

The lever rule is used to predict the proportions of phases present at a
specific overall composition and temperature. It can be used for solid to
solid phase changes, as well as solid and liquid phase changes. The idea of
the lever rule is to imagine a lever, where the quantities of the phases
balance the lever arms, so in this example, the percentage of  phase
needs to be greater than the percentage of  phase for the see-saw to be in
equilibrium.
Before any calculations can be made a line (called a tie line) is drawn on the
phase diagram to determine the percent weight of each element. This is
accomplished by drawing a straight line at the temperature of interest,
starting from the point of the overall composition of the alloy and extending it
to the phase boundaries at each side of this composition.
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Phase Diagrams
In the example given here, the tie line is drawn at 1232°C and extends from
60% Cu and 40% Ni (overall composition) to the boundaries of the solidus
and liquidus lines. The percent weight of copper in the liquid at this
temperature is 66%, while the percent of copper in the solid is 57%. The
percent weight of solid and liquid can then be calculated using the following
lever rule equations:
A 66  60
% Solid  * 100  * 100  % Solid  66.66%
C 66  57
60  57
% Liquid  * 100  % Liquid  33.34%
66  57
In fact as the total necessarily has to be 100%, when two phases are
involved, the amount of a given phase is given by 100-% of other phase. In
the example above, % liquid is equal to 100-66.66, which is equal to the
33.34% calculated using the lever rule.
2.5 Solidification and microstructure

Two examples are given of the solidification of alloy phases and the
microstructures that result. In the bismuth-cadmium system, an alloy
containing 80% cadmium will start to solidify at around 300°C with the
formation of crystals of pure cadmium in the liquid. The crystals will grow as
the alloy cools down to 145.5°C, at which point all of the remaining liquid will
freeze as a eutectic containing lamellae (layers) of bismuth and of cadmium.
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Phase Diagrams
In the copper-silver system, an alloy of 30% silver will start to solidify at

around 900°C with the formation of crystals of alpha phase (), which is a
copper-rich solid solution of copper and silver. The  crystals grow as the
temperature cools, but the composition of the solid changes as it continues
to freeze. This means that the  crystals will have a composition slightly
higher in copper in the centre than the outside, which is called coring. When
the temperature reaches 780°C the composition of the solid  phase that is
solidifying is nearly 10% silver and the composition of the surrounding liquid
reaches the eutectic composition (around 60% silver). At this temperature
the remaining liquid all solidifies as a eutectic of lamellae or layers of 
(copper-rich) and  (silver-rich) phases.
2.6 Solidification and coring

During solidification, the first solid to form (1 in the diagram) has a different
composition to the last solid (5 in the diagram). Therefore chemical
composition and properties vary through the dendrite. If there is a large
distance between liquidus and solidus lines, or if there is a high cooling rate,
then the inhomogeneity will be larger. Such inhomogeneity is often termed
coring. It occurs when the cooling rate is sufficiently rapid so that significant
diffusion is prevented; this results in a concentration variation in the
solidified alloy. The problem can only be corrected by heat treatment for a
long time at high temperature (eg 24hr at 1000°C for steels), followed by
slow cooling. This allows the atoms to diffuse and homogenise the material.
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Phase Diagrams
2.7 Age hardening

The shape of the lines in the diagram below the eutectic temperature show
that the solubility of one element in the other reduces as the temperature
decreases. When the solubility limit of one element in the solid phase of the
other is exceeded, particles of one solid phase will precipitate in the other
solid phase, requiring slow cooling (equilibrium conditions) in order to occur.
At normal cooling rates precipitates tend to nucleate on existing grain
boundaries, however, these second phase precipitates can be used to age
harden the alloy. Often the second phase particles are not simply the
second element but an intermetallic compound of the two, for example,
copper forms a compound with aluminium, CuAl2 and this is the second
phase that can be used for age-hardening Al-Cu alloys.
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Phase Diagrams
An age hardening heat treatment involves dissolving any second phase

particles using a solution heat treatment at high temperature to take the
alloy into the single phase region of the phase diagram (dot on right hand
figure) and then quenching. The second stage nucleates and grows small
precipitates, by using a precipitation heat treatment, heating the alloy in the
two-phase region of the phase diagram, to an intermediate temperature so
that there is sufficient energy for diffusion and for precipitates to form on the
grain boundaries.
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Phase Diagrams
Age hardening increases the hardness and tensile strength of the alloy. The
size of the precipitates become coarser as the ageing temperature is
increased and the ageing temperature can control the distribution of the
second phase as well as the precipitate size. Having many fine and
uniformly dispersed precipitates is more effective at increasing strength than
having a few coarse precipitates. If heating is too prolonged or excessive,
the alloy re-softens due to over-ageing of the precipitates, which become
too large to be effective.
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Phase Diagrams
This table summarises the age hardening procedure for the example of an
aluminium alloy.
Fast cooling (no

diffusion)
Single phase   supersaturated with

secondary 
Heat up to 200°C
(artificial ageing)

 + fine precipitates of 
supersaturated
with secondary

Keep at room
temperature for long
time (natural ageing)

 + fine precipitates of 
supersaturated
with secondary

Heat up to 500°C
(over ageing)

+coarse ppts of 
supersaturated
with secondary

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Phase Diagrams
2.8 Solid state transformations

After initial solidification, it is possible for further phase transformations to
occur within the solid state, ie new solid phases nucleate from the existing
solid phases. A similar reaction to the eutectic reaction in liquids can occur
in solid state transformations, but it is known as eutectoid reaction when it
occurs in the solid state.
2.9 Introducing the iron carbon phase diagram

The iron-carbon phase diagram as a whole is complex but breaks down into
three smaller phase diagrams the:
 Peritectic.
 Eutectic.
 Eutectoid reactions.
We are only interested in the iron end of the diagram so the compound
cementite (Fe3C) that has 6.67wt% C is used as the right hand edge of the
diagram.
Peritectic reaction
Is a three-phase reaction in which, upon cooling, a liquid and a solid phase
transform to give one different solid phase. In the Fe-C system this occurs at
high temperature and is characterized by the transformation of liquid plus
delta ferrite to austenite.
Eutectic reaction
Occurs in cast irons with more than 2.1 wt% carbon as with the peritectic,
the eutectic occurs at a single temperature. In the Fe-C system, the
peritectic occurs at 1148oC and is characterized by the transformation of
liquid to austenite plus cementite.
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Phase Diagrams
The eutectoid reaction occurs at 727oC and involves the transformation of

the residual austenite to a lamellar structure of ferrite and cementite, called
pearlite.
The critical temperature lines A1 and A3 denote the critical temperatures for
formation of certain microstructures and heat treatments. The A1 line occurs
at T = 723°C and is the temperature below which austenite transforms into
the eutectoid of ferrite and pearlite. The A3 line is the slope between the
austenite () and ferrite/austenite (/) phase fields. The heating and cooling
rates can effectively raise or lower these lines respectively, as can certain
alloying elements (eg Cr, Mn).
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Phase Diagrams
The room temperature microstructure of slowly cooled steel depends on the

carbon content of the alloy. Hypoeutectoid steels, containing less than
0.77wt-% C will have a ferrite plus pearlite microstructure, with increasing
pearlite content as the carbon content is increased, up to 0.77wt-% carbon
where the microstructure will be fully pearlitic, such as in railway steels.
Alloys with carbon content greater than 0.77wt-% carbon, hypereutectoid
steels will have a microstructure of cementite and pearlite under equilibrium
conditions with increasing cementite as the amount of carbon is increased.
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Phase Diagrams
2.10 Advantages and disadvantages of phase diagrams

The advantages of using phase diagrams are that one diagram is valid for
an entire alloy system and it is possible to determine at a specific
temperature, the phases present, their composition and the percentage of
each phase for various alloy compositions (using the lever rule). It is
possible to determine the melting/freezing points and solubility’s of all the
alloys in the system and is useful for determining heat treatment
temperatures, since it shows the phase changes that occur with a change in
composition and/or temperature.
However, the phase diagram does not indicate the structural arrangement of
the phases ie lamellae, globules, films, nor does it indicate the structural
distribution of the secondary phases ie either distributed within grains or
deposited at grain boundaries. The phase diagram shows only the
equilibrium (slow cooling) state, which is not representative of some
production or welding thermal conditions.
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Phase Diagrams
Revision Questions
1 Sketch a phase diagram for a binary alloy system showing partial solid solubility
and complete liquid solubility, eg the Cu/Ag phase diagram.
2 On your sketch mark the position where an age-hardenable copper-rich alloy

would need to be heated to dissolve any second phase precipitates. How would
this alloy be subsequently heat treated in order to obtain a dispersion of fine
second phase precipitates?
3 What phases are formed during the peritectic reaction in the iron-carbon phase
diagram?
4 Describe the phase formation sequence and microstructure formation as a hypo-

eutectoid steel is cooled from molten.
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Section 3
Manufacture of Steels
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3 Manufacture of Steels
3.1 Modern steelmaking
Steel is essentially an alloy of iron (Fe) and carbon (C) and is generally
produced in a two stage process known as primary steelmaking. The first
stage involves the extraction of raw iron (also referred to as pig iron) from
iron ore inside a vessel known as a blast furnace. In its raw form, pig iron
contains high levels of carbon, sulphur and phosphorus, making it very
brittle and severely limiting its usefulness as an engineering material. In the
second stage of primary steelmaking, the amount of carbon and other
unwanted elements in the molten pig iron is reduced using the Basic
Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS) process. The resulting steel exhibits superior
toughness and ductility to the raw pig iron and can be used in a wide variety
of engineering applications. Engineering steel can also be produced from
scrap steel in an electric arc furnace. Further reductions in carbon content or
adjustments to the steel composition that may be required by the end user
necessitate additional processing steps such as ladle refining and vacuum
degassing and this is known as secondary steelmaking.
In an integrated steelworks the entire manufacturing process, from the

extraction of iron from its ores to the production of steel, is carried out at a
single production site.
For more information about blast furnaces and steel manufacture see
Davies: Science and Practice of Welding vol. 1 pages 65-79.
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3.2 Primary steelmaking

Primary steelmaking generally refers to the extraction of molten iron from its
ores followed by conversion to steel in the basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS)
process, although high quality steels can also be produced entirely from
scrap in an electric arc furnace. Both processes are discussed in the
following sections:
3.2.1 Iron ores

Most metals exist in nature as ores, which are generally metal oxides. Iron
can be found in the following forms:
 Haematite (Fe2O3) is reddish grey or blackish red and contains

approximately 70%Fe.
 Magnetite (Fe3O4) is greyish black or iron black and is a natural magnet,
containing approximately 72%Fe.
 Limonite (Fe3O(OH).nH2O) is a hydrated iron oxide, yellowish brown and
contains approximately 48%Fe.
 Siderite (FeCO3) is greenish grey or brown grey and contains
approximately 63%Fe.
To extract the iron from the ore the oxygen needs to be removed in a
process called reduction. Molten iron is initially produced in a vessel known
as a blast furnace.
3.2.2 The blast furnace
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The blast furnace is a large vertical stack, roughly 30m tall, lined with
refractory bricks. The temperatures within the blast furnace increase from
approximately 250°C at the top to over 1900°C at the bottom. Blast furnaces
tend to be operated continuously due to the cost and difficulty of stopping
the process once the furnace is up to temperature and often run for several
years at a time. The raw materials of iron ore, coke (which is almost pure
carbon) and a flux (typically limestone) are introduced continuously at the
top of the furnace adding to the furnace contents or burden. Hot air is
blasted in near the base of the furnace through water-cooled nozzles known
as tuyères. Blast furnace reactions begin at the base of the furnace where
the temperature is 1800ºC. The coke is burnt to form carbon dioxide and
carbon monoxide.
C (from coke) + O2 (from hot air) → CO2 + heat
CO2 + C → 2CO
At the top of the furnace between 500 and 800ºC the iron ore reduces to
iron oxide as it reacts with the carbon monoxide.
3Fe2O3 + CO → CO2 + 2Fe3O4
Fe2O3 + CO → 2FeO + CO2
Fe3O4 + CO → CO2 + 3FeO
In the middle of the blast furnace at 1000ºC the iron oxide reduces to liquid
iron.
FeO + CO → CO2 + Fe
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At the bottom of the furnace at 1500ºC further reduction to liquid iron occurs.
FeO + C → CO + Fe
The limestone decomposes and reacts with impurities to produce the slag.
For example:
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
FeS + CaO + C → CaS(slag) + FeO + CO
The calcium oxide formed by decomposition reacts with various acidic

impurities in the iron (notably silica), to form a fayalitic slag which is
essentially calcium silicate, CaSiO3.
SiO2 + CaO → CaSiO3
The oxygen supplied in the hot air blast supports combustion of the coke
forming carbon monoxide (CO). The CO reduces the iron ore to molten iron
which seeps down through the furnace burden under the action of gravity
and collects at the bottom of the furnace in a structure known as the hearth.
The limestone decomposes in the heat of the furnace to calcium oxide
(CaO) which reacts with impurities in the ore such as silica to form a molten
slag. This slag also collects at the base of the furnace above the molten
iron. The molten pig iron and slag are extracted from the furnace through
tap holes, with the iron being transported to the next processing step in
ladles or refractory lined torpedo-shaped rail cars. As the molten iron travels
down through the furnace it picks up high levels of carbon (up to 4.5%) and
other impurities (approximately 1.5% silicon, 0.05% sulphur and 0.15%
phosphorus) from the burden. As a result solidified pig iron exhibits low
tensile strength, very low ductility and contains large amounts of dissolved
gases, severely limiting its usefulness as an engineering material. Typically
pig iron is converted into steel using the basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS)
processes, which reduces the amount of carbon, sulphur and phosphorus
dissolved in the molten metal. Prior to being transferred to the BOS vessel,
the molten pig iron is frequently pre-treated with powdered magnesium, iron
oxide and lime in order to reduce the levels of sulphur, silicon and
phosphorus respectively.
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3.2.3 The basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS) process
Molten pig iron from the blast furnace is charged into the BOS vessel, which
is lined with a high temperature resistant refractory material. Scrap steel is
added to the BOS vessel prior to charging with molten pig iron in order to
cool the charge and protect the refractory lining. A water-cooled lance is
lowered into the converter and high purity oxygen is blown through the
molten metal, causing the combustion of carbon dissolved in the metal and
forming carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide gasses which escape from the
top of the vessel, thereby reducing the carbon content of the steel. Other
unwanted elements such as silicon and phosphorus react to form acidic
oxides which combine with basic fluxes added to the BOS converter forming
a slag which mixes with the molten metal during blowing to form an
emulsion, thereby facilitating the refinement of the steel. After the process is
complete the slag separates from the steel and floats on its surface,
allowing the steel to be tapped into a ladle whilst leaving the slag in the BOS
converter to be tapped off separately. A typical steel chemistry produced by
the BOS process is as follows: 0.2%C, 0.2%Si, 0.8-1.0%Mn, 0.025%S and
0.020%P. While a carbon content in the region of 0.2% may be acceptable
to some end users, it is often necessary to reduce the carbon content further
and/or make compositional adjustments, thus requiring additional
processing steps.
A basic slag or lining containing lime (CaCO3) removes the Si, Mn, C, P and
S from the iron. Deoxidisers such as ferro-manganese, ferro-silicon or
aluminium are also required. An acidic slag or lining containing silica (SiO2)
removes Si, Mn and C by oxidation, but cannot remove S & P.
2Al + 3FeO (soluble) = 3Fe + Al2O3 (solid)
Mn + FeS (soluble) = Fe + MnS (slag)
2CO (soluble) + Si = 2C + SiO2 (solid)
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3.2.4 Electric arc furnace (EAF) steelmaking
The electric arc furnace offers an alternative route for the production of
engineering steels to the traditional (and resource-intensive) method of
reducing iron ore in the blast furnace followed by refinement in the BOS
converter. The structure of an electric arc furnace used for steelmaking
consists of a refractory-lined shell with a retractable roof, through which up
to three graphite electrodes protrude. The primary feedstock in the electric
arc steelmaking process is typically scrap steel, although some pig iron or
directly reduced iron may be used. The furnace charge is melted by a high
energy electric arc struck between the electrodes and the charge. Oxygen is
introduced to the molten steel through a lance in order to remove carbon
and other unwanted elements and flux is added to react with impurities in
the steel forming a slag which floats on the molten steel. The slag layer acts
as a thermal barrier, helping to prevent excessive heat-loss from the molten
bath, thus allowing greater thermal and electrical efficiency. The flux is
typically composed of burnt lime (calcium oxide) and dolomite (magnesium
oxide) and can either be charged with the scrap or blown into the furnace
during melting. Once the temperature and composition of the melt is correct,
the steel is tapped into a ladle by tilting the furnace. The slag remains in the
furnace to be tapped off separately. The principal advantage of the electric
arc steelmaking process is the fact that new steel can be produced entirely
from scrap. The process is also extremely flexible and unlike the blast
furnace, can be started and stopped to suit demand. While electric arc
furnaces represent a comparatively low capital investment the operating
costs can be high (power rating can be up to 150,000kW).
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3.3 Secondary steelmaking

After the steel is tapped from the BOS vessel or the electric arc furnace into
a ladle, further adjustments can be made to the steel composition prior to
casting in order to meet the specification set out by the end user. This is
known as ladle refining or secondary steelmaking. Additions of desirable
elements such as vanadium, titanium and manganese can be made to alter
the final properties of the steel. Oxygen dissolved in the molten steel after
the BOS process can be removed by adding small amounts of aluminium,
which readily reacts with the dissolved oxygen to form an aluminium oxide
slag which can be skimmed from the surface of the melt prior to casting.
Alternatively oxygen and other dissolved gasses can be removed through a
process called vacuum degassing, in which the molten steel is gently
agitated under very low pressures in a specially designed vessel. Finally the
molten metal can be stirred by blowing with argon gas, ensuring uniformity
of temperature and composition before the steel is cast. Ladles often
incorporate a method for maintaining the temperature of the melt during
secondary processing, in which case they are known as ladle furnaces.
Heat is typically supplied by an electric or plasma arc or by induction coils.
3.3.1 Ladle refining

Ladle refining is often necessary to remove undesirable elements from the
steel that can severely degrade its mechanical properties. These impurities
include phosphorus, sulphur and residual elements such as oxygen and
nitrogen.
 Phosphorus and sulphur are associated with hot cracking problems

when welding, however they are also known to improve the machinability
of a steel and are frequently added to so-called free machining steels.
 Residual oxygen can result in the oxidation of desirable alloying
elements (eg Si, Mn) and can have a deleterious effect on mechanical
properties such as notch toughness.
 Residual nitrogen can result in nitrides being formed and lead to strain
ageing in welds. The yield strength and UTS increase, while the notch
toughness and elongation decrease with residual nitrogen. Nitrogen is
also a strong austenite stabiliser.
Primary deoxidisation of steel can be achieved with additions of silicon and

manganese. Aluminium is a strong deoxidiser used for secondary
deoxidisation and also leads to grain refinement by restricting the
coarsening of austenite grains after solidification. Nitrogen can be removed
through the addition of strong nitride-forming elements such as titanium (Ti),
zirconium (Zr) or vanadium (V). Sulphur can be removed with calcium (Ca),
or even more readily with rare earth metals such as cerium (Ce), lanthanum
(La) and neodymium (Nd), which form stable sulphides with high melting
points (over 2200°C) and have a small, globular shape. All of these
elements readily form oxides necessitating preliminary deoxidisation prior to
their addition.
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Phosphorus is removed by using a basic slag in the following reaction:
P + O2 → P2O5
P2O5 + CaO → Ca3PO4
3.3.2 Vacuum Arc Melting (VAM)

Vacuum arc melting or VAM is a method of forming a cast ingot with
improved microstructure and properties. A consumable cast electrode is re-
melted using the heat from an arc struck on a starter plate. During the
process impurities are removed in the vacuum. Metallurgical reactions
include decarburisation to a very low degree, removal of Zn, Mg, Ca, Pb,
Cu, Al, Si and Mn. No loss of Cr, Ni, Co, Mo, V or Ti occurs. For removal of
S and P a slag is required. The steel has extremely low gas content and
isotropic mechanical properties, better fatigue properties, improved notch
toughness, greater ductility and better creep resistance. Narrow alloying
tolerances can be achieved. The electrode can be prepared by vacuum
induction furnace or vacuum arc re-melting. The process requires a
relatively long period of time.
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3.3.3 Electroslag refining (ESR)

Electroslag refining (ESR) takes place at atmospheric pressure, under a
protective layer of conductive slag, with no electric arc. Excellent
microstructure can be obtained due to the directional, progressive
solidification of a re-melted consumable cast electrode. The resulting steel is
free from segregation and non-metallic inclusions and has low gas content.
It also has isotropic mechanical properties and it is possible to closely
control the chemical composition through metered additions during re-
melting. Excellent ingot surface (smooth and defect-free) and internal
soundness, means there is no need to treat the ingot, the material can be
used as-cast. The process is, however, somewhat costly.
3.4 Casting
Before the molten steel produced by the BOS or EAF processes can be
transformed into useful products it must be cast into ingots or slabs. Casting
involves the solidification of molten metal into a desired shape or profile
inside a mould.
3.4.1 Ingot casting

Whilst ingot casting has largely been superseded by continuous casting for
volume steel production, it is still the preferred method for certain speciality,
tool and forging steels. The molten steel from the steelmaking process is
transferred into a refractory-lined ladle, from which it is teemed into
individual ingot moulds where it solidifies. The steel in contact with the
mould walls solidifies first producing a fine equiaxed grain structure or chill
zone. Large columnar grains then grow inwards from the chill zone into the
molten core. The last material to solidify typically forms a coarse equiaxed
grain structure at the centre of the ingot. The typical as-cast crystal structure
of an ingot can be seen below.
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Gasses (such as oxygen) dissolved in the molten steel can give rise to
porosity or other casting defects as the material solidifies. Steels for ingot
casting are typically given one of three designations depending on the level
of deoxidisation they have been subjected to killed, semi-killed or un-killed.
Pipe defect
Killed steel is completely deoxidised by additions of silicon, aluminium or

manganese which react with the dissolved oxygen forming oxides.
Aluminium additions also react with dissolved nitrogen forming aluminium
nitrides. This almost completely eliminates gas evolution during
solidification. Killed steel ingots are therefore characterised by a high degree
of chemical homogeneity and very low levels of porosity, however they also
suffer from a high degree of solidification shrinkage leading to pipe defects
which have to be cropped from the slab prior to processing. The majority of
structural steels are killed.
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Semi-killed steel is produced when insufficient amounts of deoxidising

agents are added prior to casting to completely remove the dissolved
oxygen in the molten metal. The remaining oxygen reacts with carbon
forming carbon monoxide which produces moderate levels of porosity in the
finished slab. However this also counteracts the solidification shrinkage
typical of killed steels, thereby reducing wastage.
Un-killed or rimming steels have little to no deoxidising agents added prior to

casting. This leads to the evolution of significant amounts of carbon
monoxide during solidification which results in high levels of porosity in the
finished ingot. Un-killed steels are therefore unsuitable for structural
applications although they may be used for cold-working applications such
as wire drawing. Products fabricated from un-killed steels are also prone to
developing porosity when welded.
The above designations are derived from the behaviour of the molten steel
when it is poured into the mould. The violent evolution of carbon monoxide
from solidifying un-killed steels contrasts with the passive solidification
behaviour of fully deoxidised steels hence the term killed.
Narrow end up Wide end up Feeder head design

can lead to formation means no secondary means no pipe forms
of a secondary pipe. pipe is formed. inside the ingot.
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3.4.2 Continuous casting

Continuous casting involves the solidification of molten metal into semi-
finished billets, blooms or slabs which subsequently require significantly less
processing than ingots. For this reason continuous casting has largely
replaced ingot casting in modern steelmaking facilities. Molten steel is
continuously tapped from a vessel known as a tundish into an open-base
copper mould. The steel in contact with the walls of the water-cooled mould
rapidly freezes to form a solid shell. The mould is oscillated vertically to
prevent the shell from sticking to the mould walls. Below the mould exit, the
thin solidified shell supports and contains the still molten core. Guide rolls
below the mould continuously withdraw the shell from the mould producing a
long vertical strand of solidifying material. Water sprays help to cool the
strand as it passes through the guide rolls. The strand is then typically bent
through 90 until it is horizontal before it is sheared or flame cut into slabs of
desired length once the material has fully solidified.
There is a risk of non-metallic inclusions along the centreline of the slab due
to low melting point products being trapped between solidifying sides.
Continuous casting represents the most cost and energy efficient method for
solidifying large volumes of metal into simple shapes for subsequent
processing. A high degree of automation is possible with continuous casting
and the process produces a product of high quality and uniformity in a range
of cross-sections.
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3.4.3 Shape casting

Molten steel can be directly transformed into a finished product in a process
called shape casting. Casting involves the pouring of liquid metal into a
mould which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape. The molten
metal fills the cavity and solidifies following which the part can be ejected or
broken out of the mould. Moulds can be permanent (eg the metal moulds
used in die casting) or expendable (eg sand casting). Casting allows the
production of complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to
fabricate via other methods. Careful design of the mould helps to prevent
casting defects such as voids or shrinkage porosity from occurring in the
finished products.
3.5 Steel processing

The ingots and slabs produced by ingot casting and continuous casting are
typically subjected to several thermo-mechanical processing steps in order
to transform them into useable products and components. For example
plate or strip used for structural steel or pipe, or sheet steel used in car body
and white goods manufacture is produced through a process known as
rolling. Other rolled products such as billets and blooms are subjected to
further processing in order to produce finished products such as engine
components and steel cable. These processing techniques are described in
the following sections.
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3.5.1 Rolling
Rolling involves the reduction in thickness of a metal feedstock by passing it
between a pair of rotating rolls. The gap between the rolls is less than the
starting thickness of the feedstock thus forcing the material to deform as it
passes between the rolls. Traditionally rolling was carried out in two stages
consisting of an initial stage which converted large cast ingots into slabs or
blooms followed by a secondary rolling stage which converted the blooms
and slabs into plates, sheets and other products. With the widespread
introduction of continuous casting, semi-finished slabs, blooms and billets
could be produced directly, thereby eliminating the requirement for the initial
rolling stage for volume steel production.
 Slab is used to make plate, sheet and pipe. Typical cross-sectional

dimensions: 3000 x 200mm.
 Bloom is used to make rolled shapes and I-beams. Typical cross
sectional dimensions: 150 x 150mm.
 Billet is used to make bars, rods and wire. Typical cross sectional
dimensions: 50 x 50mm up to 120 x 120mm.
Rolling introduces plastic deformation into the material, which, at lower

temperatures, results in higher strength and hardness with a corresponding
decrease in ductility and toughness. Intermediate heat treatments may
therefore be used to compensate for this work hardening.
During cold rolling the as-cast grain structure is elongated and deformed or
cold worked leading to an increase in hardness. The deformed material is
typically subjected to an intermediate anneal at high temperature between
rolling operations in order to recrystallise the sheet, restoring the equiaxed
grain structure and increasing ductility. This softened product can then
undergo further rolling operations.
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During hot rolling, the steel is held above the recrystallisation temperature
(950-1000°C) throughout the process. After each rolling operation the
distorted grains spontaneously recrystallise and grain growth occurs before
subsequent rolling operations (see figure below). The result of hot rolling is
steel with a refined equiaxed grain structure. Steel is then usually heat
treated (normalised or possibly quenched and tempered) before being used.
Any inclusions in the steel will become elongated during rolling forming
features known as stringers (see micrograph overleaf) which are not altered
by annealing operations. Material containing stringers is considered to be
anisotropic. It is recognised that stringers can lead to lamellar tearing when
the material is welded and it is therefore desirable that they are avoided.
Where material properties in the through-thickness direction are required to
be guaranteed, the material is designated Z grade (where Z is the through-
thickness axis in XYZ coordinates). The X direction corresponds with the
rolling direction and generally exhibits the highest tensile strength, Charpy
impact toughness and ductility. The Y or transverse direction tends to exhibit
slightly poorer mechanical properties than the X direction, with the Z
direction often showing the lowest strength and toughness. It is therefore
important that the rolling direction of the parent material is considered when
designing and fabricating sheet steel components.
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3.5.2 Overview of sheet steel production
The above diagram summarises the most common process route for
production of coils of hot rolled steel from molten metal. It can be seen that
the molten metal is initially cast into a long strand before being cut into
individual slabs which are heated or soaked in a re-heat furnace at a
temperature of approximately 1250°C prior to being rolled. The thickness of
the steel is progressively reduced by a series of rolling operations until the
thickness required by the end user is reached, upon which the steel sheet is
coiled ready for delivery.
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3.5.3 Forging
Forging is a manufacturing process that involves the deformation and
shaping of metals under localised compressive forces. Due to its strength
and resistance to deformation, steel is forged at high temperatures. This is
known as hot forging. Forging techniques can be generally divided into two
groups; open and closed die. Open-die forging is a basic technique for
producing simple shapes using a moveable ram or hammer and a static
anvil. Open-die forging is frequently used to roughly shape a component
prior to closed-die forging. The closed-die forging process uses a more
complex-shaped die that completely encloses the workpiece, forcing it into
the desired shape. The flash generated around the periphery of the
component is removed in subsequent finishing operations. Closed die
forging gives accurate component dimensions, however tooling and
maintenance costs can be high. Forged products typically exhibit forging
lines which are revealed by etching as shown in the figure below.
Forging lines
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3.5.4 Extrusion
Extrusion is used to produce a length of material with a fixed cross-sectional
profile by forcing the material through a shaped die under high pressure. It is
possible to extrude steels however very high extrusion temperatures and
pressures are required (in excess of 1200°C and 100,000psi), with
correspondingly high tooling and maintenance costs. Glass powder is used
as a lubricant.
3.5.5 Drawing
Drawing is a process in which the cross-sectional profile of a wire or pipe is
reduced by pulling through a drawing die. Although similar in concept to
extrusion, drawing differs in that the material is pulled rather than pushed
through the die. Tube drawing necessitates the use of a mandrel which fits
inside the die to maintain the shape of the pipe as it is drawn.
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Revision Questions
1 When would the electric arc furnace be used to produce steel in preference to the
basic oxygen furnace?
2 During ladle refining what elements are added as deoxidisers?
3 How can casting defects be minimised when making ingots?
4 What are the advantages and disadvantages of the continuous casting method?
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Material Testing
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Material Testing
4 Material Testing
4.1 Mechanical testing
Mechanical testing produces data that may be used for design purposes or
as part of a welding procedure or operator acceptance scheme. The most
important function may be providing design data, since it is essential that the
limiting values a structure can withstand without failure are known. The
materials properties that can be determined by mechanical testing include,
yield strength, UTS, ductility, notch (impact) toughness, fracture toughness,
crack arrest properties, hardness, corrosion, creep and fatigue resistance,
physical properties (density, thermal conductivity, etc). More information on
material testing can be found in TWIs Job Knowledge articles on its web
site.
Inadequate control of material properties by the supplier, or incompetent

joining procedures and operatives are, however, equally crucial to the
supply of a product that is safe in use and fit for purpose. Mechanical tests
are employed to ensure that both parent material and joint properties are
met. For example the tensile test may be used to determine the yield
strength of a material for use in design calculations and to ensure that the
material complies with the material specification's strength requirements.
Mechanical tests may be divided into quantitative or qualitative tests. A

quantitative test provides data that will be used for design purposes, eg
tensile or CTOD tests. A qualitative test is where the results will be used for
making comparisons or as a go/no go test, such as the bend test.
4.2 Tensile testing

The test is carried out by gripping the ends of a suitably prepared
standardised test piece in a tensile test machine and then applying a
continually increasing uniaxial load until failure occurs. Test pieces are
standardised so that results are reproducible and comparable. Specimens
are said to be proportional when the gauge length is related to the original
cross sectional area. European and ASME codes give gauge lengths of
approximately 5x and 4x specimen gauge diameter respectively.
Typical tensile test specimen configuration.
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Examples of standards covering tensile testing are:
 BS EN ISO 6892-1:2009 Metallic materials. Tensile testing. Method of

test at ambient temperature.
 BS EN 876-1995 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials -
longitudinal tensile test.
 BS EN ISO 4136: 2011 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials -
transverse tensile test.
 ASTM E8-09 Tension testing of metallic materials.
Both the load (stress) and the test piece extension (strain) are measured
and from these data an engineering stress/strain curve is constructed. From
this curve we can determine:
 Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS): the load at failure divided by the

original cross sectional area. In EN specifications this parameter is also
identified as Rm.
 Yield point or yield strength: the stress at which deformation changes
from elastic to plastic behaviour. Below the yield point the specimen
would return to its original length if unloaded. Above the yield point,
permanent plastic deformation has occurred. In EN specifications this
parameter is also identified as Re.
 When there is no yield plateau it is possible to define a proof strength,
the stress at which an arbitrarily defined, non-proportional extension is
achieved. Usually the 0.2% proof strength is defined identified as Rp0.2.
 By re-assembling the broken specimen the percentage elongation can
be measured ie how much the gauge length had extended at failure.
 A further parameter is the percentage reduction of area ie how much the
gauge diameter has necked or reduced at the point of failure. In EN
specifications this parameter is identified as Z.
Typical stress strain curve generated during tensile testing.
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Stress-strain curve with the proof stress for a fixed deformation indicated.
Schematic of a tensile specimen before and after testing showing the elongation of
the gauge length and necking of the gauge diameter.
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4.3 Cross-weld tensile testing

To approve a butt welding procedure, most specifications require tensile
tests to be carried out. These are generally cross-weld (or cross-joint)
tensile tests of square or rectangular cross section oriented across the weld,
so that both parent metals, both HAZs and the weld metal itself are tested.
The excess weld metal in the cap of the weld may be left in place or
machined off. The specifications require only the UTS and position of the
fracture to be recorded from a cross-weld tensile test. It is possible to
measure yield strength, elongation and reduction of area of cross-joint
specimens, but the fact that there are at least three different areas with
dissimilar mechanical properties makes such measurements inaccurate and
unreliable, although they are sometimes reported for information purposes.
The cross-weld strength is usually required to exceed the minimum
specified UTS of the weaker parent metal. In most situations the weld metal
is stronger than the parent metal ie it overmateches and hence, failure
occurs in the parent metal or the HAZ at a stress above the specified
minimum.
Tensile test specimen
Orientation of a cross-weld tensile specimen.
4.4 Validity of tensile data

Tensile samples are assumed to be representative of the bulk of the
material, but this is not always the case. The tensile strength of a casting,
for instance, is often determined from a specimen machined from a riser and
this will normally have a grain size different from that of the bulk of the
casting. In this instance an alternative approach would be to machine test
samples from an appropriate thickness region of a stepped block cast from
the same heat.
A rolled steel plate has different properties in the longitudinal, transverse

and through thickness directions. Material specifications therefore sometimes
require the tensile test to be taken transverse to the rolling direction so that
the steel is tested across the elongated grains which would typically be the
lower strength, lower ductility direction. In some instances, guaranteed
through-thickness properties are required for example in Z grade steels.
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The size of a product can also influence the properties, as during heat
treatment the section thickness will affect the cooling rate, with slower
cooling rates and hence softer structures, at the centre of thicker sections.
This is dealt with in material standards by specifying what is known as the
limiting ruling section, the maximum diameter of bar at which the required
mechanical properties can be achieved at the centre. In addition to
variations of the properties due to the shape of the specimens and the
testing temperature, rate of loading will also affect the results; faster loading
can show apparently higher tensile strength.
4.5 Charpy impact testing

The Charpy impact test involves striking a standard specimen with a
controlled weight pendulum travelling at a set speed. The amount of energy
absorbed in fracturing the test piece is measured and gives an indication of
notch toughness of the test material. The test allows metals to be classified
as being either brittle or ductile. A brittle metal will absorb a small amount of
energy when impact tested, a tough ductile metal a large amount of energy.
Testing is generally carried out at a single temperature, for example the
minimum design temperature, with triplicate tests performed. Alternatively
tests can be carried out over a range of temperature to generate a transition
curve. It should be emphasised that the results can usually only be
compared with each other or with a requirement in a specification. Whilst
they can be used to estimate the fracture toughness of a weld or parent
metal, conservative assumptions are necessarily made and thus this is not a
very good substitute for actual fracture toughness measurement.
Examples of standards covering Charpy testing are:
 ASTM E23-07ae1 Standard test methods for notched bar impact of

testing on metallic materials.
 BS 131-6: 1998 Notched bar tests – Part 6: Method for Precision
Determination of Charpy-V Notch Impact Energies for Metals.
 BS EN ISO 148-1: 2010 Metallic Materials – Charpy Pendulum Impact
Test Part 1: Test Method.
The standard Charpy V specimen is 55mm long, 10mm square and has a
2mm deep notch with a tip radius of 0.25mm machined on one face. In
addition to a V notch, the Charpy specimen may be used with a keyhole or a
U notch. The keyhole and U notch are used for testing brittle materials such
as cast iron and for testing plastics.
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Charpy test specimen geometry.
Charpy test configuration.
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4.6 Crystallinity and lateral expansion

As well as the impact energy, it is also possible to measure the percentage
crystallinity and the lateral expansion. These can be found as a requirement
for Charpy tests in some specifications. The appearance of a fracture
surface gives information about the type of fracture that has occurred. A
brittle fracture is bright and crystalline; a ductile fracture is dull and fibrous.
The percentage crystallinity is therefore a measure of the amount of brittle
fracture, determined by estimating the amount of crystalline or brittle fracture
on the surface of the broken specimen. Intergranular fracture can also
occur, but is not very common.
Photograph showing an untested and tested Charpy V-notch specimens.
Lateral expansion is a measure of the ductility of the specimen. When a

ductile metal is broken, the test piece deforms before breaking, a pair of
ears being squeezed out on the side of the compression face of the
specimen. The amount by which the specimen deforms is measured and
expressed as millimetres of lateral expansion.
No lateral expansion a+b = lateral expansion

brittle fracture ductile fracture
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4.7 Fracture toughness testing

A quantitative assessment of fracture toughness can be made using the
crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) test. The data generated allows a
fitness-for-purpose analysis to be carried out which enables a critical defect
size to be calculated. So prior to fabrication, realistic acceptance standards
can be set and decisions on appropriate NDE techniques and detection
sensitivities can be made. Whilst the CTOD test was developed for the
characterisation of metals it has also been used to determine the toughness
of non-metallics such as weldable plastics.
The CTOD test is used when some plastic deformation can occur prior to
failure, as it allows the tip of a crack to stretch and open, hence tip opening
displacement.
Unlike the inexpensive 10 x 10mm square Charpy-V test piece with a blunt
machined notch, the CTOD specimen may be the full thickness of the
material will contain a genuine crack and will be loaded at a rate more
representative of service conditions. Conventionally three tests are carried
out, to ensure consistency of results, at a single temperature, for example
the minimum design temperature. On occasions, testing may be carried out
over a range of temperatures to generate a transition curve.
The test piece itself is proportional with the length, depth and thickness of
each specimen inter-related so that, irrespective of material thickness, each
specimen has the same proportions. There are two basic forms namely a
square or a rectangular cross section specimen. If the specimen thickness is
defined as W, the depth will be either W or 2W with a standard minimum
length of 4.6W. A notch is machined at the centre and then extended by
generating a fatigue crack so that the total defect length is half the depth of
the test piece as shown below. For example a test on a 100mm thick weld
will require a specimen measuring 100mm wide, 200mm deep and 
460mm long. This is an expensive operation, the validity of which can only
be determined once the test has been completed.
Proportional rectangular cross section CTOD specimen.
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The test is performed by loading the specimen in three points bending and
measuring the amount of crack opening. This is done by means of a strain
gauge attached to a clip placed between two accurately positioned knife
edges at the mouth of the machined notch (see below).
Typical test arrangement, the specimen can be easily immersed in a cooling

bath.
As bending proceeds, the crack tip plastically deforms until a critical point is
reached when the crack has opened sufficiently to extend by ductile tearing
or to initiate a cleavage crack (brittle fracture). This may lead to either partial
or complete failure of the specimen.
As a rule of thumb, a CTOD value of between 0.1 and 0.2mm at the

minimum service temperature is regarded as demonstrating adequate
toughness.
The values that are required for the calculation of fracture toughness are
firstly the load at which fracture occurs and secondly the amount by which
the crack has opened at the point of crack propagation (see below).
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Configuration of CTOD specimen immediately prior to crack propagation.
The location of the notch in the weld HAZ or parent metal is important, as an
incorrectly positioned fatigue crack will not sample the required region,
making the test invalid. To be certain that the crack tip is in the correct
region, polishing and etching followed by a metallurgical examination are
often carried out prior to machining the notch and fatigue cracking. This
enables the notch to be positioned very accurately. Similar examination
should be carried out after testing, as further confirmation of the validity of
the test results.
In general the causes of test failure/invalidity can unfortunately only be

determined once the test has been completed and the crack surface
examined. The precise length of the fatigue crack is measured, this is
required for the analysis, but if the length of the crack is not within the limits
required by the specification the test is invalid. If the fatigue crack is not in a
single plane, if the crack is at an angle to the machined notch or if the crack
does not sample the correct region, the test will need to be repeated.
CTOD testing is covered by BS 7448 Parts 1, 3 and 4 fracture mechanics

toughness tests, BS EN ISO 15653-2010 metallic materials- method of test
or determining quasistatic fracture toughness of welds and ASTM E1820-
2009E1 standard test method for measurement of fracture toughness.
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4.8 Bend testing

The bend test is a simple and inexpensive qualitative test that can be used
to evaluate both ductility and soundness of a material. It is often used as a
quality control test for butt welded joints, having the advantage of simplicity
of both test piece and equipment. No expensive test equipment is needed,
test specimens are easily prepared and the test can be carried out on the
shop floor as a quality control test to ensure consistency in production.
The bend test uses a coupon that is deformed in three points bending to a
specified angle. In a guided bend test, the coupon is wrapped around a
former of specified diameter and is the type of test specified in the welding
procedure and welder qualification specifications. The former diameter is
related to material thickness and the angle of bend can be 90º, 120º or 180º.
The outside of the bend is extensively plastically deformed, so that any
defects in, or embrittlement of, the material will be revealed by the
premature failure of the coupon. A defect of 3mm or more is cause for
rejection.
Below approximately 12mm material thickness, transverse specimens are

usually tested with the root or face of the weld in tension. Material over
12mm thickness is normally tested using the side bend test, which tests the
full section thickness.
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4.9 Fatigue testing

Fatigue failure can occur at a fluctuating load well below the yield point of
the metal and below the allowable static design stress, with little or no
deformation at failure. The number of cycles at which failure occurs may
vary from a couple of hundreds to millions. To quantify the effect of these
varying stresses, fatigue testing is carried out by applying a particular stress
range and this is continued until the test piece fails. The number of cycles to
failure is recorded and testing is repeated at a variety of different stress
ranges. By testing a series of identical specimens, it is possible to plot an
S/N curve, a graph of the applied stress range, S against N, the number of
cycles to failure. These can be developed for parent materials and welds.
The direction of the load, environment and shape of the component all affect
the fatigue life.
In an un-welded component, the majority of fatigue life is spent initiating the

fatigue crack, with a smaller proportion spent in the crack propagating
through the structure. In a welded component, the majority of the fatigue life
is spent in propagating a crack, since small intrusions at weld toes act as
initiation sites for fatigue. This gives welded components much shorter
fatigue lives, with some dependence on the configuration of the welded joint.
Comparative S/N curves for unwelded and welded materials.
Standards for fatigue testing include:
 ASTM E647 - 08e1 standard test method for measurement of fatigue

crack growth rates.
 ASTM E606-04e1 standard practice for strain-controlled fatigue testing.
 BS ISO 12108:2002 metallic materials. Fatigue testing. Fatigue crack
growth method.
For more information on fatigue testing see TWIs Job Knowledge articles
78-80.
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4.10 Creep testing

Creep testing normally involves the application of a constant axial load to a
test specimen in a similar manner to a tensile test. Testing usually involves
tensile loading, although a compressive load could be adopted. The test
specimen design is based on a standard tensile specimen, but should be
machined to tighter tolerances than a standard tensile test piece; in
particular the straightness and surface finish are important.
The typical set-up involves a vertically mounted cylindrical or rectangular

cross-section specimen with a constant load applied via means of a dead
weight and lever system. A typical creep test set-up is shown schematically
below.
The creep test set-up.
Tight control of temperature is required during the test and this is usually
achieved with the use of a tubular furnace mounted onto the frame of the
test rig. The temperature is typically thermostatically controlled to within  2-
3C and monitored by a thermocouple attached to the gauge length of the
specimen.
In some instances detailed measurement of creep strain is required. This is

achieved through the use of sensitive extensometers which are able to
measure extensions of 10-3 or 10-4mm.
The results of the test are plotted as strain versus time to give a creep
curve, from which it can be seen that creep occurs in three distinct phases.
In the region of primary or transient creep, the strain rate is initially high but
gradually reduces as the material work hardens to a constant rate in the
secondary or steady state creep regime. The rate of steady state or
secondary creep at a constant stress increases with temperature.
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In the primary and secondary creep regimes a number of mechanisms are

believed to operate including vacancy diffusion, dislocation movement and
climb and grain boundary sliding.
The steady state or secondary creep frequently forms the bulk of the creep
life of a component, although at very low temperatures, only primary creep
occurs and at very high temperatures primary and tertiary creep merge.
At the end of the steady state region, the creep strain rate increases in an
unstable manner, this is the tertiary creep stage and eventually rupture
occurs. The onset of tertiary creep arises due to the formation of small
cavities/voids on grain boundaries or precipitates, or localised necking of the
material which, in turn, leads to an increase in the effective stress (due to a
reduction in the cross-sectional area) which increases the strain rate.
Growth and linkage of the creep cavities leads to the formation of cracks
and ultimately leads to creep rupture.
Typical creep curve of strain versus time showing the three stages of creep.
A more simplified creep test is the stress rupture test in which the time to
rupture at a specific temperature and stress is determined. In this case no
measurement of strain is required, negating the need for expensive
extensometry. Further cost savings can be achieved through the use of
multi-specimen strings within a single furnace, with the temperature of each
sample generally recorded separately via thermocouples. When a single
specimen breaks, the load on all samples is removed and in most cases the
equipment is designed such that failure of a specimen stops the clock and
switches off the furnace. The broken specimen would then be removed from
the string and the test re-started.
Creep testing standards include:
 BS EN ISO 204: 2009 Metallic Materials. Uniaxial Creep Tests in

Tension. Method of test.
 ASTM E139-06 Standard Test Methods for Conducting Creep. Creep-
Rupture and Stress-RuptureTtests of Metallic Materials.
For more information on fatigue testing see TWIs job knowledge article 81.
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Material Testing

Welds are often the area most susceptible to corrosion due to physical
design and influencing factors such as residual stress, modified metallurgy,
weld metal properties, etc. However, it is necessary to understand how
parent material and weldments would perform in a particular environment.
There is a wide range of corrosion testing standards, which generally
involve immersing a standard size specimen in a specified environment
(which may involve temperature, stress, test solution and test gas). After
exposure for a given time the specimen is visually examined and sectioned
for signs of corrosion damage, eg pitting or stress corrosion cracking or it
may be weighed to quantify any mass lost due to corrosion. Frequently the
standardised test environments are more severe than the expected service
conditions.
Additional customised testing may be performed to be more representative

of the service conditions.
4.12 Hardness testing

Hardness is the resistance of a material against penetration, measured by
indentation under a constant load. There is a direct correlation between UTS
and hardness. There are a number of test methods depending on the
applied load and the geometry of the indenter, but the most common types
are the Vickers, Brinell and Rockwell techniques but others exist including a
number of micro-hardness test techniques.
The Brinell test, which uses a ball indenter, is generally used for bulk metal
hardness measurements since the impression is larger than that of the
Vickers test, which uses a pyramid indenter. This is useful, as it averages
out any local heterogeneity and is less affected by surface roughness.
However, because of the large ball diameter, the test cannot be used to
determine the hardness variations associated with the different regions of a
welded joint, for which the Vickers test is preferred.
The hardness data generated for a material or for the different areas of a
weld joint can help to assess the resistance to brittle fracture, fabrication
hydrogen (cold) cracking and resistance to cracking in corrosive
environments, particularly those which contain hydrogen sulphide (H2S).
Test reports should give hardness value, material type, location of indents
(for welds), type of hardness test and load applied on the indenter and
details of the standard to which testing was performed.
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Standards covering hardness testing include:
 BS EN 1043 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials. Hardness

testing, Part 1: 1996 Hardness tests on arc welded joints.
 BS EN 1043 Part 2: 1997 Micro hardness testing on welded joints.
 BS EN ISO 6506-1:2005 Metallic materials. Brinell hardness test. Test
method.
 ASTM E18 - 08b Standard Test Methods for Rockwell Hardness of
Metallic Materials.
4.13 Vickers hardness test

The Vickers hardness test forces a square-based pyramidal diamond
indenter into the surface of a sample using a standard load. Vickers
hardness (HV) is calculated as follows:
HV = 2F sin (136°/2)
d2
Where:
F = force (kgf)
d = mean diagonal of the indent.
It is usually read from a set of standard tables with this indenter

configuration, the hardness value is independent of the indenter load
(although operator error becomes increasingly important at low indenter
loads). The diamond does not deform at high loads and so the results on
very hard materials are more reliable than Brinell hardness.
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Testing arrangement for Vickers hardness measurement.
4.14 Brinell hardness test

The Brinell hardness test forces a hardened steel ball indenter into the
surface of a sample using a standard load. The diameter/load ratio is
selected to provide an impression of an acceptable diameter. The Brinell
hardness number (BHN) is calculated by dividing the load by the surface
area of the impression and is often simpler to refer to a set of standard
tables from which the BHN can be read directly from the impression
dimension.
Ball indenter
Testing arrangement for Brinell hardness measurement.
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4.15 Rockwell hardness test

The Rockwell hardness test employs a diamond cone or hardened steel ball
indenter. The indenter is initially forced into the material under a preliminary
minor load. Once equilibrium has been reached and with the minor load still
applied, a major load is applied, which leads to an increase in the depth of
penetration into the material. Once equilibrium has again been reached, the
major load is removed, but the minor load maintained. Some relaxation in
penetration occurs at this stage. The increase in the permanent depth of
penetration that arises from the application and subsequent removal of the
major load is then used to calculate the Rockwell hardness number (HR):
HR=E-e
Where:
E is a constant, 100 for a diamond cone indenter and 130 for a steel ball
indenter.
e is the permanent increase in the penetration depth due to the major load.
A number of Rockwell hardness scales exist depending on the indenter size

and geometry and the loading levels employed.
The principle of the Rockwell hardness test.
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4.16 Metallographic specimen preparation

Metallographic examination is the visual examination of specimens taken
through a welded joint. Examination up to 10 times magnification is known
as macro examination; when the magnification is between 100 and 1200
times it is called micro examination. The technique is used for detecting
weld defects (on macro specimens), to measure grain size or the proportion
of different microstructural constituents (micro) and detecting brittle
structures, precipitates, etc. Examination of the microstructure can also help
assess resistance toward brittle fracture, cold cracking and corrosion
sensitivity.
Comparison of macro and micro examination.
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The procedure for carrying out metallographic specimen preparation is as

follows:
1 Identify Take care when identifying where to cut the specimens from. Make
sure all pieces of material are identified using an engraving tool
(stamping may not be suitable for small samples).
2 Record All details of preparation to be recorded, eg in a laboratory notebook.
The record may include sketches or photographs mapping the
specimen removal. Use this record to file other data and test results
too.
3 Cut Must be performed mechanically, eg by band-saw or preferably by
slitting wheel.
4 Mount It is usually important to mount the specimen to polish it. Large
samples may be mounted in Araldite resin, smaller ones in a hot
press in Bakelite or clear resin.
5 Grind Use wet or dry silicon carbide papers ranging from 200 (coarse) up
to 1200 (fine) grit finish. This is often sufficient quality finish for a
macro but not for a micro specimen, which needs polishing.
6 Polish Use a rotary polishing wheel with diamond paste applied to a cloth
base, starting with 6m paste and finishing with 3 or 1m.
7 Inspect The specimen needs to be examined carefully during and after
polishing to ensure that the last grade of scratches have been
removed before polishing using a finer finish, or etching.
8 Etch Rinse specimens in acetone or alcohol before etching. Etching may
be purely chemical or (particularly for stainless steels) be
encouraged by electrolytic polarisation. Immerse and/or swab the
etch on to the polished surface using cotton wool (a typical etch for
ferritic steels is 2% Nital and for stainless steels 20% sulphuric acid).
Use a heavier etch for macro than micro examination. Rinse and
dry.
9 Inspect Ensure that the etching has brought out the features of interest.
10 Photograph Record the investigation.
11 Storage In a dry environment for an agreed period.
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Revision Questions
1 What can be determined from the result of a cross-weld tensile test?
2 When would Vickers hardness testing be preferable to Brinell hardness testing?
3 How do you measure lateral expansion of a Charpy specimen and what is it a

measure of?
4 When would a side bend test be specified instead of a face or root bend test?
5 Describe how a metallographic specimen is prepared.
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Heat Treatment
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Heat Treatment
5 Heat Treatment
5.1 Purpose of heat treatment
Heat treatment involves the use of controlled heating and cooling to achieve
desired mechanical properties (hardening, softening, improved toughness
and formability) in a metal or alloy. It can also be used to improve certain
manufacturability characteristics such as machinability, formability or
ductility after cold working. Heat treatment temperatures for steels are
derived on the basis of the iron-carbon equilibrium diagram which expresses
the stability of different phases under equilibrium conditions and is a helpful
tool for assessing the correct temperature for the majority of heat treatment
processes. The microstructures developed under non-equilibrium conditions
can be assessed by means of isothermal and continuous cooling diagrams.
The most important objective of heat treatment is often to increase the

strength of a material, but it can also be used to improve certain
manufacturability characteristics such as machinability, formability and
ductility after a cold working operation. Thus it is a very enabling
manufacturing process that not only assists other manufacturing processes,
but can also improve product performance by increasing strength or other
desirable characteristics.
5.2 Heat treatment equipment

The choice of heat treatment equipment depends upon the type of intended
heat treatment ie local or bulk. Bulk heat treatment involves heating and
cooling the whole piece or component to induce the desired mechanical
properties whereas local heat treatment consists of heating a localised
region of a component to induce desired characteristics.
Heat
Heating and cooling treatment Localised heat
bulk specimen treatment
Furnaces Localised
and ovens heat sources
Temperature control?
Use thermocouples,
Gas fired Flame heating
optical pyrometers
Electric Induction heating
Laser heating
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5.3 Bulk heat treatment equipment

Bulk heat treatment is applied to the whole component or specimen, usually
by fuel fired or electric resistance furnaces. Bulk heat treating furnaces are
broadly divided into batch and continuous furnaces. In batch furnaces,
workpieces are manually loaded and unloaded, while continuous furnaces
have automatic conveying systems for continuous throughput through the
furnace. Continuous furnaces are easily automated and are thus usually the
preferred choice for high volume work.
5.3.1 Fuel fired furnace:

Direct fired furnaces
The components being heat treated are directly exposed to the product of
combustion. The environment in a direct fired furnace is more difficult to
control because of the need to adjust the fuel to air ratio, too much oxygen
may result in excessive scaling. In addition to a neutral environment, there
must be adequate circulation of heat inside the furnace to avoid temperature
gradients.
Radiant-tube-heated furnaces
The components being heat treated are protected from the product of
combustion, as combustion is carried out inside high creep resistance metal
tubes which then heat up the chamber by radiating heat.
5.3.2 Electrically heated furnaces

Electrically heated furnaces are usually cleaner, generate less noise and are
usually associated with cooler overall workplaces as no exhaust stacks and
hoods are necessary (normally). There is also very good thermal distribution
inside the furnaces. However, electrically heated furnaces might have
limited cooling rates and are generally more expensive to run then fuel fired
furnaces.
Various types of temperature monitoring instruments such as thermocouples

or optical pyrometers are used to ensure the correct operating temperature
inside the furnace. It is important that thermocouples are attached to the
component, not just the furnace wall, or they may not record the
temperature the component is experiencing.
5.4 Localised heat treatment equipment

5.4.1 Electromagnetic induction (induction heating)
Any material that is electro-magnetic can be heated by electromagnetic
induction. Induction is normally used for surface hardening or tempering of
steels and cast iron.
Induction heating works by the induction of a rapidly alternating magnetic

field around the coil, which in turn induces an electric current on the
workpiece. It is the resistance of the material to the flow of the electric
current which generates heat.
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Heat Treatment
Induction coil
Part to be
heat
The depth of current penetration decreases as current frequency increases.

Therefore, high frequency induction can be used for surface hardening and
lower frequencies used for deeper heating. One of the advantages of
induction heating is the fast heating and cooling rates possible with this
process.
5.4.2 Flexible ceramic pad

Flexible ceramic pad (FCP) heaters are assembled from interlocking
sintered alumina ceramic beads which insulate stranded nickel-chrome wire.
The 80/20 nickel-chrome wire gets heated due to the resistance to current
flow when connected to a power source.
The pad heaters are used as heating sources in furnaces and industrial
process equipment operating at temperatures of up to 1100°C. In welding,
flexible ceramic pads, also called heating blankets, are used for pre-heating
before welding and for PWHT after welding. This is a very efficient method
of preheat, however, the elements may burn out or arc during heating.
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Heat Treatment
5.5 Types of heat treatment

Heat treatment consists of three stages; heating, hold period and cooling.
The important parameters are heating rate, soaking temperature, soaking
time (often 1h/inch for PWHT of steel) and cooling rate.
The only type of heat treatment commonly applied to welds is post weld
heat treatment (PWHT), for stress relief and improvement of HAZ
microstructure toughness. Other heat treatments, such as annealing,
normalising, recovery, recrystallisation, quenching and tempering and
precipitation hardening are generally only used for parent metals.
oC
Homogenizing and hot working
Austenite
Acm
910
Normalizing
A3
Annealing
727
Recovery and recrystallization A1
600
PWHT and PWHT
Stress Relieve
500
0.022 0.77 2.0
Carbon content in weight %
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Heat Treatment
5.6 Full annealing

Full annealing is a heat treatment whereby Hypoeutectoid steels (<0.8% C)
is heated to 25-50oC above the upper critical temperature (heating the steel
into single phase austenite field), Hypereutectoid (>0.8%C) steels are
heated to the lower critical temperature (A1) plus approximately 40oC to
form fine grains of austenite and proeutectoid cementite, held at
temperature for a time proportional to the thickest section of the material
and slowly cooled to room temperature. Cooling is usually performed inside
a furnace.
The slow furnace cooling rates from the austenite phase field result in
equiaxed and fairly coarse grained ferrite and pearlite with coarse
interlamellar spacing. This microstructure results in good ductility, low
strength and hardness, which are the main objectives of a full annealing and
are desirable properties, for example, before cold working. Hypereutectoid
steels (>0.83%C) are annealed in the austenite plus cementite phase field,
promoting spheroidized pearlite and thus avoiding low toughness cementite
networks on the grain boundaries from slow cooling from the austenite
phase field.
5.7 Normalising
The purpose of normalising is to produce a fine ferrite-pearlite
microstructure and remove internal stresses introduced by heat treating,
casting, forging, or forming. Normalizing differs from annealing in that the
steel is allowed to cool in air, as opposed to furnace cooled as is the case
for full annealing. The cooling rate depends on the mass of the component
ie thin sections cool faster in air and develop finer grains than thick sections
of same type of steel. Soaking temperatures for normalizing heat treatments
are usually slightly higher than that for annealing. The temperature range
used to normalise Hypoeutectoid (<0.8 C) steels is the upper critical (A3)
temperature plus approximately 40oC. For hypereutectoid (high carbon)
steels the normalising temperature range is the upper critical temperature
(Acm) plus ~30oC.
The air cooling step from normalizing treatment produce finer ferrite grains
and closer pearlite inter-lamellar spacing, resulting in higher strength,
hardness but slightly lower ductility than annealed products. Faster cooling
in air (as compared to furnace cooled) results in undercooling of austenite
below the equilibrium transformation temperatures and this produces finer
proeutectoid ferrite grains and finer pearlite interlamellar spacing’s.
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Heat Treatment
Ferrite
Pearlite
Annealed Normalised.
5.8 Recovery and recrystallization

Recovery and recrystallization is also referred to in the literature as process
or in-process annealing, but this is not to be confused with full annealing as
recovery and recrystallization heat treatment is carried out at much lower
temperatures. Recovery and recrystallization heat treatment is carried out at
subcritical temperature (below the eutectoid temperature of ~727oC) in order
to restore ductility to cold worked steel products.
oC
Austenite
Acm
910
A3
A1
727
Recovery and recrystallization
600 Stress Relieve
0.022 0.77 2.0
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During plastic deformation or cold working, some of the energy to deform

the material is dissipated in the form of heat, but the rest is stored in the
material in the form of internal crystallographic defects, called dislocations.
This gives rise to high strength, but also low remaining ductility in the
material. Recovery and recrystallization heat treatment is carried out below
the lower critical temperature so that no phase changes occur, but at a
temperature sufficiently high to allow diffusion to occur.
At the heat treatment soaking temperature, the stored energy present in the
material (in the form of dislocations) is allowed to relax by elimination and
re-arrangement of the internal crystallographic defects. This process leads
to recovery where the internal energy of the system is reduced, but no major
changes in microstructure or mechanical properties are observed.
Following recovery, recrystallization occurs, whereby new, defect-free grains

nucleate and grow from the heavily deformed ferrite grains. During
recrystallization, the strength decreases and ductility is greatly enhanced. If
the material is left at temperature for too long, then grain growth will occur
and the strength will be reduced further and toughness of the material will
be reduced.
Recovery Rx GG
Ductility
Internal
Property
system
energy
Strength
Temperature or time at temperature
Schematic representation on effect of recovery, recrystallization (Rx) and

grain growth (GG) on mechanical properties.
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5.9 Non-equilibrium heat treatment

While the equilibrium phase changes can be assessed by interpretation of
the equilibrium phase diagrams, the kinetic aspects of heat treatments
cannot. Metastable phases, like martensite and bainite are not found on
equilibrium diagrams, since they only form under rapid cooling conditions,
where diffusion of carbon and alloying elements is either suppressed or
limited to very short range diffusion. The kinetics of phase transformations
can be described by transformation diagrams and the main types are:
 Isothermal transformation diagrams, usually called time-temperature-

transformation (TTT) diagrams:
Describes the isothermal decomposition of austenite it is obtained by

holding the material in the single phase austenite phase field, cooling to
a specified temperature and holding it at this temperature, while
measuring any phase changes that occur over time.
 Continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagram:
Similar to TTT diagrams in that the decomposition of austenite is

described. However, the phase changes are measured as the test
material is subjected to a continuous cooling thermal cycle.
An example of a continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagram for a

carbon-steel of approximately 0.4% C and 0.7% Mn is shown in the next
figure.
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Heat Treatment
5.9.1 Quench and tempering (QT)

Quenching and tempering can produce steels with high strength, hardness
and toughness. By rapidly cooling from the austenite phase field (steels with
<0.8% C) or the austenite plus cementite phase field (Steels with >0.8% C),
the ferrite and pearlite transformation is avoided and instead, a metastable
low temperature phase transformation of austenite to martensite occurs.
Martensite is the hardest microstructure that can be formed in carbon steel,
but it is also quite brittle. In order to improve the ductility and toughness, at
the expense of some strength, tempering is carried out. Tempering can be
carried out at any temperature below the lower critical temperature (below
the eutectoid temperature of ~727oC). As a general rule, better toughness
but lower strength and hardness are associated with higher tempering
temperatures. The properties of quenched and tempered steels can
therefore be tailored by the appropriate selection of tempering temperature.
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The temperature to which steels are heated to before quenching in a

suitable cooling media, such as water or oil, is the same temperature used
for full annealing. Hypoeutectoid steels (<0.8%C) are heated to the upper
critical temperature (A3) plus approximately 40oC to obtain a homogenous
and fine grained austenite which upon quenching transforms to very fine
needles of hard martensite. Hypereutectoid (>0.8%C) steels are heated to
the lower critical temperature (A1) plus approximately 40oC to form fine
grains of austenite and proeutectoid cementite. On quenching austenite
transforms to fine martensite, while cementite remains unchanged. As the
hardness of cementite is greater than that of martensite its presence
increases the hardness, wear and abrasion resistance.
oC
Austenite
Acm
910
A3
Annealing
727
A1
0.008 0.83 2.0

0.05
a b
Diagrams assisting in the selection of heat treatment conditions:
a Fe-C equilibrium diagram used to select annealing temperature prior to

quenching.
b CCT diagram showing the cooling rate necessary to obtain a martensitic
microstructure for this particular steel chemistry.
Quenched steels find very few engineering applications as the martensite is

very brittle, so tempering is usually carried out to soften the martensite and
improve toughness. Tempering also relieves the quenching stresses
developed during hardening, restores ductility and toughness and improves
dimensional stability by decomposing the retained austenite. During
tempering the quenched steel is heated to generally well below the lower
critical (A1) temperature, soaked at this temperature and then cooled very
slowly. The choice of tempering temperature depends upon the properties
required. The time for tempering is usually 1-2hr per inch (2.5cm) of section
thickness.
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Low C steel (0.12C)
Annealed at 900°C for 30

minutes;
Water quenched.
380Hv
Same as a), but

following tempering
at 700↑8C for 30
minutes and air
cooled.
245Hv
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5.10 Precipitation hardening

Precipitation hardening is a heat treatment that uses the formation of
second phase particles or precipitates to harden or strengthen an alloy. It is
a two stage process of firstly a solution anneal, followed by ageing.
In the first stage the material is heated to a high enough temperature so that
second phase particles dissolve and a uniform homogenous solid solution is
formed. The material is then quenched to retain the metastable solid
solution at room temperature. The second stage heat treatment is at a lower
temperature, which is sufficient to nucleate and then grow the precipitates.
In some alloys, such as aluminium alloys, this ageing can be done at room
temperature, called natural ageing. When an elevated temperature is used
(but not above the lower critical temperature), it is known as artificial ageing.
The temperature and time of the ageing heat treatment determines the size
of the precipitates. A fine dispersion of small precipitates gives high strength
and toughness.
5.11 Postweld heat treatment

Postweld heat treatment (PWHT), or stress relief as it is sometimes known,
is a method for reducing and redistributing the residual stresses in the
material that have been introduced by welding.
The extent of relaxation of the residual stresses depends on the material

type and composition, the temperature of PWHT and the soaking time at
that temperature. A commonly used guideline for PWHT is that the joint
should be soaked at peak temperature for 1 hour for each 25mm (1 inch) of
thickness, although for certain cases a minimum soak time will be specified.
It is intended that no phase transformation occurs, so for most steels the
PWHT temperature is usually 550-600°C.
At PWHT temperature, the yield strength of the material is reduced and high
residual stresses are accommodated by plastic deformation. On cooling, the
residual stresses are reduced, with the maximum residual stress possible in
the joint being the yield strength of the material at temperature.
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In addition to reduction and redistribution of residual stresses, PWHT at

higher temperatures permits some tempering, precipitation or ageing effects
to occur. These metallurgical changes can reduce the hardness of the as-
welded structure, improving ductility and reducing the risks of brittle fracture.
In some steels, however, ageing/precipitation processes can cause
deterioration in the mechanical properties of the steel, in which case,
specialist advice should be taken on the appropriate times and temperatures
to use.
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The necessity for PWHT depends on the material and the service
requirements. Other factors that influence the need for PWHT are the
welding parameters and the likely mechanism of failure. In some standards,
PWHT is mandatory for certain grades or thicknesses, but where there is an
option, cost and potential adverse effects need to be balanced against
possible benefits. The energy costs are generally significant due to the high
temperatures and long times involved, but costs associated with time delays
may be more important. Detrimental effects include distortion, temper
embrittlement, over-softening and reheat cracking, which means that control
of heating and cooling rates, holding temperature tolerances and the times
at temperature are extremely important and must be carefully controlled in
order to realise the full benefit of the process.
Quenched and tempered (Q&T) steels have the PWHT temperature limited
to below the original tempering temperature of the steel, as higher
temperatures can change the microstructure of the base material from what
was expected or required.
Heat treatment parameters such as soaking time, temperature and rate of

heating and cooling are dependent upon component thickness, carbon
content and impurity levels in the steel under consideration. In order to
follow a uniform criterion, various heat treatment procedures have been
developed. Some examples are given in ASME VIII (boiler and pressure
vessel), ASME B31.1, ASME B31.3, ASME B31.8 and API 620. One
precaution necessary when carrying out stress relief is to provide adequate
support for the component since the yield strength will be lower at high
temperature. Control of heating rate and temperature gradients to avoid
uneven thermal expansion is also important which means no direct flame
impingement is permitted. After allowing sufficient soaking time to equalise
the temperature through the component, cooling rate must be controlled to
avoid uneven cooling and the development of new residual stresses.
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Revision Questions
1 Explain the various stages in a quench and temper heat treatment.
2 Compare the microstructural changes that occur during annealing and

normalising? Explain the different annealing temperatures for steels with C
content greater than 0.8%.
3 Give a couple of examples of bulk and localized heat treatment equipment’s, with
a brief overview of some of the equipment characteristics.
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Fe-C Steels
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Fe-C Steels
6 Fe-C Steels
6.1 Steel
Steels are defined as iron alloys containing less than 2% C. Many other
elements are normally present in steels, both intentionally added alloying
elements and residual elements present from ore or scrap metal used in the
steelmaking process. Iron alloys of more than 2% carbon content are
generally only used for cast iron.
6.2 Steel terminology

The terminology used to describe and specify different steels products can
be confusing, as these can be based on a combination of product form
(sheet, plate, bar, sections, pipe and wire), the way they are made and
processed, strengthening mechanism, coating types, cleanliness level and
so on. To add to the confusion, different industry sectors will use different
nomenclatures and definitions. A simplified terminology is used here, which
is widely used and is relevant to welding, but be aware that other
terminologies also exist.
In a broad sense, steels can be divided in two major groups: Carbon steel
(also called C-Mn steels, depending on Mn level) and alloy steels. This
nomenclature is used in American standards (American Iron and Steel
Institute and The Society of Automotive Engineering) and in modified forms
in European standards as well. The AISI – SAE nomenclature is as follows.
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6.2.1 Carbon steels

Carbon is probably the single most important alloying element in steel and a
wide range of properties is possible simply by changing the carbon content.
Figure 6.1 Variations in average mechanical properties of plain carbon steel as a

function of carbon content.
Carbon steels can be divided (broadly) into plain carbon and carbon-
manganese steels:
 Plain carbon steels.

Plain carbon steels are limited to a maximum of 1% manganese and are
usually specified based on maximum carbon content. The
microstructures of plain carbon steels are based around the
thermodynamic equilibrium microstructures of ferrite and pearlite.
 Carbon–manganese (C-Mn) steels.

Similar to plain carbon steels, except that C-Mn steels have higher Mn
contents of between 1-1.65 weight %.
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6.2.2 Alloy Steels

Alloy steels often rely on metastable martensite microstructures to meet the
strength and toughness requirements. Martensite is produced with a
sufficient level of carbon or other elements and a sufficiently rapid cooling
rate. It has high strength and hardness; a softening (tempering) heat
treatment is normally applied to improve toughness. Some alloying elements
increase the hardenability of steels, that is they delay the transformation
from austenite to the equilibrium microstructures of ferrite and pearlite to
longer times, thus giving more opportunity for martensite to form during
cooling. Alloys specified based on element additions to increase
hardenability to achieve designated strength, ductility and toughness
requirements are called alloy steels. In general, total alloy content does not
exceed 5%.
6.2.3 Other steel alloys

In steels, the strength can be effectively increased by adding carbon to the
composition. However, it is well recognized that HAZ toughness decreases
and risk of cracking during welding increases with carbon addition. For the
parent material, the only recognised strengthening mechanism which also
increases toughness is grain refinement. These features are well combined
in steels called high strength low alloy (HSLA) which have low carbon
content, but can have high strength (up to 560MPa yield) due to the grain
refinement and precipitation hardening obtained from very small alloying
additions of vanadium, niobium and/or titanium. Because the additions of V,
Nb and Ti are so small (less than 0.1%), these are also called micro-alloyed
steels. The microstructure of HSLA steels is still generally ferrite and
pearlite, usually with very small amounts of pearlite.
Micro-alloying is used (along with Al additions) in some normalised C-Mn

steels. Where more sophisticated processing, involving controlled
temperature and deformation regimes are used, these steels are commonly
called thermomechanically controlled processed steels or TMCP for short.
Particularly in the oil and gas industry, a slight variation of the TMCP
process is used, where micro-alloying is used to obtain a fine-grain structure
during the hot rolling process, but at the end of the hot rolling process,
accelerated cooling may be used to promote a bainitic microstructure.
Bainite is a microstructure that is intermediate between that of ferrite plus
pearlite and martensite, where high strength and good toughness can be
obtained without the need for a tempering heat treatment.
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6.3 Weldability of steels

6.3.1 Weldability
Weldability encompasses the ability to make crack-free welds, the ability to
achieve desired properties and the ability to make welds which will survive
service conditions.
Cracking problems of potential concern in steels are:
 Hydrogen-assisted cracking.
 Solidification cracking.
 Lamellar tearing.
 Reheat cracking.
 Liquation cracking.
These are covered elsewhere in the course. The most significant of these,
which is most strongly affected by the parent steel composition, is hydrogen-
assisted cracking and this is covered in more detail below. Lamellar tearing
resistance depends on having a clean steel; with a low level of rolled (Fe,
MnS) inclusions.
Joint strength is generally easily achieved with the use of appropriate

consumables. If the steel is quenched and tempered or TMCP, some control
over maximum heat input may be necessary to avoid excessive HAZ (heat
affected zone) softening.
For welds that are to be exposed to sour (H2S) containing environments, the
risk of sulphide stress cracking (SSC) must be taken into account.
Susceptibility to this form of cracking is generally controlled through
hardness and thus the effect of composition on HAZ hardness is important.
6.3.2 Carbon equivalent

Carbon affects the properties of steel more than any other element, as it
increases hardenability (promotes martensite formation, even at lower
cooling rates), increases the hardness of martensite and lowers the
martensite start temperature (so that less auto-tempering of martensite
occurs during cooling following welding). Carbon therefore has a generally
negative effect on the weldability of steels. Carbon equivalent (CE) formulae
give numerical values for steel composition that give an indication of the
combined effects of carbon and alloy content on hardenability for that steel.
The presence of hard microstructures in the HAZ is associated with
increased hydrogen-assisted cracking susceptibility and a risk of SSC. The
higher the carbon equivalent the greater the risk of generating hard
microstructures during welding.
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Different carbon equivalent formulas have been proposed and a widely used
carbon equivalent formula is the International Institute for Welding (IIW) CE
or Ceq formula. An IIW CE of less than around 0.4 imparts good weldability;
above 0.5 CE the weldability is considered to be poor.
M 6
n
C
r
M 5
o
V
N
i 1
C 5
u
C
EI
C
  
   
I
W
IIW Ceq
Since its adoption by IIW, the equation has been incorporated into a number
of material standards and codes, including EN 1011-2:2001 and in a
modified form in AWS D1.1-2010, with a +Si/6 term added to the equation.
Further development of carbon equivalent formulae has taken place and

several can be found in technical literature today. The IIW and AWS D1.1
formulae apply in general, but have a better fit to steels with carbon contents
above 0.18%. For lower carbon contents, where the IIW formula is less
suited, the formula proposed by Ito-Besseyo is commonly used.
S
i 0
M
n
C 2
u 0
C
r
N
i 0
M 1
o 5
V 1
p
5
B
 
3
      0

c
m
Pcm is generally used for modern steels typically used for pipeline
manufacture, where carbon contents are no more than ~0.11%. The IIW
formula gives less tolerance to the presence of substitutional elements
(which increase hardenability) than the Pcm equation. What this means is
that at higher carbon concentration, the increased hardenability from the
substitutional alloying results in more martensite in the microstructure and
the risk of hydrogen cracking is increased. At low enough carbon
concentration, the addition of substitutional elements have a much smaller
impact on hardenability and the risk of hydrogen cracking is reduced.
The carbon equivalent can also be used as a compositional characterising

parameter for other properties that may be linked to hardness, such as
toughness and strength. High carbon equivalent steels tend to have high
strength, but lower toughness and poorer weldability.
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6.3.3 Understanding hardenability - TTT/CCT Diagrams

The iron-carbon phase diagram shows the stable phases under very slow or
equilibrium cooling conditions. However, the various phases obtained under
rapid or non-equilibrium cooling conditions, as in welding, will be different.
The microstructures developed under non-equilibrium conditions are
described by TTT and CCT diagrams, with the x axis showing the time for
transformation and the y-axis the temperature.
 Isothermal transformation diagrams, usually called time-temperature-

transformation (TTT) diagrams:
Describe the isothermal decomposition of austenite. They are obtained

by holding the material in the single phase austenite phase field, cooling
to a specified temperature and holding it at this temperature, while
measuring any phase changes that occur over time.
 Continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagrams:
Similar to TTT diagrams in that the decomposition of austenite is

described. However, the phase changes are measured as the test
material is subjected to a continuous cooling thermal cycle.
Welds cool relatively rapidly throughout the temperature range where steels
undergo phase transformations and therefore the continuous cooling
transformation (CCT) diagrams are more applicable to welding conditions.
The cooling rate depends principally on heat input and joint thickness and
also to some degree on initial temperature. In a CCT diagram, the cooling
rate is given by the slope of the time-temperature cooling profile, as shown
in Figure 6.2: In welding, the cooling severity is usually expressed as the
time in seconds for the temperature to fall from 800-500°C and is usually
expressed as t8-5 or t8/5.
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Austenite
t8-5=3s
Martensite t8-5=90s
Ferrite and
t8-5=30s pearlite
Ferrite and lower temperature
transformation products
(Bainite and acicular ferrite)
Figure 6.2 CCT diagram for medium carbon C-Mn steel, with microstructures
obtained at cooling rates t8-5 of 3, 30 and 90 seconds, shown.
Whilst the cooling rates depend on joint geometry and welding parameters,
the time for the start of transformation to ferrite, pearlite and bainite depends
on alloying additions; C, Mn, Cr, Ni, Mo, Cu, V and B shift the curves to
longer times, thus promoting martensite formation at slower cooling rates.
This effect is reflected in the CEIIW and Pcm formulas.
6.3.4 Weldability of low CE steels

The effects of both carbon and manganese on the weldability of C-Mn steels
are accounted for in the carbon equivalent formula. Mild or low carbon
steels which have a CE of less than 0.4, eg up to 0.3%C, are easily welded
with arc, gas or resistance welding processes. These steels have low
hardenability; therefore hardened zones in weld and HAZ are not too severe
even if rapidly cooled. Preheat is generally not required to weld steels with
IIW CE<0.4 as they have a low susceptibility to hydrogen-assisted cracking.
A low-alloy filler metal matching parent metal mechanical properties is used.
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6.3.5 Weldability of medium carbon equivalent steels

C-Mn steels with a medium level of IIW CE between 0.4 and 0.5 can be
welded easily using low hydrogen electrodes, which are particularly
preferred for thicker sections. The weldability is still good when using a low
hydrogen welding process or consumables, even though there is some risk
of hydrogen-assisted cracking due to increased hardenability, especially for
thicker sections or under high restraint. For thickness greater than 25mm,
preheat at 40-75°C is required and the interpass temperature should be
maintained at above 100°C. In fabrications using thick sections or if there is
high joint restraint, then PWHT will be necessary to stress relieve.
6.3.6 Weldability of high carbon equivalent steels

When the IIW CE of the steels exceeds 0.5, there is a risk of the formation
of hard phases such as martensite in the HAZ. The weld metal and HAZ are
susceptible to hydrogen-assisted cracking and to low toughness. To weld
steels with IIW CE >0.5 low hydrogen processes must be used, along with a
preheat of 150-250°C depending upon carbon content. An interpass
temperature of at least 150°C should be maintained and after welding, the
preheat continued as a post-heat, followed by a slow cool. The majority of
the arc welding processes can be used to weld high carbon steels with
caution.
6.3.7 Preheat, Interpass and PWHT

Preheat is specified as a temperature that the plate must reach prior to
welding. Preheat is usually applied for up to an hour before welding to
ensure that the temperature is even. During multi-pass welding, the
temperature should never fall below the specified preheat temperature.
The interpass temperature is usually specified as a specified as a minimum

and/or maximum temperature for the deposited weld metal and adjacent
base metal before the next pass is started. Steels such as high carbon or C-
Mn steel which require preheat, must be kept at a similar interpass
temperature between the weld passes. Usually the heat input is adequate to
maintain the interpass temperature, depending on plate thickness. All the
weld runs in a joint will have the same hydrogen input, cooling capacity and
composition and therefore similar preheat (minimum interpass)
requirements, dependent on heat input, to avoid hydrogen cracking. A
possible exception to this would be the root pass, which may have a higher
stress concentration than the remainder of the joint and so the root region
may require a higher preheat than the minimum interpass temperature of
the filling passes. Maximum interpass temperatures are imposed for lower
alloy steels to avoid excessive grain coarsening, particularly in weld metal
(leading to low toughness) or distortion. In higher alloy steels it may be
necessary to ensure that transformation from austenite between passes is
not hindered.
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Post heat is applied for hydrogen release, after the weld has been
completed. The post-heat temperature may be the same as, or greater than,
the original preheat temperature specified, but care must be taken not to
allow the joint to cool before applying the post heat.
Post weld heat treatment (PWHT) is carried out at higher temperatures for
stress relief or to temper hard microstructural phases. See the notes on heat
treatment for more details.
A summary of typical preheat, interpass and PWHT requirements for

different C-Mn steels is given in the following table.
CE Preheat temperature Interpass temperature °C PWHT temperature

°C °C
CE ≤ 0.4 Not required Not specified Not required
0.4 ≤ CE ≤ 40-75 100-200 525-650

0.5 (thick section) (thick section)
CE ≥ 0.5 150-300 150-300 550-650
6.4 HAZ toughness in C-Mn steels

6.4.1 Summary
The thermal cycle and shrinkage strains associated with welding have an
inevitable effect on the microstructure and properties of the parent steel and
in nearly all cases, the toughness is reduced in the HAZ. Historically, lowest
toughness has been experienced in the grain coarsened as-welded HAZ
associated with the last pass of a weld, where coarse and/or hardened
structures were most likely. With more modern steels of lower carbon
equivalent, minimum toughness may arise in reheated grain-coarsened HAZ
regions, where an intercritical thermal cycle, leading to partial re-
austenitisation and the formation of martensite or coarse carbides on grain
boundaries may occur.
A decrease in C content or CE (typically down to around 0.3 IIW CE)

generally results in an improvement in HAZ toughness in structural and
pipeline steels. The reduction induces a decrease in hardenability and may
reduce the tendency for M-A formation with an increased tendency to
autotempering because of the increase in MS, the martensite start
microstructures at higher heat inputs, however.
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Generally, HAZ toughness decreases with increased heat input because of

a change in transformation product from, for example, tough autotempered
low C martensite to more brittle upper bainite/Widmanstätten ferrite and an
increase in grain size. However, the low CE steels will not generally produce
the autotempered martensite transformation product, other than at very low
heat input. Their toughness at low heat input can therefore be lower than
that of higher CE steels, but is not necessarily unsatisfactory. Their
performance is often better at higher heat input where less hard bainitic
microstructures can develop.
6.4.2 Effects of chemical composition

A schematic representation of the combined effects of chemical composition
and transformation temperature on HAZ microstructures and toughness of
C-Mn steels is presented in Figure 6.3.
Reprinted with
permission of ASM
International. All
rights reserved.
www.asminternational.
org
Figure 6.3 Influence of composition and transformation temperature on GCHAZ

microstructures and associated toughness in C-Mn steels.
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In Figure 6.3 (a), the lines indicate the boundaries between predominant
microstructural constituent regions as a function of C content and
transformation temperature. In Figure 6.3 (b), the corresponding sections
through Figure 6.3 (a) at three carbon levels are shown and correlation of
microstructures developed and toughness is shown. Good toughness
cannot be obtained for the highest C level without the use of PWHT and will
not be discussed further here. The intermediate and low C levels, of 0.14
and 0.07%, respectively, will be discussed in further detail below.
At 0.07% C, toughness is continuously improved as the microstructure

changes from ferrite side plates and upper bainite to the lower
transformation temperature products of fine bainite and autotempered
martensite. As the transformation temperatures decrease even further,
autotempering of martensite is no longer effective and toughness
deteriorates. With low carbon, good toughness can be achieved over a wide
range of cooling rates, although it may be necessary to add solid solution
elements such as Mn, Cr, Ni and Mo to increase the hardenability of the
alloy and ensure that sufficient low transformation temperature
microstructures are achieved during welding.
The threshold cooling rate needed for good toughness is faster with
increasing C content, as the temperature for formation of lower
transformation temperature phases is shifted (lowered) due to the increased
hardenability associated with the higher C contents. A narrower weld
parameter window for good toughness is also observed, probably due to the
increased hardness of the C-rich phases due to the higher C content, which
acts to lower toughness.
It is well known that toughness is reduced with increasing C content. In

Figure 5.4, the effect of C on the 28J HAZ transition temperature of various
microalloyed steels with carbon contents ranging from 0.05-0.22% is plotted.
Although there are several microstructural features that change with
increasing C content, the decrease in toughness is usually attributed to the
decrease in the martensite start (Ms) temperature with increasing C content
and therefore to a decrease in the extent of autotempering of the martensite
formed. To illustrate the effect of C on Ms temperature, the Ms temperature
as a function of C content was calculated using Andrew’s proposed
equation:
Ms(°C)=512 - 453C - 16.9Ni + 15Cr - 9.5Mo + 217(C)2 - 71.5(C)(Mn) -

67.6(C)(Cr).
The result is superimposed on the impact toughness results of Figure 6.4. A

hypothetical alloy of 1.5% Mn and 0.3% Ni, with varying C content was used
in the calculation. It is clear that, although the parent material strength can
be increased by increasing the C content, this is not a viable option where
the toughness of welded structures is an important design consideration.
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Fe-C Steels
0 490
Calculated Ms, °C
-10 28J Transition Temperature, °C 480
-20 470
28J Transition Temperature, °C
-30 460
-40 450
Ms, °C
-50 440
-60 430
-70 420
-80 410
-90 400
-100 390
0.05 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.19 0.21 0.23
% Carbon
Figure 6.4 Influence of C on 28J transition temperature and martensite start (Ms)
temperatures.
6.5 Weld metal toughness

For the weld metal, the ferrite grain size (or effective grain size) is the most
important factor to consider with regard to mechanical properties.
Reductions in ferrite grain size lead to improvements in yield strength and in
toughness. Owing to the fine grain size in comparison with most other
microstructural constituents, acicular ferrite is desirable in weld metal.
Coarse primary ferrite on prior austenite grain boundaries or ferrite with
aligned second phase microstructure with a coarse effective grain size,
result in lower toughness. Acicular ferrite nucleates within austenite grains
rather than at the grain boundaries and has a finer grain size. Titanium
combined with nitrogen or oxygen, as carbo-nitride precipitates or as oxides
on the non-metallic inclusions in the microstructure, appears to facilitate
transformation to ferrite from austenite within the prior austenite grains,
rather than from the grain boundaries. Like titanium, aluminium has an
affinity for oxygen and nitrogen. The affinities are different, however, with
aluminium having a higher affinity for oxygen and a lower affinity for nitrogen
than titanium. This is significant because sufficiently high titanium content in
the weld metal can promote the formation of acicular ferrite. Aluminium can
interfere with this and so have an adverse effect on the microstructure. See
Figure 6.5 for examples of the types of microstructures discussed above.
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Figure 6.5 Weld metal microstructural constituents, as defined by the IIW system.
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6.6 Practical considerations for improved toughness

6.6.1 Low heat input
Control the volts, amps and travel speed (heat input) during welding to limit
HAZ grain growth and hence improve toughness. This also gives some weld
metal grain size control, however, as already shown if the heat input is too
low it is possible to get hard martensite in the HAZ due to a fast cooling rate
and depending on the carbon content, toughness can be decreased.
6.6.2 Low nitrogen content

High nitrogen in the parent metal can cause strain age embrittlement, as
nitrogen will migrate to dislocations and make it more difficult for them to
move (giving ductile deformation) over time. This is particularly a problem
for root passes with high parent metal dilution. Additions of Al or Ti tie up the
nitrogen and can limit this problem.
6.6.3 Use clean steel

When the amount of sulphur in steel rises from 0.001 to 0.01% the Charpy
impact energy at a given temperature can drop from 250 to 50J. Residual
elements such as P and S can cause low toughness and sulphur are
generally limited to 0.05% in steels (often much less for other reasons).
Additions of manganese tie up the sulphur as MnS inclusions and can help
improve toughness. Manganese also provides strength to iron alloys
through solid solution strengthening. Most C-Mn steels contain 1.3-1.6%
Mn.
6.6.4 Post-weld heat treatment

Post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) tempers any martensite, which is
beneficial to fracture toughness and reduces residual stresses. The HAZ
toughness some alloys will not benefit from PWHT, however. HSLA alloys
can form carbides and nitrides in the HAZ which reduce HAZ toughness
(this also happens during slow cooling of high heat input welds). Quenched
and tempered steels should never be PWHT at temperature higher than the
tempering temperature of the parent material, as this would lower the parent
material strength.
6.6.5 Alloy to give low carbon martensite

Tempered, low carbon martensite is extremely tough and low C quenched
and tempered steels can give Charpy values of 300J at -40°C. Although this
level of toughness will not be maintained after welding, if the martensite start
temperature is high enough, some autotempering of the martensite formed
in the HAZ is possible and good toughness can be achieved in the HAZ at
sufficiently low heat input.
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6.6.6 Add nickel

Even small amounts of nickel have a profound effect on fracture toughness,
since nickel improves the cleavage resistance of ferrite. Cryogenic steels
(which have high toughness at temperatures down to -150°C) contain
between 2.5 and 9% nickel. Note that NACE limits nickel to 1% for sour
(H2S) applications.
6.6.7 Use basic fluxes

Using a basic flux controls the oxygen content of the weld metal, which
controls grain size and microstructure. Low oxygen (<100ppm) results in a
large austenite grain size which forms coarse ferrite and pearlite grains. The
optimum oxygen level of 200-260ppm (achieved with basic fluxes) provides
nucleation sites for acicular ferrite to be formed which has a small grain size
and high toughness. Over 350ppm grain boundary ferrite forms instead,
which has lower toughness. Basic fluxes also reduce the levels of silicon
and sulphur which are detrimental to toughness.
6.6.8 Use multi-pass procedures

A single weld pass gives no tempering and potentially has high heat input.
Multi-pass welds use lower heat input, create smaller grain size, have a
grain refining and tempering effect, are less likely to suffer lack of fusion
defects, but can risk hard phase formation in the HAZ due to lower heat
input.
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Revision Questions
1 What are CCT and TTT diagrams and what do they show?
2 What is the carbon equivalent of a steel with 0.28% carbon, 0.9% manganese,
0.1% chromium and 0.15% nickel? Are any precautions needed to butt weld a
15mm thickness plate of this steel?
3 Describe how low heat input can affect HAZ toughness. In which cases does it
improve toughness? When is it bad for toughness?
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Section 7
Micro-alloyed/High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA)

Steels
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Micro-alloyed/High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) Steels
7 Micro-alloyed/High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) Steels

Conventional carbon manganese steels are limited in strength by the
reduced weldability at higher levels of carbon and manganese. High
strength low alloy (HSLA) steel is terminology arising from North America,
which covers steels developed to give improved strength at lower carbon
levels (generally up to 0.12%C). The high strength and toughness of these
micro-alloyed steels comes from the fine grain size, which can be produced
through micro-alloying and thermo mechanically controlled processing
(TMCP) or other appropriate heat treatment. The yield strength of HSLA
steels ranges from 290-700MPa. The low IIW CE means these steels have
good weldability and are less sensitive to various types of cracking in the
HAZ. Micro-alloyed steels can be welded by a wide range of processes.
Structural fine-grained steels are specified in BS EN 10025. The steel

names begin with S, then a number designating the minimum yield strength
in material less than 16mm thickness (usually 275, 355, 420 or 460MPa)
and then a letter and number giving the quality (specified minimum Charpy
toughness) The delivery condition, eg N for normalised, M for TMCP, may
be appended and sometimes an L if impact energy at temperatures not
lower than -50°C is specified.
Grain sizes of parent materials can be measured and expressed as a mean

grain size, or standards such as ASTM E112 provide for the use of a grain
size chart to express the grain size number, with a higher number
corresponding to a finer grain size. A fine grain size imparts both high
strength and high toughness.
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7.1 Micro-alloyed steels

Micro-alloyed steels give improved strength at lower carbon levels
(generally up to 0.12% carbon) through the addition of small amounts of
carbide and nitride formers, most commonly Nb, V and Ti. These micro-
alloying elements usually have a combined level of 0.15% maximum.
However, they strengthen the steels through grain refinement and some
precipitation hardening.
Micro-alloyed steels have high strength and toughness with a ferritic/pearlitic

or ferritic/bainitic microstructure, produced by normalising or controlled
rolling/TMCP. They are used in construction, eg offshore platforms (BSEN
100025: 2004), pressure vessels (EN 10028) and high pressure pipelines
(API 5L/ISO 3183).
7.2 TMCP steels

Thermo mechanically controlled processed steels have high strength and
toughness with low carbon content and hence good weldability. TMCP
steels have high resistance to hydrogen cracking during welding and can be
used in arctic service. This is achieved through a production method
involving a combination of controlled rolling and on line accelerated cooling
which provides mechanical working, recovery processes, recrystallisation
and grain growth. Generally, the stages involved in production are:
 Rough rolling
Relatively high temperature deformation of the austenite gives rapid
recrystallisation and finer austenite grains. This is the same as normal
processing routes.
 Finishing rolling
Rolling at lower temperature, below the region of rapid recrystallisation.
Plastic deformation at this temperature promotes fine grain size and
retards precipitation. Deformation bands act as sites for subsequent
austenite transformation.
These stages decrease the grain size in order to increase strength and
toughness.
 Accelerated cooling
Typically at 5-15°C/sec between 800-500°C, followed by air cooling from
500°C. Additional strengthening results from the refinement of the ferrite
grains and enhanced precipitation hardening for micro-alloyed steels.
The following diagram shows the differences between conventional rolling

processes for steels (as-rolled, normalised and controlled rolled) and TMCP
steel production methods (two methods of non-accelerated cooling are
shown, along with an accelerated cooling method), the zig-zags are the
rolling operations.
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7.3 Weldability of micro-alloyed steels

As the strength of the parent metal results, in part, from grain refinement
and accelerated cooling, this would not be matched by the strength of the
weld metal (which has an as-cast microstructure) if it were to be of the same
composition. Therefore the weld metal needs to be overalloyed to
compensate. (For modern TMCP steel with very low carbon content, the
carbon content of the parent metal may be 0.05%C, whereas the weld metal
may contain 0.10%C). The risk of hydrogen cracking can therefore be
higher in the weld than in parent metal. With the increased alloying, the weld
metal transforms from austenite to ferrite after the parent metal and so any
hydrogen is rejected from the HAZ into the weld metal, thereby increasing
the risk of hydrogen cracking. Therefore, any preheat should be based on
that required to protect the weld metal, rather than the parent metal.
PWHT is typically required for thickness greater than 40mm. TMCP grades
will, in general, not tolerate PWHT without detriment. If TMCP steel is to be
subjected to PWHT, this should be specified at the time of the order; the
PWHT temperature may be limited to 580°C or even 560°C (BS EN 10025-
1).
One of the main welding problems with carbon and C-Mn steels is to
achieve adequate fracture toughness in the HAZ and weld metal with high
productivity. It may be necessary to limit the heat input to around 3.5kJ/mm
to minimise grain growth, but with many modern steels designed to resist
grain growth in the HAZ, many of which are TMCP, much higher heat inputs
can be tolerated. Although high heat inputs can result in HAZ softening in
TMCP steels, particularly those with accelerated controlled cooling, joint
strength is generally not compromised unless this is severe and extensive.
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7.4 Applications for high strength steels

 Pipelines, as designated in standards such as API 5L/ISO 3183, eg
Grades X52, X60, X65, X70 and X80. The number after X is the yield
strength in ksi.
 Structural steels, used for buildings and bridges, etc. EU standards

include EN 10025, EN 10113, EN 10137 and the steels are designated
eg S355N, S550A. The S means structural steel, 355 is the yield
strength in MPa, N, M or A is delivery condition (normalised, TMCP or
annealed).
 Pressure vessels, for example specified in EN 10028, EN 10149, EN

10225, EN 10210 (replaces BS 4360:1990). In a similar way to structural
steels, an example designation is P355N, where P means for pressure
purposes.
 Cranes, earth moving equipment, submarine hull construction and

offshore oil and gas wells use quenched and tempered steels.
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Revision Questions
1 What effect does grain size have on strength and toughness of HSLA steels?
2 What is the minimum yield strength and production method of 10mm thickness
S355M steel?
3 What considerations are necessary when selecting a welding consumable for

welding micro-alloyed steel?
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Section 8
Structure of the Welded Joint

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8 Structure of the Welded Joint

8.1 Regions of a weld
The welded joint consists of three distinct areas:
 Weld metal.
 Heat affected zone (HAZ).
 Unaffected parent metal.
The HAZ can be sub-divided into four regions, depending on the peak
temperature reached:
 Coarse grain.
 Fine grain.
 Intercritical.
 Sub-critical.
(All of which constitute the visible HAZ.); see Figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1 HAZ regions for a single weld bead.
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8.2 Heat Input

The heat input influences the weld cross-sectional area. High heat input
welds have a large weld bead and commonly for submerged arc welding,
achieve high dilution; the associated slow cooling results in austenite grain
growth in the HAZ, which may give low toughness. If a high heat input arc
weld has a deep narrow shape, this can contribute to a risk of solidification
cracking.
Low heat input welds, have smaller weld beads. The fast cooling can give
hard brittle zones in the HAZ and a risk of hydrogen cracking, which means
that the heat input must be controlled or preheat used. The heat input during
arc welding is governed by the current, voltage and travel speed and by the
thermal efficiency (which depends on the welding process).
Heat input (kJ/mm) = Volts (V) x Amps (A) x 60 x thermal efficiency

Travel speed (mm/min)
The heating during welding causes several effects:
 Expansion and contraction during heating and cooling introduces

residual stresses.
 Changes in chemical composition by diffusion and dilution of the weld
metal can affect the mechanical properties of the joint.
 Heating up to the melting temperature and then cooling down to room
temperature results in a HAZ in the joint; see Figure 8.1 and Figure 8.2.
 The maximum temperature reached determines the extent of
transformation.
 The amount of time spent above a specific temperature affects the scale
of the transformation product.
 The cooling time between 800-500°C, over which range transformation
from austenite occurs, is the most commonly recorded measure of
cooling rate. For both the HAZ and the weld metal, it influences the type
of microstructure and the hardness after welding in ferritic steels.
Figure 8.2 Weldment thermal cycles at different distances from the centre of the
weld.
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8.3 Weld metal solidification and transformation
Figure 8.3 Grain structure at the fusion boundary.
The molten metal in the weld pool melts back the adjoining parent steel,
transforming a region beyond that to austenite; see Figure 8.3. Following
austenite grain growth in the HAZ and cooling of the weld pool, which will
generally solidify as dendrites of delta ferrite (Figure 8.4) and then transform
to austenite, epitaxial growth of the new austenite grains in the weld metal
on the un-melted austenite grains in the HAZ can often be observed to have
occurred.
Figure 8.4 The solidification process at the fusion boundary.
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Primary ferrite is the first austenite decomposition product to form,

nucleating on prior-austenite grain boundaries and is the result of austenite
decomposition at high temperature; see Figure 8.5. Therefore, its formation
is favoured in slow cooling (high heat input) welds. The presence of large
amounts of grain boundary ferrite is generally not beneficial for toughness
and it generally imparts lower strength than other microstructural phases.
Acicular ferrite appears as small laths of ferrite with a low aspect ratio (1-2
microns in width), formed in intragranular regions by nucleating on non-
metallic inclusions (which are generally spherical and sub-micron in
diameter) in the weld pool. It forms at around 650-550°C (depending on
alloy content, cooing rate and the efficacy of the inclusions as nucleants),
after the primary ferrite and has an interlocking appearance. As it has a
small grain size, it is usually associated with excellent toughness.
The microstructure in Figure 8.5 is of a typical basic MMA weld metal. This
weld was made using an AWS A5.1 E7018 4mm diameter electrode and
shows a microstructure of large regions of primary ferrite along the original
austenite grain boundaries. (This is also called grain boundary ferrite or pro-
eutectoid ferrite.) Acicular ferrite has formed in the centre of the prior-
austenite grains.
Primary
ferrite
Figure 8.5 Microstructure of a typical basic MMA weld metal.
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8.4 Further issues

What does pro-eutectoid mean?
On cooling from liquid, the weld metal will generally solidify as delta ferrite
and then transform to austenite. Below the A3 line the austenite starts to
transform into ferrite, which nucleates on the grain boundaries. Below the A1
line, under equilibrium cooling conditions, the remaining austenite
transforms into the eutectoid product called pearlite (which is ferrite and
cementite). The ferrite formed before the eutectoid reaction is called pro-
eutectoid and can occur only in hypoeutectoid steels (with a carbon content
below 0.8%).
The iron-carbon phase diagram (Figure 8.6) is discussed in more detail in

the section on alloys and phase diagrams in your notes.
Figure 8.6 Part of the iron-carbon phase diagram.
What is the meaning of dilution?

The ratio of the volume of parent metal melted to the total weld volume is
known as the dilution of the weld. Some melting of the parent metal and
hence some dilution, is necessary to ensure adequate fusion of the weld;
certain joints will have more dilution than others. See Figure 8.7. There is
higher dilution in single-pass welds and in joints with shallow bevel angles.
A large number of weld passes welded with a backing bar gives low dilution.
Lower dilution can mean a lower risk of solidification cracking, if the parent
steel usually contains more sulphur, phosphorus and carbon than the filler
metal. Dilution is also influenced by the welding process, eg MMA gives
higher dilution than electron beam welding.
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Square butt (two Single bevel V groove with

runs, high dilution (multi-run medium backing strip (used
dilution) for metal testing, low
dilution)
Figure 8.7 Schematic weld cross sections, indicating the total weld area, with the
dashed lines indicating the amount of parent material diluted into the weld.
8.5 C-Mn steel HAZ microstructures

8.5.1 Grain coarsened HAZ
The grain coarsened HAZ is the region closest to the fusion line and
reaches a peak temperature over 1100°C. Full austenitisation occurs and
there is sufficient time at high temperature for grain growth to occur. Fast
cooling may result in martensite being formed, which has high hardness and
a corresponding loss of ductility. Slower cooling gives ferrite and carbide
microstructural phases. In single pass welds, this region is usually
associated with the lowest toughness.
A b
Figure 8.8 GCHAZ microstructure of a high heat input weld in a C-Mn steel (right),
with parent microstructure (left).
Figure 8.8 shows a typical coarse-grained HAZ microstructure in a

normalised C-Mn steel. The different phases are labelled below, for a slowly
cooled high heat input weld on the left, (Figure 8.9a) and a faster cooled,
low heat input weld on the right, (Figure 8.9b).
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FS (A) = Ferrite with aligned second phase, which has poor toughness.
FS (NA) = Ferrite with non-aligned second phase which has better
toughness.
M = martensite which (until it has been softened by tempering)
generally has high hardness and low toughness. (Note: In very
low carbon steels (below 0.1%) martensite formed during
cooling following welding can auto-temper due to the high
martensite transformation temperature of these alloys. In this
case, the martensite can have excellent toughness).
FS (A) M
FS (NA)
a b
Figure 8 9 C-Mn Steel HAZ microstructure terminology.
8.5.2 Grain refined HAZ

The grain refined HAZ is the next region away from the fusion line and
reaches temperatures just above A3 and hence isn’t high enough to allow
significant grain growth in the time available. As several austenite grains
nucleate from each ferrite grain on heating and then several ferrite grains
nucleate from each austenite grain on cooling, the grain size is reduced; see
Figure 8.10. The fine grain structure also gives an increase in toughness
and lower hardness than in the coarse-grained HAZ.
A b
Figure 8.10 GRHAZ microstructure of a of a high heat input weld in a C-Mn steel
(right), with parent microstructure (left).
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8.6 Intercritical HAZ

The intercritical HAZ (Figure 8.11) reaches a peak temperature of between
approximately 720 and 910°C; which is the temperature range between A1
and A3 on the iron – carbon diagram. In this range partial austenitisation
occurs. Carbon will diffuse into the newly formed austenite regions which
may be stabilised as retained austenite or form martensite if the cooling is
fast enough. Such regions are referred to as MA phases and can result in
low toughness in the case of a coarse microstructure being present before
intercritical reheating. In this region, carbides in the steel are spheroidised.
A b
Figure 8.11 Intercritical HAZ microstructure of a of a high heat input weld in a C-

Mn steel (right), with parent microstructure (left).
8.7 Subcritical HAZ

The subcritical HAZ reaches a peak temperature of 580-720°C and the
tempering at this temperature produces no noticeable microstructural
change in C-Mn steels, beyond some slight spheroidisation, Figure 8.12.
The effect is similar to that occurring during a tempering heat treatment. The
temperature is below A1 and so no phase transformations occur. The
relaxation of internal stresses results in slight softening in this region of the
HAZ. At temperatures below approximately 580°C, the parent material is not
affected (for welding conditions where exposure is short).
A b
Figure 8.12 Subcritical HAZ microstructure of a of a high heat input weld in a C-Mn
steel (right) showing slight spheroidisation, with parent microstructure (left).
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8.8 Microstructures of multi-pass welds

Many welds are multi-pass, which introduces the complication of each of
these regions (in both HAZ and weld metal) being subjected to a further
thermal cycle. Complete re-austenitisation eliminates the effects of a
previous intercritical or sub-critical thermal cycle, but all of the regions of an
initial HAZ can be subjected to intercritical and sub-critical reheating; see
Figure 8.13.
Figure 8.13. The complexity of the HAZ in a multi-pass weld: GC = grain

coarsened, GR = grain refined, IC = intercritical, SC = subcritical.
The reheat thermal cycle of subsequent weld passes normalises and refines
parts of the microstructure in the previous HAZ and weld metal, which
improves toughness. Figure 8.14 below shows that weld run 2 refines part of
the HAZ from run 1, such that the refined coarse-grained HAZ from run 1
has a similar microstructure to the fine-grained HAZ in run 2. In multi-pass
welds, the subsequent weld run also tempers the previous weld metal. The
lower heat input per pass means that the amount of grain growth is limited
and previous passes also provide some preheat which slows down the
cooling rate of the subsequent pass and helps reduce the hydrogen level.
However, multi-pass welding can mean a lower productivity from the larger
number of passes needed compared to an equivalent single-pass weld.
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Figure 8.14 Example of the microstructure of a C-Mn steel multi-pass weld.
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Revision Questions
1 What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a low heat input when arc
welding?
2 Describe the typical microstructures formed in MMA weld metal.
3 List the four regions of the HAZ. Which has the lowest toughness?
4 What are the advantages of using a multi-pass instead of a single pass weld in a
similar joint?
5 If the heat input during welding is not controlled, what disadvantageous effects
could occur in the HAZ?
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Section 9
Cracking in Welds
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Cracking in Welds
9 Cracking in Welds
9.1 Cracking phenomena
The main types of cracking that can affect welded joints are:
 Fabrication hydrogen cracking (also known as hydrogen, hydrogen-

induced cold cracking, or delayed cracking).
 Hot cracking:
 Solidification cracking.
 Liquation cracking.
 Lamellar tearing.
 Reheat cracking.
9.2 Hydrogen (Cold) cracking

9.2.1 General principals
Hydrogen atoms dissolved in the steel crystal lattice during welding cause
the steel to become brittle at lower temperatures, which may result in
cracking under the influence of shrinkage stress. Cracks can occur in the
weld metal or HAZ and can occur many hours after weld completion. Thus,
welds are often left for 24 or 48 hours after welding before inspection is
carried out, so that any hydrogen-assisted cracking will be detected. There
are four main factors that affect the likelihood of cold cracking:
 Hydrogen level.
 Hardness.
 Stress (residual stress made worse by stress concentrations).
 Temperature.
Four factors influencing hydrogen-assisted cracking.
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Since hydrogen-assisted cracking arises from the combined action of the

various factors, quoting threshold values can be misleading, since a critical
level of one parameter depends on the level of the other parameters.
Nevertheless, hardness above 350HV and temperature of below 150°C is
typically necessary for cracking to occur in a C-Mn steel.
Since hydrogen-assisted cracking will not occur until the temperature has
dropped, it can be avoided by keeping the material warm for a sufficient time
to allow any hydrogen to diffuse out. This can be by applying preheat,
maintaining the interpass temperature and then, in difficult cases, continuing
the preheat as a post-heat immediately after welding.
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9.2.2 Sources of hydrogen

Hydrogen in welds comes mainly from the decomposition of hydrogen-
containing compounds in the arc. The main source of such compounds is
the welding consumables, eg cellulosic flux coating, moisture in gas or flux.
Hydrogen can also be introduced to welds from contamination of the plate
surface from dirt, oil or grease. Therefore, it is very important to clean and
degrease the joint area before welding. The hydrogen potential of a
particular electrode is expressed on the hydrogen scale, which has units of
millilitres of diffusible hydrogen per 100g of deposited weld metal. A
hydrogen level of 15ml/100g gives a significant risk of hydrogen-assisted
cracking, whereas less stringent precautions are often required for under
5ml/100g. Sometimes hydrogen scales (which are measured in a standard
test) are expressed with the following letters:
A >15 ml H/100g
B 10-15 ml H/100g
C 5-10 ml H/100g
D 3-5 ml H/100g
E <3 ml H/100g
To minimise the amount of hydrogen in the weld, use basic electrodes or

flux for MMA or SAW. A hydrogen level of less than 5ml/100g is achievable
with basic electrodes that have been dried. However, using damp basic
electrodes could result in up to 25ml/100g hydrogen. Rutile electrodes
typically contain 10-30ml/100g hydrogen, while cellulosic electrodes have in
excess of 40ml/100g of hydrogen. The moisture content of basic MMA
electrodes and agglomerated fluxes can be reduced by appropriate baking,
thereby reducing the weld metal hydrogen level. Unless drawn from a
sealed pack, basic welding rods need to be baked at 350-450°C (as directed
by the manufacturer) for 2 hours to achieve <5ml/100g hydrogen. Some
welding rods are supplied vacuum packed to maintain their low hydrogen
potential until needed and should not be baked, but should be used before
the end of the shift.
Shielding gases for welding are generally supplied with low moisture
content, in order to provide less than 5mg/100g hydrogen. Some welding
processes are of lower hydrogen potential than others, especially EB and
gas-shielded processes such as TIG, MIG/MAG and laser.
It is possible to dissolve more hydrogen in austenitic stainless steel or

nickel-based filler metal without it becoming brittle and causing the cracking
that occurs in ferritic steel welds. Furthermore, owing to the higher solubility
in such alloys, hydrogen is largely retained in the weld metal Therefore, in
particularly difficult situations; hydrogen-assisted cracking may be avoided
by using austenitic stainless steel or nickel alloy electrodes or filler wire.
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9.2.3 Calculating preheat

Although preheat is often not mandatory, it can be calculated from
standards such as BS EN 1011 Part 2 in the following way:
Step 1 - Determine the combined thickness.
Step 2 - Calculate the IIW CE.
Step 3 - Calculate the heat input (incorporating the appropriate thermal

efficiency).
Step 4 - Select the hydrogen level/scale.
Step 5 - Choose the appropriate diagram and read off the required
preheat.
If, for the selected hydrogen scale and IIW CE, there is no diagram
available, choose the diagram for the next highest IIW CE.
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9.2.4 Hydrogen-assisted cracking in HSLA steels

HSLA steels have low alloy content in the parent metal since they obtain
strength from thermomechanical processing, but to ensure overmatching of
the weld metal, higher alloy filler is used. Therefore the weld metal may
have a higher susceptibility to hydrogen-assisted cracking than the HAZ,
where hydrogen-assisted cracking usually occurs in other steels. In HSLA
steel welds hydrogen-assisted cracking can occur in weld metal and is
oriented transversely across the weld (perpendicular to the high shrinkage
residual stress along the weld bead). At sufficiently high alloy content, such
cracking is also perpendicular to the outer surface. However, in thick-section
C-Mn steel welds, it may be oriented at approximately 45° through the
thickness of the weld; this is commonly referred to as chevron cracking. This
crack morphology therefore needs to be considered when inspecting welds
in HSLA steel.
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9.3 Solidification (Hot) cracking

Solidification cracking, also known as hot cracking or hot shortness, tends to

occur in high travel speed, high deposition rate processes such as SAW,
MAG or FCW, which can have deep narrow weld profiles. Solidification
cracking occurs when a low melting point film (such as iron sulphide) forms
ahead of the solidification fronts in a weld and prevents cohesion at the
centre of the weld, resulting in centreline cracking under transverse thermal
shrinkage strain.
There are four main factors that affect the likelihood of hot cracking in
steels:
 Susceptible weld profile.

 Susceptible weld metal composition.
 Transverse stress (or strain).
 Temperature.
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The causes of solidification cracking are summarised in the following

diagram.
9.3.2 Weld profile

Deeper and narrower weld beads with a depth to width ratio over 2:1 are
most prone to solidification cracking because the solidification fronts meet
along the centre-line effectively vertically and perpendicular to high
shrinkage stresses. To avoid solidification cracking, reduce penetration and
increase bead width, in order to give a depth to width ratio of closer to 0.5:1.
The weld bead shape can be altered using the welding parameters. Higher
current will result in deeper penetration welds and higher arc voltage a wider
weld. The shielding gas used can also affect the weld bead profile, with
helium giving a wider shallower weld bead than argon for example.
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Certain weld profiles prevent any remaining liquid weld metal backfilling
shrinkage cavities. In particular, concave (or flat) fillet welds.
A fast travel speed can also mean that the solidification fronts meet in this
susceptible orientation and that the distance from the weld pool to an
incipient crack is long and difficult to feed.
9.3.3 Weld metal composition

A number of elements affect the risk of solidification cracking in steels, the
most important being sulphur and carbon (which are bad) and manganese
(which is good).
Much of the sulphur contamination in the weld metal comes from the parent
metal. Certain welded joint geometries and high heat input produce high
dilution of the parent metal and a greater likelihood of solidification cracking.
The addition of manganese to the weld metal ties up the sulphur as MnS
inclusions in the weld metal and moves the sulphide composition away from
the low melting point iron sulphide. Adding calcium oxide combines with any
sulphur that has not been removed in the slag to form spherical calcium oxy-
sulphide inclusions.
In stainless steels, austenite has a very low solubility for sulphur (ten times
less than ferrite) and so welds in austenitic stainless steels can be very
susceptible to hot cracking. Dilution control and over-alloyed consumables
are often used to ensure minimum ferrite content in the weld metal.
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In aluminium alloys, solidification cracking is not caused primarily by

impurities, but is dependent on alloy composition. Some aluminium alloys
have an inherently wide freezing range, which tends to make them more
susceptible to solidification cracking. Hence, when welding such alloys, the
composition of the filler metal may be chosen to avoid the susceptible
composition range (which is specific for each alloy system).
9.3.4 Strain
High shrinkage strains, due to restraint or joint design, increase the risk of
cracking.
9.3.5 Temperature
Solidification cracking occurs at high temperature as the weld is solidifying.
Steel weld metal starts to solidify at around 1,500°C, the FeS eutectic
solidifies at 988°C. However, as Mn is added, this temperature is raised
towards 1,570°C, which is the MnS eutectic temperature. A wide
temperature range for weld metal solidification increases the risk of
solidification cracking. Steels with lower carbon have a narrower
solidification range.
9.3.6 Avoidance of solidification cracking

General guidelines:
 Welding consumables and filler metals are often formulated to resist hot
cracking and so avoidance of high dilution welding conditions or joint
geometries associated with high dilution, is advisable.
 High welding speeds are likely to increase the risk of hot cracking.
 Avoid concave or flat welds.
 Consumables for stainless steels which are over-alloyed to take account

of dilution and give enhanced ferrite levels, tend to resist solidification
cracking.
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Cracking in Welds
9.4 Liquation cracking

Liquation cracking is also a hot cracking phenomenon. It forms between
grains in the HAZ near the fusion line or in reheated weld metal and is
caused by a high level of impurities in parent metal and high level of
restraint. Initially the thermal cycle from welding results in the formation of
liquid films appearing near the fusion line. During cooling, the liquid films are
subjected to tension, which can result in cracking. The phenomenon can
occur in steels, but is also prevalent in aluminium alloys, nickel alloys and
stainless steels. Liquation cracking can occur both in the HAZ and the weld
metal, where it may be found in weld metal in underlying beads of a multi-
pass joint. It is possible for cracking to propagate from the HAZ into the weld
metal itself on occasion and may form an initiation site for other types of
cracking.
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Cracking in Welds
9.5 Lamellar tearing
Lamellar tearing is a cracking phenomenon that occurs in thick Al-treated

plate that is subjected to high transverse (through-thickness) welding
strains. The problem is related to the presence of flattened (rolled) MnS
inclusions in Al-treated parent steel, lying parallel to the plate surface and
giving low ductility in the through-thickness (short transverse) direction. The
elongated inclusions on different planes at the edge of the visible HAZ crack
or de-cohere, joining to form stepped cracks, which progress approximately
parallel to the plate surface as lamellar tears.
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Cracking in Welds
Lamellar tearing is mainly a problem when depositing T-butt or heavy fillet

welds, as opposed to straight butt welding, because the orientation of the
weld means that the shrinkage strains act though-thickness. Where good
ductility is needed in the through-thickness direction, this may be specified
when ordering steel, as indicated in codes, eg BS EN 10164:2004. Short
transverse reduction in area (STRA) tests is required to give 20-30%
minimum. Often such steels are called Z-grade steels (having guaranteed
properties in the Z or through-thickness direction). This improvement can be
produced by a sufficient reduction in sulphur content and by inclusion shape
control, achieved by adding Ca or rare earth metals to the molten steel.
Lamellar tearing can also be avoided by redesigning the welded joint to

reduce transverse strain. For example, appropriate design of the bevel
location of corner joints, to avoid welds impinging on a plate surface, can
reduce the risk of cracking. The use of low hydrogen processes is also
beneficial.
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9.6 Reheat cracking

Reheat cracking occurs in creep-resistant alloys containing two or more of
the following alloying additions: Cr, Mo, Nb or V. It occurs in the grain
coarsened HAZ (GCHAZ), though very occasionally in the weld metal.
Above a temperature of 1,200°C, all the precipitates (carbides and nitrides)

in the GCHAZ have dissolved. During the fairly rapid cooling after welding
the precipitates remain in solution and the area has been solution treated.
When the weldment is reheated during service or PWHT, this causes a

problem, as within the temperature range of 350-550°C the precipitates
begin to reform as very fine particles within the grain, which strengthens the
grain interior. Also, other precipitates forming on the grain boundaries
weaken them and at this temperature range, stress relaxation (stress
relieving) also occurs by plastic deformation. This deformation is therefore
concentrated at the grain boundaries, which can result in failure along the
grain boundaries; this is reheat cracking.
 Elements that strengthen the grain are: Cr, Mo, V, Nb,

 Elements that weaken the grain boundary are: S, P, Sb, As, Sn, Cu, Ni
and B.
9.6.2 Avoidance of reheat cracking

Although it is not possible to avoid passing between 350 and 550°C during
or after subsequent reheating, you should heat through this range as quickly
as possible. However, maximum heating rates are specified in some codes.
At temperatures above around 600°C, the precipitates coarsen and the
grain strengthening reduces.
If possible, control the amount of the residual elements and impurities that
cause the grain boundary weakening, eg copper pick-up from coated wires
and also control heat input during welding. These results in a small narrow
coarse-grained HAZ, but the beneficial effect for reheat cracking must be
balanced against the risk of hydrogen-assisted cracking.
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Cracking in Welds
The risk of reheat cracking can be reduced by control of steel composition.

Several equations have been devised to characterise susceptibility:
∆G = Cr + 3.3Mo + 8.1V - 2
∆G < 0
∆G1 = Cr + 3.3Mo + 8.1V + 10C - 2

∆G1 < 2
PSR = Cr + Cu + 2Mo + 10V + 7Nb + 5Ti - 2

PSR < 0
K = Pb + Bi + 0.03Sb (ppm)
K < 1.5 (for 2.25%Cr-1%Mo-0.25%V weld metal)
9.7 Weld repair

Repairs to welds can be very expensive, 3-10 times the cost of getting it
right the first time! However, if you have detected any of the cracks
discussed above in your welds and they are unacceptable, what are the
options? First consider whether you need to repair it or not. Are the defects
outside the limits permitted by the acceptance standard? Can the defect be
shown to be tolerable in a fitness-for-service assessment or engineering
critical assessment (ECA)? This in itself can be expensive and requires
input data that might not be readily available, eg fracture toughness data. An
ECA does permit a maximum tolerable flaw size to be defined, or assesses
how a known flaw size may affect service life.
What if the defect is unacceptable?
 Consider why the cracking has occurred. How can it be avoided in the
repair?
 Many problems are caused by either the welder or issues with the fit-up.
 Consider methods of removal of the flaw (grinding, machining or arc air
gouging), the position of the flaw and the shape of the subsequent
groove.
 Remember to inspect after grinding, to ensure that the cracking is
entirely removed.
 Return to the original weld procedure; it may need to be revised if the
welding parameters employed are likely to have contributed to the
cracking.
 How many times are you permitted to reweld? Most contract
specifications limit the number to three cycles of repair before the weld is
cut out and completely rewelded.
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 Has the component already undergone PWHT? Can further PWHT be

carried out after the repair and still comply with the WPS? It is often
worth qualifying a WPS with several PWHT cycles to allow for repairs. In
production you can decrease the time at temperature, but cannot
increase it by more than 25%. See below for as-welded repair
techniques.
 You may need to qualify the repair weld procedure for compliance to
some codes. Consider the range of approval for the repair procedure. It
may be possible to repair weld using the existing range of approval from
the original weld procedure.
 For short lengths of repair, the constraint may be higher than for the
original weld and interpass times are likely to be shorter (reducing the
time available for the escape of hydrogen). Consider an increase in
preheat temperature (by 50°C?).
 Before carrying out the repair, provide further welder training and/or
improve the fit-up of the joint. Consider access for welding and confined
spaces (health and safety).
 Consider how the repair weld will be inspected.
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Revision Questions
1 What factors are taken into account when determining the appropriate preheat for
the avoidance of hydrogen-assisted cracking in steels?
2 The profile of the weld affects the susceptibility for solidification cracking.
Describe ways in which a favourable weld profile can be obtained.
3 What is lamellar tearing and how can it be avoided?
4 Describe the factors to be considered before carrying out a weld repair.
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Section 10
Corrosion
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Corrosion
10 Corrosion
10.1 Definition
Corrosion is the deterioration of a metal due to chemical or (very often)
electrochemical reactions with its environment.
10.2 Reactions during corrosion

For example rusting of iron or steel. This involves the chemical or electro-
chemical reaction of iron with oxygen and water, which can be thought of as
an exchange of electrons between the iron atoms and water molecules. The
iron is said to be oxidised, the water and oxygen are said to be reduced.
Redox
Oxidation is when metal atoms release electrons. The anode (up direction in
Greek) is where the oxidation reaction takes place and the anode is
consumed during corrosion. Reduction is when oxygen atoms accept
electrons. The cathode (down direction in Greek) is where the reduction
reaction takes place and corrosion products build-up the cathode.
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Corrosion
Oxidation is electron loss (eg iron loses electrons).
2Fe → 2Fe2+ + 4e-
Reduction is electron gain.
O2 + 2H2O + 4e- → 4OH-
Corrosion is a balance of reduction and oxidation – redox.
2Fe + 2H2O + O2 → 2Fe(OH)2
The redox potential is a measure of the affinity of a substance for electrons

compared with that of hydrogen. The redox potential of hydrogen is set at 0
volts. Substances capable of reducing have negative potentials relative to
hydrogen, while substances capable of oxidising have positive potentials
relative to hydrogen.
10.3 Galvanic series

Relative potentials in seawater:
 Platinum.
 Gold.
 316 stainless steel.
 Titanium.
 Nickel.
 Copper.
 Tin.
 Mild steel.
 Cadmium.
 Zinc.
 Magnesium.
10.4 Types of corrosion

Galvanic
Galvanic corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals are placed in contact
and their different redox potentials causes corrosion to occur. Practical
implications of the galvanic series are that the more anodic metal will
corrode and therefore use as large an anode as possible to reduce the
penetration rate of corrosion. The farther apart the two metals in the
galvanic series, the faster the corrosion rate will be, therefore try to use
metals closer together to reduce the corrosion rate. To protect against
galvanic corrosion, electrically insulate dissimilar metals from each other,
eliminate the electrolyte, use a corrosion inhibitor, or connect a third anode
(sacrificial anode) that is more active, ie lower in the galvanic series, than
either of the two main metals.
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General
General corrosion attack proceeds at the same speed over the entire
surface and the rate of corrosion can be determined, for example in
mm/year or mpy. For stainless steels, it occurs almost exclusively in acidic
or strong alkaline solutions. Resistance against general corrosion is
improved by increasing the Cr and Mo content in the steel or passivation to
grow a thick, protective oxide layer (see below for more detail). For stainless
steel apply pickling (to remove high temperature scale) followed by
passivation (to restore the Cr oxide layer). Often a corrosion allowance may
be specified in design.
Intergranular
Intergranular corrosion attack is localised at and adjacent to the grain
boundaries and occurs in stainless steel due to Cr carbide precipitation
(sensitisation); in the case of welded stabilised grades (eg 321, 347), it can
take the form of knife line corrosion in the HAZ. Resistance against this type
of corrosion is improved by lowering the C content, controlling the welding
procedure or by addition of Ti or Nb (stabilisation).
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Corrosion
Pitting
Pitting corrosion is a highly destructive non-uniform attack due to localised
breakdown of passivity. The pit becomes the anode whilst the surface
becomes the cathode due to the effect of differential aeration, resulting in
holes, or pits, in the metal. In stainless steel pitting occurs most commonly
in chloride-containing environments or oxidising salts. Resistance against
pitting corrosion is improved by increasing Cr and Mo content; N has also a
favourable influence
Crevice
Crevice corrosion attack occurs in narrow crevices filled with liquid and
where the oxygen level is very low (due to differential aeration), eg gasket
surfaces or under bolt/rivet heads, weld toes. Under-deposit corrosion or
corrosion under insulation (CUI) is similar and is where corrosion occurs
under non-metallic deposits or coatings on the metal surface. Materials
resistant to pitting corrosion are also resistant to crevice corrosion.
Crevice corrosion can be avoided by remove crevices by using welds

instead of bolts or rivets or use non-absorbing gaskets. Avoid non-
removable backing strips and partial penetration welds, instead use seal
welds. Design vessels to avoid stagnant areas and ensure complete
drainage. Prevent the environment in the crevice becoming corrosive and
remove accumulated deposits frequently to allow free circulation of fluids
and avoid stagnant areas.
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Corrosion
Stress corrosion cracking

The danger of stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is that while material can
remain generally uncorroded, fine branched stress corrosion cracks
progress through it (cracking can be either inter- or transgranular). In
austenitic stainless steels, SCC occurs in chloride or halide containing
solutions, the risk increases with increasing salt concentration, tensile stress
and service temperature (seldom found below 60°C). Austenitic stainless
steel resistance is improved by increasing Ni content. Ferritic stainless
steels (without Ni) are insensitive to SCC in chloride solution, but can suffer
SCC in sour (containing H2S) environments. Duplex stainless steels are
more resistant to SCC than austenitic stainless steels.
Main contributing factors to SCC are:
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10.5 Common corrosion protection techniques

There are several ways of protecting a material from corrosion, including:
 Coatings
Paints, plating, weld cladding, anodising and metal spraying.
 Inhibitors
Add suitable chemicals to control the environment.
 Cathodic protection
Impressed current or sacrificial anodes (eg galvanised steel).
 Anodic protection
Passivation of stainless steel (see below).
10.6 Pickling and passivation

When a very thin layer of chromium oxide naturally grows on the surface of
stainless steels this is known as the passive layer. Pickling involves applying
highly corrosive acids to a metal or alloy to remove areas of lowered
corrosion resistance eg weld oxide and then passivation involves immersion
in nitric acid to regrow the passive layer by oxidation. The passive state has
a higher redox potential than the active state (active state is when corrosion
is occurring)

There are two types of corrosion test, ranking tests which determine the
relative corrosion resistance of materials in an environment, eg ASTM G48.
etc, or electrochemical tests which measure properties such as the critical
pitting or crevice temperature or pitting potential, eg to ASTM G150, etc.
Corrosion tests do not necessarily represent service conditions and so the

effect of the specimen preparation and the testing environment should be
understood with respect to the actual service environment, there is a
difference between as-received and as-welded metal for example. The
environment and temperature are important factors to note.
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Revision Questions
1 List the factors that contribute to stress corrosion cracking.
2 Explain why galvanic corrosion occurs, in terms of redox potential.
3 List the types of corrosion that may occur at a welded joint.
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Section 11
Welding of Stainless Steels

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11 Welding of Stainless Steels

11.1 Stainless steels
Stainless steels find a wide range of applications since they have excellent
corrosion and oxidation resistance combined with high temperature
strength. They also show high toughness at low temperatures, have good
ductility and formability. Strength and wear resistance can be enhanced by
work hardening. Austenitic stainless steels are non-ferromagnetic. Stainless
steels achieve these properties through the addition of chromium, often
nickel and sometimes molybdenum. These additions make stainless steels
more expensive than carbon steels.
There are five main kinds of stainless steels:
Ferritic Fe-Cr, <0.1%C, bcc, α
Martensitic Fe-Cr, 0.03-0.30%C, bct, α’
Stainless
steels: Austenitic Fe-Cr-Ni, fcc, 
Precipitation Fe-Cr-Ni (+others),

hardened martensitic,
semi or fully austenitic,
Duplex Fe-Cr-Ni-Mo-N, 50%  (bcc)

50%  (fcc)
Ferritic stainless steel contains 13-30% Cr and less than 0.1%C. There is no
phase transformation so the structure is ferritic at all temperatures and the
main welding problem is grain growth at high temperature. It is used for
vehicle exhausts, cutlery, etc. Martensitic stainless steel contains 11.5-
18%Cr and 0.03-0.30%C, has moderate corrosion resistance and high
strength up to 400°C. However, it is very sensitive to hydrogen (cold)
cracking when welded. Precipitation hardened stainless steels come in three
types; martensitic, semi-austenitic and austenitic. They show good corrosion
and oxidation resistance, with high strength and hardness at room
temperatures, but their service is limited to below 310°C. Precipitation-
hardened stainless steels have lower ductility and notch toughness than
austenitics and some precipitation-hardened austenitic grades are
considered unweldable.
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11.2 Predicting the phases in stainless steel

Many of the properties of stainless steels are related to their ratio of
austenite to ferrite or phase balance.
Ferrite (α or  has a bcc crystal structure, shows a toughness transition, like

carbon steels and is ferromagnetic. Sulphur dissolves in ferrite, which
results in less risk of hot cracking. Ferrite is more likely to form sigma phase
during elevated temperature service.
Austenite () has an fcc crystal structure and no toughness transition, which
means it can be used at cryogenic temperatures. It is non-ferromagnetic.
Sulphur has low solubility in austenite, giving a higher risk of hot cracking
when welding, but the microstructure is not sensitive to hydrogen so there is
no cold cracking risk.
11.3 Constitution diagrams

Elements that promote ferrite formation are Cr, Mo, Si, Nb and Al. Most of
these elements have been combined in the parameter, chromium
equivalent, which is defined as: %Cr + %Mo + 1.5%Si + 0.5%Nb. The higher
the chromium equivalent, the more stable is the delta ferrite phase.
Elements that promote austenite formation are Ni, C, N and Mn, most of
which have been combined in the parameter, nickel equivalent, which is
defined as: %Ni + 30%C + 0.5%Mn. The higher the nickel equivalent, the
more stable is austenite.
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To predict the proportions of ferrite and austenite in weld metals, the

Schaeffler diagram can be used (also called the constitution diagram),
shown below. The chromium and nickel equivalents are plotted on the X and
Y axes, respectively. A development of the Schaeffler diagram is the
DeLong diagram shown below, which also takes account of the influence of
nitrogen, which is included in the nickel equivalent term.
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11.4 Measuring ferrite content

The ferrite content can be measured metallographically by determining the
area fractions of ferrite and austenite. In addition, a ferrite number (FN) can
be determined by standard magnetic measuring techniques. For low levels
of ferrite, the percentage of ferrite and the ferrite number are the same.
The presence of a small amount of  ferrite in austenitic weld metal is very

beneficial for suppressing hot cracking mechanisms and consumable
compositions are chosen such that a residual level of 5-10% of ferrite is
retained in the weld metal. The presence of  ferrite may not be beneficial,
with respect to severely corrosive or high temperature service. Preferential
corrosion of the ferrite phase can occur and above 500°C, the presence of
ferrite can promote the formation of sigma phase, which is hard and brittle.
11.5 Austenitic stainless steel

Austenitic stainless steels are among the most commonly welded stainless
steels. They contain 18-27%Cr, 8-22%Ni and less than 0.1%C. They do not
have a phase change and there are no problems with hydrogen cracking.
However, sulphur is relatively insoluble in , so there is a risk of hot
cracking. Typical weld metal compositions will promote the formation of
some  ferrite as well as  (as some is retained when cooling rapidly). This
can have some benefits ( helps reduce risk of hot cracking as the sulphur
dissolves in ), but can increase the risk of sigma phase formation as the 
transforms to  after time at elevated temperature. Welds in austenitic
stainless steels can suffer intergranular corrosion, also known as weld
decay.
Some common austenitic stainless steel grades are:
304
19%Cr + 9%Ni + 0.05%C.
304L
19%Cr + 9%Ni + 0.02%C (improved corrosion resistance).
304H
19%Cr + 9%Ni + 0.07%C (improved creep strength).
304N
19%Cr + 9%Ni + 0.05%C + 0.13%N.
316
17%Cr + 12%Ni + 0.05%C + 2.5Mo (improved pitting corrosion resistance).
321
18%Cr + 10%Ni + 0.05%C + 0.3%Ti (stabilised).
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347
18%Cr + 11%Ni + 0.05%C + 0.6%Nb (stabilised).
Nominally matching filler metals are normally used with consumable

compositions being modified, typically, as below:
308L
21%Cr + 10%Ni + 1.5%Mn + 0.5%Si + 0.02%C (used to weld 304L parent
metal).
309
24%Cr + 13%Ni + 1.5%Mn + 0.5%Si + 0.1%C (used for dissimilar welds,
buttering carbon steels).
Conventional welding processes can be used for austenitic stainless steels,

ie MMA, TIG, MIG/MAG, FCAW and SAW (although OAW, ESW, LBW and
EBW are also employed). Preheat and PWHT are not needed, but effective
gas shielding and root purging should be maintained to minimise oxidation.
Since there is no risk of cold cracking, it is possible to use rutile electrodes
and welding is usually carried out with low heat input. When using backing
strips, it is advisable to increase the root gap for proper fusion and decrease
the included angle in order to minimise weld volume and reduce distortion.
11.6 Duplex stainless steels

Duplex stainless steels are designed to have ~50% ferrite and ~50%
austenite. They contain 18-29%Cr, 3-8.5%Ni, 0-5%Mo, 0-0.35%N and less
than 0.1%C, are cheaper than austenitic stainless steel and have higher
strength (up to 550MPa proof strength compared to austenitic stainless steel
at 300MPa). The high strength can make them difficult to cold form and they
have good resistance to stress corrosion cracking and to pitting in aqueous
chloride service (to which simple austenitic stainless steels can be
susceptible). Consequently, they are used extensively for offshore oil and
gas service. However, they can suffer sulphide stress corrosion cracking.
Duplex stainless steels show a ductile-to-brittle transition, due to the large
volume fraction of ferrite, which limits the service temperature to between
-40 and 260°C. Duplex stainless steels are sensitive to 475°C embrittlement
and above 540°C can suffer phase precipitation.
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 ferrite
 austenite
Duplex stainless steels are divided into groups according to their pitting
resistance equivalent number (PREN).
PREN = Cr + 3.3%Mo + 16%N (Modified versions include factors for W.)
23% Cr alloy lean (no Mo) PREN = 25

22% Cr alloy (Mo) duplex PREN = 30-36
25% Cr high alloy (Mo) duplex PREN = 32-40
25% Cr superduplex (Mo + W) PREN > 40
11.7 Pitting resistance

Assessment of the pitting corrosion resistance of a stainless steel is often
made using the ASTM G48 Standard, involving immersing a test piece of
the material in a ferric chloride solution and determining the critical pitting
temperature (CPT) below which pitting does not occur within the test
timeframe of 24h immersion. Weld metals show lower CPTs than the
equivalent composition of parent metal, due to segregation in the weld
microstructure. Therefore, in order to maintain the corrosion resistance in
the weld metal, filler metals with higher alloy content (overalloyed) than the
parent metals, including nickel alloys, are employed for corrosive
environments.
11.8 Welding duplex stainless steels

11.8.1 Background information
Contrary to austenitic stainless steels, duplex stainless steels do not suffer
from hot cracking, due to their high ferrite content. The problems associated
with welding duplex stainless steels do not come from the weld metal itself,
but from the HAZ. To name the main ones, the HAZ problems are loss of
corrosion resistance, toughness, or post-weld cracking. To avoid these
problems, the welding procedure should focus on minimising the total time
at temperature in the red hot range.
As a general rule, preheating is not recommended because it may be

detrimental.
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11.8.2 Heat input and interpass temperature

Duplex stainless steels can tolerate relatively high heat inputs. However,
exceedingly high heat inputs increase the danger of forming intermetallic
phases, which are detrimental. On the other hand exceedingly low heat
inputs may result in fusion zones and HAZ which are excessively ferritic,
which leads to a loss of corrosion resistance and fracture toughness. To
avoid problems in the HAZ, the weld procedure should allow rapid cooling of
this region after welding. As a general guideline, the maximum interpass
temperature is limited to 150ºC for lean and standard duplex stainless steels
and 100ºC for superduplex grades.
11.8.3 Post weld heat treatment

Post weld stress relief is not needed for duplex stainless steels and is likely
to be harmful because it may promote the precipitation of intermetallics
phases or alpha prime (475ºC embrittlement), causing a loss of toughness
and corrosion resistance. In general, any heat treatment in excess of 315ºC
should be avoided.
Should a post weld heat treatment be necessary (for example if there is a

risk of the presence of intermetallics in the weld metal), it would have to
include full solution annealing (from 980 to 1100ºC, depending on the
grade), followed by water quenching. Such heat treatment should be
considered in the case of autogenous welding, since the microstructure in
the weld will be highly ferritic.
11.8.4 Dissimilar metal welds

Duplex stainless steels can be welded to other duplex or austenitic stainless
steels and to carbon and low alloy steels.
Duplex filler metals with increased nickel content are usually employed to
weld duplex grades with other duplex grades. The higher nickel content
ensures that an adequate level of austenite is formed in the weld during
cooling.
When welding to austenitic grades, the austenitic filler metals with low
carbon and a molybdenum content intermediate between the two grades are
usually employed, like AWS E309LMo/ER309LMo. The same filler metal is
generally used to weld duplex grades to carbon steels. If nickel-base filler
metals are used, they should be free of niobium. Because austenitic
stainless steels have lower strength than duplex stainless steels, welded
joints made with austenitic filler metals will not be as strong as the duplex
base metal.
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In an autogenous weld, it is usually not possible to maintain the 50:50 ratio

between austenite and ferrite since the higher cooling rate can mean
transformation on cooling from ferrite to austenite is only partial. In practice,
a range between 30:70 and 70:30 of ferrite to austenite is acceptable. The
austenite balance in the weld can be assured by using filler metals
overalloyed with nickel (nickel being an austenite stabiliser element).
However, inadequate phase balance in the HAZ (generally ferrite level being
too high) will lead to a reduction in corrosion resistance. Partitioning of
elements (Cr, Mo into the ferrite and Ni, N into the austenite) can also
reduce the corrosion resistance. Precipitates of nitrides and sigma phase in
the HAZ can also reduce corrosion resistance (in a similar way to weld
decay). These problems can be reduced by using overalloyed fillers
(additional nickel for toughness, additional Cr, Mo, N for corrosion
resistance).
11.9 Weldability problems for stainless steels

The main weldability problems for stainless steels are:
 High temperature grain coarsening, resulting in embrittlement affects

ferritic and duplex stainless steels.
 Low temperature hydrogen cracking affects martensitic and some
precipitation hardened stainless steels.
 Hot (solidification) cracking mainly a problem for austenitic stainless
steel.
 475°C embrittlement may be a problem in ferritic and duplex stainless
steels.
 Sigma () phase embrittlement can be a problem in elevated
temperature service for ferritic and duplex stainless steels and in the
weld metal of austenitic stainless steels where there is some ferrite.
 Weld decay (sensitisation) is a problem for austenitic stainless steels.
 Heat tint, excessive oxidation of the weld root or HAZ caused by
inadequate gas shielding or root purging in all stainless steels.
The following diagram shows the typical weldability problems associated

with different types of stainless steels on the Schaeffler diagram.
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11.10 Weld decay (sensitisation)

Weld decay, also called sensitisation or intercrystalline corrosion, occurs
within the susceptible temperature range of 550-800°C, ie in the HAZ or
during high temperature service. At this temperature carbon diffuses to the
grain boundaries and combines with chromium to form carbides, leaving a
Cr-depleted layer along the grain boundaries which is susceptible to
corrosion. Therefore corrosion cracking occurs along grain boundaries in the
HAZ. Weld decay can be avoided by keeping the carbon low, eg by using
low carbon grades like 304L and the heat input low by avoiding preheat or
postweld heat treatment. It is also possible to use grades with added
elements which combine with the carbon before the chromium does eg 321
(which contains Ti), or 347 (which contains Nb).
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11.11 SIGMA () phase formation

Sigma () phase is high chromium, brittle intermetallic phase which
precipitates between 500 and 1000ºC over time in service or in the HAZ of
multi-pass welds. It can also occur as a result of PWHT. Sigma phase forms
more readily in ferrite than austenite and it affects toughness and corrosion
resistance. Grades containing molybdenum require less time for  phase
precipitation and its formation can be limited by controlling the amount of 
in austenitic stainless steel welds and heating and cooling rapidly through
the susceptible temperature range.
 phase
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11.12 475°C embrittlement

Weld metal containing delta ferrite will be susceptible to 475°C
embrittlement. This phenomenon is observed when stainless steel is heated
into the range 400-550°C (although the effect is most pronounced at 475°C)
and a dramatic fall in toughness is observed after extended exposure due to
the formation of chromium-rich precipitates and decomposition of the 
ferrite at these temperatures. This effect becomes more pronounced as
chromium content increases. However, 475°C embrittlement is not generally
significant for materials with a ferrite number less than 14FN.
11.13 Solidification cracking

Hot cracking is possibly the most common problem when welding austenitic
stainless steel. Ferritic stainless steels are less prone to solidification
cracking than austenitic ones due to their lower coefficient of thermal
expansion and the greater solubility of sulphur and phosphorus in ferrite.
The risk of solidification cracking can be reduced by using low sulphur weld
metal (<0.003%) and adding manganese to the filler metal. Ensuring there is
some delta ferrite (between 3-10%) in the austenitic weld metal and
ensuring good cleanliness when welding will also help reduce the risk of hot
cracking.
11.14 Heat tint

Oxidation of the root bead and adjacent HAZ during welding of stainless
steel is commonly called heat tint. A chromium-rich scale is formed which is
typically not very protective and the stainless steel surface becomes
chromium-depleted: these effects may impair the corrosion resistance of
stainless steel welds.
A good gas shield during welding is essential to protect the weld pool and
HAZ from contamination and excessive atmospheric oxidation (heat tint).
Most typically, this protection is achieved using argon, but gas mixtures of
Ar/He can also be used. Backing gas (purging) for internal protection of
single-sided welds (in pipes, for example) should be applied so that several
changes of volume have occurred prior to commencing welding and it is
typical practice for multipass welds to maintain the gas for approximately 3
or 4 passes, ie until the root pass ceases to be significantly heated by
subsequent welding. Purging gases can be either pure argon or high purity
nitrogen (although this may cause high austenite content on the root
surface). Pickling of welds can be performed to remove heat tint, but may be
difficult to carry out.
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Revision Questions
1 Compare the weldability problems expected for different types of stainless steels.
2 What does the Schaeffler diagram show?
3 Are preheat and PWHT required for welding stainless steels and if so why?
4 How can heat tint be avoided?
5 What is the PREN?
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Surfacing
12 Surfacing
12.1 Reasons for using overlays and coatings
It is often desirable to change the surface properties of a component,
because the properties required at the surface may be different to those
required of the base material. Some examples are described below.
12.1.1 Wear
A few examples of the types of wear that can occur are:
 Solid particle erosion

Hard particles carried by a fluid stream (air or liquid) can abrade a
surface. For example, the rotor blade of a helicopter landing in the desert
can suffer erosion.
 Liquid droplet erosion

When droplets hit a surface at speeds high enough to erode it away.
 Abrasion
This is also caused by hard particles, but they are forced against the
surface rather than being carried in a stream of air or liquid. For
example, digger teeth are abraded by rock and sand.
 Metal-to-metal wear
Includes galling, fretting, adhesive wear and others.
 Cavitation
A special type of wear caused by shock waves in a liquid, due to
collapsing bubbles of vapour in the liquid.
Wear resistant materials are often quite hard and brittle. If the surface of a
component must be wear resistant, but the component must have high
toughness and bulk strength to do its job, then it may not be possible to find
a single material that will do both.
An example might be a pump that is handling abrasive sand/water slurry.
Another reason why wear resistant alloys are not generally used for bulk
parts is that they are harder to manufacture. Usually, they are not easily
forged, extruded or drawn. Although they can often be cast, cracking during
cooling can be a problem in larger parts. This is another reason why a wear
resistant cladding or coating is often more cost effective.
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Typical wear resistant coatings include:
 HVOF tungsten carbide WC-Co or WC-CoCr: hydraulic cylinders, valve

seats.
 Plasma sprayed alumina-titania: textile guides & rolls (fibre abrasion);
mechanical seals.
 Plasma sprayed chrome oxide: ink-bearing printing rolls (anilox rolls),
monopump rotors, pump housings.
 CoCr alloy (Stellite) weld hard facings – to combat galling, adhesive
wear and cavitation.
 Manganese steel or white cast iron weld hard facings – to combat
abrasion.
12.1.2 Corrosion
Corrosion can be classified according to the corrosive environment as well
as the corrosion mechanism. Corrosion is discussed in detail elsewhere in
this course.
Although many materials that resist corrosion also have good strength and
toughness, they tend to be expensive (eg nickel alloys, titanium alloys, or
stainless steels). Other corrosion resistant materials, such as gold, platinum,
glass, paints, polymers and CoCr alloys are either extremely costly and/or
do not have the required strength. Applying corrosion resistant materials as
coatings onto cheaper base materials is therefore often more cost-effective.
12.1.3 Heat degradation

In addition to surface oxidation, components operating at high temperatures
can also mechanically degrade. The microstructure can change and/or the
part can deform slowly at high temperatures (this is known as creep and is
covered elsewhere in this course). For this reason aero-engine parts such
as combustion chambers or turbine blades are often protected by ceramic
oxide based thermal barrier coatings.
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12.2 Types of protective layers

Protective layers can be classified according to typical layer thickness, as indicated in Table 12.1 below.
Table 12.1 some common surfacing processes and welding related challenges associated with them.
Typical thickness Coating technique Examples Some welding-related considerations
range
5-25μm Thin film techniques, eg: Gold-coloured PVD titanium nitride (TiN) These coatings should preferably be applied
(0.005-0.025 mm) Physical Vapour. coatings are used on cutting tools and after welding.
Deposition (PVD). dies/punches.
Chemical Vapour. CVD coatings are used on metal forming tool
Deposition (CVD). and dies. The diamond coatings on high
performance tool bits are CVD diamond.
Up to 1mm Paints, waxes, polymers. Used for decorative and corrosion protection When applying paint systems to welded
purposes. Suitable for low temperature, low fabrications to mitigate corrosion, consider the
cost applications were wear is not an issue. potential for localised corrosion and stress
corrosion cracking of the weld, especially if
being used at high temperatures where coating
protection may fail.
If welding a coated structure, remove all residual
paint/coating before welding and reapply (if
applicable) after welding.
10-500μm Electroplating techniques Being phased out for environmental and health The plating process can induce hydrogen
(0.01-0.5mm) such as chrome or reasons. embrittlement in high strength alloy welds and
cadmium plating. consideration should be given to post-
deposition heat treatment.
50 - 500 μm Thermal spray coatings WC-Co wear resistant coatings See Section 12.16 for more detail.
(0.05-0.5 mm) using powder as a feed Thermal barrier coatings (typically based on Thermal sprayed coatings should be applied
stock. stabilised zirconium oxide) after welding.
See following Sections.
0.1-3mm Thermal spray coatings Thermally sprayed aluminium (TSA) coatings See Section 12.16 for more detail.
using wire as a feed are widely used for corrosion protection of Thermal sprayed coatings should be applied
stock. shore oil rigs. after welding if at all possible.
See following Sections.
1.6mm and above Weld surfacing. See Section 12.3 onwards. See Section 12.3 onwards.
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50-200μm Hot dip galvanizing. The most common hot dipping process for When welding parts that are going to be
(0.05-0.2mm) industrial applications is galvanising, which is galvanised, it is important to use a filler metal
the coating of iron or steels with zinc for rust that matches the silicon content of the base
proofing. steel. The Si content of a steel has a dramatic
It is an extremely versatile and easy means of effect on the thickness of the galvanised zinc
providing corrosion protection for construction layer. If, for example, the weld filler metal has a
materials exposed to atmospheric conditions. higher Si content than the steel, the galvanised
Protection is imparted in two ways: assembly will have a visibly thicker zinc
 Zinc acts as a galvanic protector of the steel coating on the weld area.
by slowly sacrificially corroding in a corrosive Hot dip galvanising of welded structures can
aqueous environment. cause Liquid Metal Embrittlement of the
structure at areas of stress concentration, such
 Continuous barrier of zinc protects the
as dramatic section changes or badly prepared
underlying substrate from contact with the
weld finishes. Zinc has a low melting point and
corrosive electrolyte.
if melting occurs due to welding being done
Hot dip galvanising is essentially a two-step nearby, liquid Zn can cause Liquid Metal
process. First, the steel must be properly Embrittlement.
prepared to accept the zinc coating. A clean Care is required when welding galvanised
base metal is essential to achieve a good steels. Zn vapour may cause porosity in the
galvanised coating, normally accomplished by welds with high speed welding processes such
pickling the component in an alkaline solution to as GMAW or laser.
remove any rust or grease. Breathing in of metal oxides such as zinc and
The second step involves immersing the copper can lead to an acute flu-like illness
component in a bath of molten zinc, long enough called metal fume fever. It occurs most
for the zinc to form a series of alloy layers with commonly when welding galvanised steel;
the base steel of sufficient thickness to meet symptoms usually begin several hours after
certain required weight specifications. exposure with thirst, coughing, headache,
sweating, pain in the limbs and fever.
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12.3 Weld surfacing

Weld surfacing may be one of three variants:
12.3.1 Weld build-up/repair

Worn or damaged surfaces can be replaced by building up the surface with
a weld metal which approximates the composition and/or mechanical
properties of the parent metal, in order to restore the original component
dimensions.
12.3.2 Hardfacing
A softer material is given a wear, abrasion or erosion resistant surface by
cladding using a hardfacing alloy with high hardness, such as cobalt alloys
(eg Stellite®), tungsten carbide, Cr-Mo steels, or martensitic steels.
12.3.3 Cladding
Cladding provides a corrosion or oxidation resistant surface on a less
corrosion resistant material. An example is the deposition of a stainless
steel (309, 316) or nickel-based layer (625, 825) on a carbon steel base.
The clad materials will depend on the application, eg austenitic stainless
steels for corrosion resistance, nickel alloys for oxidation resistance, copper-
nickel alloys for saltwater service. One advantage is the cost saving arising
when surfacing a relatively inexpensive metal, such as a carbon steel, with a
more expensive but corrosion resistant layer of stainless steel rather than
using solid stainless steel.
Figure 12.1 Examples of cladding.
Material and weight savings may be made by cladding high strength QT

steel. If the required material thickness is less than 10mm the economics
tend to favour using full thickness alloy plate, but for thickness above 10mm
using corrosion resistant cladding on QT steel can be more economical.
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Figure 12.2 Weld overlay being applied to a large industrial process vessel.
12.4 Buttering
Buttering is the term used when depositing a layer of weld metal on to the
face of a weld preparation or surface which will then form part of a welded
joint. The objective is to engineer the composition of the buttered weld metal
(with dilution of parent) to prevent cracking when the subsequent weld is
made, eg to deposit a weldable lower carbon surface for making repairs to
medium or high carbon steel vessels.
Another example is the buttering of an alloy steel weld preparation with a Ni-
based weld metal and then post-weld heat treating this part before making
the joining weld between the buttering and a steel which would be degraded
by heat treatment.
Hardfacing and cladding are, as a rule, not included in the calculations for
component design but weld build-up frequently is and buttering must be
included since it forms part of the load-carrying portion of a joint.
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Surfacing
This diagram gives an overview of Surfacing Techniques and these are described in more detail on the following pages:
Surfacing methods
Fusion welding Laser welding Solid state welding
Explosive cladding Roll bonding Mechanical cladding

Arc welding ESW (metallurgical
cladding)
MMA GTAW GMAW SAW FCAW PTAW
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Surfacing
12.5 Arc welding surfacing techniques

Surfacing techniques have been used in a variety of applications for
thousands of years but it is only since the 1940s that arc welding has been
used.
12.5.1 Manual metal arc (MMA)

Manual metal arc welding is a widely used hardfacing process. It uses
coated electrodes.
Due to the low cost of the equipment, the low operating costs of the process
and the ease of transporting the equipment, this flexible process is ideally
suited to repair work.
Figure 12.3 The MMA hardfacing process (image © Deloro Stellite Inc., used with
permission).
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Surfacing
12.5.2 Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)

In GTAW welding (commonly known as Tungsten Inert Gas or TIG welding)
also known the hardfacing material is fed in (usually by hand) in the form of
a rod.
Cold wire GTAW is used infrequently because of its low deposition rate, but
the addition of a hot wire facility can increase deposition rates to match
those of the GMAW/MAG process but with a GTAW quality deposit.
Advantages of the GTAW process include simple manual operation and

good control of the welding arc. The process can also be mechanised, in
which case a manipulator is used to move the workpiece in relation to the
welding torch and the hardfacing rod or wire.
Welding rods used for GTAW Welding can also be used for hardfacing with
the oxy-acetylene welding process.
12.5.3 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) and submerged arc welding (SAW)
Figure 12.4 The GMAW hardfacing process (image © Deloro Stellite Inc., used
with permission).
In these processes, consumable hardfacing wire (which can be a cored

wire) is fed continuously from a spool through the welding torch into the arc,
where it is melted and transferred to the workpiece.
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In GMAW welding, the weld pool is protected from the atmosphere by a

stream of shielding gas. The process is very flexible, it can be partially or
fully mechanised and is suitable for a wide range of applications.
Wire (which can be a cored wire) or a flat strip consumable is used as the
hardfacing consumable in the SAW process. In this process, a mineral-
based fluxing powder flows around the consumable wire and is melted by
the arc. It forms a gaseous shield around the arc and also forms a slag on
top of the weld pool, shielding the cooling weld pool from the atmosphere.
Figure 12.5 The SAW Process (Images courtesy of ESAB AB).
12.5.4 Flux cored arc welding (FCAW)

FCAW uses a cored wire. Drawing a hardfacing wire down to a small
diameter for GMAW/MAG or SAW is, in many instances, impossible and
cored wires are commonly used for this application.
12.5.5 Plasma transferred arc welding (PTAW)

The PTAW process (Figure 12.6) is easily automated, providing a high
degree of reproducibility of the weld overlays. In addition, because of the
highly concentrated heat source, this has high deposit rates and can
achieve a very low level of iron dilution in the overlay.
Because the hardfacing materials are in powder form, it is possible to

produce overlays from many different materials (and combinations of
materials) with a wide range of hardness and other properties.
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Figure 12.6 The PTAW Process (images © Deloro Stellite Inc., used with
permission).
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12.5.6 Electroslag welding (ESW) and strip cladding

Strip cladding (which can be either SAW or ESW) is similar to conventional
welding, but with the wire filler metal being replaced by a flat strip of the
surfacing material. The strip widths commonly used vary from 15-240mm,
with a thickness of 0.5mm.
Electroslag welding (ESW) is a good alternative to SAW for strip cladding.

The difference between them is that in SAW an arc is maintained between
the strip and the base material. In ESW, the strip enters a molten flux bath
and melts due to resistive heating alone.
The deposition rate from a 60mm wide strip can be as high as 36kg/hr for
ESW and 20kg/hr for SAW. ESW cladding provides lower levels of substrate
dilution into the surfacing material than SAW (10% compared with 20%),
meaning that the required chemical analysis can often be achieved in a
single layer deposit where SAW cladding may need two. The strip cladding
process is usually confined to relatively large and thick components which
need to be manipulated to enable welding to be carried out in the flat
position. It is used for surfacing the internal surfaces of pressure vessels
and large diameter pipe and in the reclamation of steel mill rolls.
Figure 12.7 Strip cladding. Figure 12.8 Strip clad weld.
The overlap between adjacent beads must be controlled to avoid lack of fusion
defects (Figure. 12.8).
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12.6 Laser weld deposition

When overlaying with a laser an optical arrangement is used to focus the
laser beam on the workpiece and heat it. Simultaneously, hardfacing
material in the form of powder or wire is introduced into the laser beam and
melted.
Due to the narrow heat-affected zone and the fast cooling rate, the heat
input is low, thereby producing an almost stress free overlay. Compared
with other welding processes, for a given hardfacing alloy, the fast cooling
rate of the laser process produces an overlay with a significantly finer
microstructure.
Usually, this fast cooling leads to a higher hardness; but in some hardfacing
alloys that rely on time-dependent carbide growth for their wear properties it
can lead to unexpectedly poor wear resistance.
12.7 Explosive cladding

In explosive cladding (Figure 12.9), a plate of cladding material is
accelerated under the influence of detonation to impinge obliquely on to a
base plate. A jet of metal (from both plates) in the form of a spray is ejected
ahead of the collision point, cleaning the weld surfaces of any oxide films or
surface impurities. Pressure at the collision point is well in excess of the
yield strength of any metal, resulting in inter-atomic bonding between the
contacting surfaces.
This is a solid state process so can clad a wide range of metals to almost
any base material (dissimilar materials). The parent plate is stationary which
means that components of a wide range of sizes can be joined. However,
geometric configuration must allow a uniform progression of the detonation
front, which limits the application to flat plate and cylindrical and conical
structures. There are also safety issues with the use of explosives. The
main industrial sectors using explosively clad materials include the food and
chemical process industries.
Figure 12.9 Explosive cladding process.
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12.8 Clad pipes

Pipelines carrying crude oil and gas are exposed to very corrosive
conditions, due to hydrogen sulphides, chlorides and water in the oil/gas.
This requires the use of stainless steels and nickel alloys; which are not only
expensive materials but also have lower strength than low-alloy steels. As a
result, high pressures can only be handled with these materials if very thick-
walled pipe is used. Hence, the use of clad pipe is recommended, where a
normal high tensile ferrite steel pipe is lined with a ca. 3mm thick corrosion-
resistant material.
Special welding procedures have to be considered to guarantee the

corrosion resistance of the inner clad layer.
There are two categories of clad pipes.
12.8.1 Metallurgically clad pipes

The internal cladding and the steel pipe are bonded together metallurgically
as one mass with no separation. Various processes are utilized to produce
such pipe.
Seamless pipes can be produced by:
 Weld Cladding.
 Centrifugal casting.
 Extrusion.
Seamless clad pipes are seldom used for pipelines in the common range of
between 8-24”.
Metallurgically clad (roll bonded) pipes are manufactured by hot rolling the
plates of the different materials together to produce a metallurgical bond
between them. This process is widely used. The advantages compared with
overlay welding are that there is no dilution from the base material (ref.
Section 12.10).
The advantages compared with explosive cladding are:
 Higher bonding quality.

 Reduction of weld length due to larger dimensions.
 Use of thinner clad material is possible.
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12.8.2 Mechanically clad pipes

A prepared pipe package (with the corrosion-resistant liner inside the low-
alloy steel pipe), is expanded by high internal pressure inside a tool. The
inner contour of the tool is manufactured in accordance with the required
outer contour of the final product.
Contact between the two layers is achieved by the different elastic and
plastic behaviours of the ferrite outer pipe and the austenitic material of the
inner pipe, whereby the spring-back effect of the ferrite outer pipe is greater
than that of the inner pipe when the pressure is released.
This results in residual compressive stress on the inner pipe of ca. 50-100
MPa, which provides a homogenous contact.
12.9 Cutting clad or lined plates

Many of the standard cutting methods can be used on clad or lined plate,
including thermal cutting (using plasma or laser), or mechanical cutting
(water-jet cutting or shearing with machining).
The one concern when cutting by shearing is to cut from the clad side, so
that the shear deformation forces the clad layer and carbon steel together,
rather than peeling apart.
Sheared from clad side Sheared from carbon steel side

Correct Wrong
12.10 Dilution in weld overlays

When a surface layer is applied by a weld deposition process, it is
metallurgically bonded to the substrate and there is some mixing of the base
material and the overlay especially in the first few weld passes.
When applying overlays onto steels, there will be some iron from the steel in
the overlay. This decreases the corrosion resistance of overlays such as
Alloy 625 and affects both the corrosion and the wear resistance of
hardfacing alloys.
What constitutes an acceptable level of dilution will depend on the service

requirements. Dilution is usually specified in customer specifications and in
international standards for specific applications. It is generally expressed as
a percentage dilution of parent metal in the surfacing layer.
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The required composition at the outer surface is achieved by selecting the

most appropriate surfacing alloy, but in addition, the amount of parent metal
melted and mixed in with the filler metal varies from process to process and
is influenced by welding parameters, in particular electrode polarity, welding
current and travel speed.
The effect of welding process can be seen in Figure 12.10, which shows
how the dilution levels in Stellite® 12 welds drop off rapidly from about
50%Fe at the weld fusion line, to about 5%Fe at a distance of 4mm from the
fusion line.
The dilution for PTAW deposits is lower than for GTAW deposits, reaching
10%Fe at less than 1mm deposit thickness. For GTAW deposits however,
dilution levels below 10%Fe are typically only reached at deposit
thicknesses of over 2mm.
60
50
% Fe Content
40 PTA Weld
GTA weld
30
20
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Distance from fusion line, CM
Figure 12.10 Typical dilution levels in stellite 12 GTAW and PTA overlays.
Figure 12.11 shows how the hardness of the overlay drops more or less
linearly with dilution up to levels of about 15%Fe, although the curve seems
to start flattening out at the highest iron percentages.
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540
530
520
Hardness VHN 510
500
GTA weld
490
480 PTA weld
470
460
450
440
0 5 10 15 20
% Fe Dilution
Figure 12.11 Effect of dilution on the hardness of CoCrW weld hardfacings.
12.11 Sensitization of the substrate

When applying high-carbon alloys onto hardfacing austenitic stainless steel,
carbon can diffuse from the hardfacing into the heat affected zone (HAZ).
This carbon can form carbides on the steel grain boundaries and in the
process it depletes the Cr near the grain boundaries. The result is that the
grain boundaries in the HAZ are less corrosion resistant than the steel
overall, which can be a problem if the component is to be used in a
corrosive environment (eg sea water).
This process is known as weld decay or sensitization (see Figure 12.12).
It is necessary to be aware of this and to evaluate each individual

application as to the risks involved. Usually additions of strong carbide-
forming elements such as Nb or Ti to the base material help limit
sensitization, because the carbon bonds preferentially with these elements
rather than with the Cr. Such steels are called stabilized and the most
common examples are AISI 321 and AISI 347 Stainless Steels.
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Figure 12.12 Schematic of sensitization, which can occur as a result of carbon

diffusing from the hardfacing into the base steel and forming carbides on the grain
boundaries. The resultant Cr-depleted zones have poor corrosion resistance.
12.12 Welding and NDT of clad steels

The weldability issues for welding clad steel plates are mainly:
 Maintaining the continuity (ie corrosion resistance) of the cladding.

 Issues with dilution at the clad surface.
 Difficulties with dissimilar metal welding, eg carbon migration into
stainless steel results in a loss of toughness in the carbon steel.
 Martensite formation at a carbon steel fusion line (if there is excessive
dilution with the parent plate).
 Different coefficients of thermal expansion for carbon steel and stainless
steel causing thermal fatigue (reduced when welding using nickel alloys).
 NDT issues with ferritic and austenitic materials in one joint and access
restrictions to the bore.
 Mismatch of the bore diameters (see below).
These metallurgical issues mean that often nickel base fillers (eg Alloy 625)
are preferred as they have less thermal expansion coefficient mismatch
from carbon steels than stainless and are also less likely to form martensitic
HAZs. However, they are more expensive than carbon steel and stainless
steel wires.
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The combination of ferritic and austenitic materials in one joint gives rise to
restrictions on the NDT methods that can be used (eg ultrasonics may
bounce from the interface whether defective or not). It is common to have
some misalignment in the bore (ie at the clad layer) of abutting tubes or
pipes. However, the clad layer cannot be machined to fit or else the
corrosion resistance will be lost. This misalignment issue therefore imposes
tight tolerances of the ends of clad pipes in order to weld them.
The access for welding is important when assessing how the joint is to be
welded.
12.12.1 Bore mismatch for clad pipes

It is common to have some clad layer misalignment in the joint due to clad
pipe often being manufactured for an OD rather than an ID match. However,
the clad layer cannot usually be machined to fit or else the corrosion
resistance may be lost. To produce adequate weld quality it is necessary to
equalise mismatch around the circumference, it may be possible to machine
to bore match (counterbore) if the misalignment is small, or to clad the bore
of large diameter tube to a greater depth and re-machine, or swage to a
smaller bore. When there is no bore access this misalignment issue may
simply impose the need for tight tolerances on the ends of clad pipes in
order to weld them.
12.13 Consumable selection

When welding carbon steels which have been clad with stainless steels:
 Alloy 625 can be used to weld complete joint.

 E308, E316 and E347 type stainless steel filler wires should not be
deposited directly on to carbon steel plates, as dilution will give a
composition susceptible to solidification cracking or hard martensite
formation.
 Suitable over-alloyed fillers to compensate for dilution are E309 or
E309Mo.
 E2209 (duplex stainless steel) fillers may also be used where higher
strength is required.
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Butt welding clad plate if both sides accessible:
Step 1: Step 6:
Faces bevelled from Faces bevelled from
carbon steel side. carbon steel side.
Butt welding clad plate if both sides accessible – alternative method:
Step 2: Step 1:
Fit-up. Faces bevelled.
Step 3: Step 2:
Weld from carbon Fit-up.
steel side.
Step 3:
Step 4: Weld from carbon
Root gouge. steel side.
Step 4:
Step 5: Clean the root and
Weld from stainless weld from the
steel side. stainless steel side.
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Welding clad steel plates from only one side: Welding clad steel pipe from only one side:
Step 1:
Faces bevelled. Step 1:
Faces bevelled and
carbon plate cut back
to expose cladding.
Step 2: Step 2:
Fit-up. Fit-up.
Step 3a:
Welded with stainless
steel/Ni base filler
only.
Step 3:
Welded from C steel
side only.
Step 3b:
Welded with stainless
and carbon steel filler.
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12.14 Standards
Weld overlay processes, consumables, weld procedure and welder
qualifications (and the properties of the weld overlays themselves for
specific applications) are covered by several internationally recognised
standards. Some of these are:
Standard Title
AWS A5.13 Specification for Surfacing Electrodes For Shielded Metal Arc
ASME SFA 5.13 Welding.
AWS A5.21
Specification for Bare Electrodes And Rods For Surfacing.
ASME SFA 5.21
Recommended Practices for Surfacing and Reconditioning of
AWS D14.7/D14.7M
Industrial Mill Rolls.
BS EN 14700 Welding consumables: Welding consumables for hard-facing.
Specification and qualification of welding procedures for

BS EN ISO 15614-7 metallic materials -- Welding procedure test -- Part 7: Overlay
welding.
Specification and qualification of welding procedures for
BS EN ISO 15609-4 metallic materials -- Welding procedure specification -- Part 4:
Laser beam welding.
AMSE BPVC Section IX: Welding and Brazing Qualifications.

Note: Hardfacing and overlay welding is a special case and
hence much of ASME IX does not apply to it. The most
important pars in ASME IX for overlay welding are QW-214, 5,
6, QW-453 and the relevant Essential Variables (ca. pp18-46).
Most consumable materials have an F-number (and/or A-
ASME Boiler and number) in ASME IX. For example, for common surfacing
Pressure Vessel Code materials, these are:
(BPVC) Co-based covered electrodes/rods:
F-number 71 (equivalent to AWS A5.13, ASME SFA 5.13).
Co-based bare rods or wires (incl. cored wires):
F-number 72 (equivalent to AWS A5.21, ASME SFA 5.21).
Ni-based consumables:
F-numbers 41…45 (equivalent to AWS A5.11 / 5.14 / 5.30 or
ASME SFA A5.11 / 5.14 / 5.30).
ANSI API 6A Specification for Wellhead and Christmas Tree Equipment.
NACE MR0175
Corrosion Resistant Alloys for Sulphide Service.
BS EN ISO 15156
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12.15 Quality control of weld overlays

The tests required for the weld procedure qualification and/or welder
qualification for overlays are usually defined by the client for a specific
application. Often the client will refer to the international specifications listed
above.
Typical tests are outlined in the Table below:
Test Remarks
A typical acceptance criterion might be: complete fusion of weld
Visual examination
metal and base metal.
NDT: Liquid Penetrant,
The acceptance criteria must define the acceptable number,
ultrasonic or X-ray
distribution, location, shape and size of indications.
Examination
A sample taken from a specific position is polished, etched and
Metallography examined at a specified magnification for cracks, lack of fusion,
linear defects, etc according to the specified criteria.
Although not often required for overlays, one might use tensile
tests to determine the extent to which the base steel properties
Tensile tests have been affected by the welding process itself and by the post
weld heat treatment. Specimen geometry should meet an agreed
standard.
Face or side bend A weld-overlaid plate is machined, bent and examined according
tests to specified criteria.
Chemical analysis is usually done at a position corresponding to
the desired minimum qualified overlay thickness. The acceptance
Chemical Analysis of
criteria should specify the acceptable dilution levels at that
Weld Metal
finished weld thickness. For example, max. 8% Fe at 3.2mm from
fusion line.
Hardness testing is typically done at a position corresponding to
the desired minimum qualified overlay thickness.
The acceptance criteria should specify the acceptable hardness
Hardness of overlay
range.
Overlay hardness is typically only specified for hardfacings and
not for corrosion-resistant overlays.
Hardness of HAZ Can be used to indicate whether the PWHT was effective or not.
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12.16 Thermal spray coatings

Thermal spray is a process whereby a feedstock is melted (or partially
melted) and then sprayed onto a surface layer by layer, where it adheres by
mechanical bonding and forms a coating.
The surface must be prepared by cleaning, degreasing and roughening. A

typical roughening technique is grit blasting.
Thermal spray coatings are typically 50-500μm thick, although in some

cases thicknesses of several mm are possible.
Thermal spray coatings tend to be quite rough in the as-sprayed condition

and may require machining or grinding to achieve the required final
thickness and surface finish.
Thermal spraying, when done correctly, will not raise the temperature of the
part by more than about 100-150ºC.
Thermal spray processes can be classified according to the following criteria

(refer Figure 12.13):
Energy source:
 Thermal (through combustion of a gas or liquid fuel).

 Electrical (arc or plasma).
Type of coating feedstock:
 Wire.
 Powder.
 Velocity of coating feedstock particles or droplets.
Environment the coating process is performed in:
 Air.
 Vacuum or low-pressure.
 Water.
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Figure 12.13 Schematic comparison of various thermal spray processes.
12.16.1 Flame spraying

Flame Spraying (Figure 12.14) is one of the oldest and simplest thermal
spray techniques.
Powder flame spraying

The powder particles are softened or melted in an oxyacetylene flame and
transferred to a prepared workpiece by the expanding gases. An additional
gas stream can be used to assist with powder particle transfer.
Wire flame spraying

The wire tip is softened or melted in an oxyacetylene flame, forming droplets
on the tip. The liquid droplets are then detached and transferred to a
prepared workpiece by the moving gas stream.
Flame spraying does not deliver enough heat energy to melt some of the
higher melting point ceramics. It can apply some low melting point ceramics
such as titanium dioxide TiO2 and aluminium oxide Al2O3.
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Figure 12.14a The powder flame spray process (iage © Deloro Stellite Inc., used
with permission).
Figure 12.14b The powder flame spray process (Image © TWI Ltd).
Figure 12.14c The wire flame spray process (image © TWI Ltd.).
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12.16.2 Plasma spraying

In plasma spraying (Figure 12.15), powder is softened or melted in the
plasma gas stream, which also transfers the particles to the workpiece. The
plasma arc is not transferred to the work piece; it is contained within the
plasma torch between an axial electrode and a water-cooled nozzle.
The process is operated in normal atmosphere, in a shielding gas stream

(eg argon), in a vacuum or under water. Due to the high temperature of the
plasma gas stream the plasma spray process is especially suitable for
spraying high melting-point metals/alloys as well as oxide/ceramic materials.
Figure 12.15a The plasma spray process (image © Deloro Stellite Inc., used with
permission).
Figure 12.15b The plasma spray process (image © TWI Ltd.).
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12.16.3 High velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) coating

In the HVOF process, powder is introduced into a high pressure combustion
chamber. The combustion fuel can be liquid (such as kerosene) or gas
(such as propane, natural gas, of hydrogen).
The exhaust gas exits through an expansion nozzle which produces a high
velocity gas stream. The powder particles are heated in this gas stream and
transferred by it with high kinetic energy to the surface of the workpiece,
forming a dense coating with excellent bonding properties. Due to the
moderate transfer of heat to the powder particles and to the workpiece,
which remains relatively cool, there is little metallurgical change to the
sprayed material and the work piece. Due to the high velocity and moderate
temperature of the gas jet, the HVOF process is especially suitable for
carbide coatings such as WC-Co or WC-CoCr. It is also well suited to alloys
and (in some cases) oxide/ceramic materials. Depending on the material
being applied, thick coatings up to 2mm are possible.
Figure 12.16a The HVOF process (image © Deloro Stellite Inc., used with
permission).
Figure 12.16b The HVOF process (image © TWI Ltd.).
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Revision Questions
1 Explain why it is often more cost-effective to apply an overlay to a component

than to make the whole part from the same material.
2 What should one be aware of when welding a steel assembly that is going to be
hot-dip galvanised?
3 Explain what a buttering layer is used for.
4 Explain the differences between weld overlays and thermal spray coatings by
considering the substrate preparation required the types of materials that can be
deposited, the typical deposit thicknesses and the heat loading on the parts being
coated.
5 Consider what methods of surface protection you might choose for the following:
a A diesel engine piston that requires thermal protection on its top surface
(note: typical thermal barrier coating materials are high melting point oxides such
as yttria-stabilised zirconium oxide ceramic).
b Valve seat and plug made of carbon steel and used for pumping sand-laden
sea water.
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Section 13
Creep Resistant Steels

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13 Creep Resistant Steels

Creep is the slow, time dependent deformation of a material under a
constant load. The extent of the deformation is a function of temperature as
well as time and stress, although there is a threshold temperature, for a
given material, below which creep is not of concern. For most metals, creep
is considered to be an elevated temperature phenomenon, occurring
typically at temperature of around 0.3-0.4Tm, where Tm is the melting
temperature. Creep cracking and ultimately creep failure occur by an
intergranular mechanism.
The high service temperature, service loads and time impose special
considerations in material selection. As well as creep resistance, it is
necessary to consider oxidation and corrosion resistance, crack sensitivity,
weldability and microstructural stability, ie carbide precipitation, sigma phase
formation (in stainless steels) and temper embrittlement.
Creep occurs in three distinct phases:
Primary creep is associated with a rapid increase in strain and decrease in

the strain rate with time. The latter is due to work hardening.
Secondary creep also known as steady state creep. In this regime, which
forms the bulk of the creep life of a component, a balance is achieved
between the creep rate and the work hardening rate.
Tertiary creep is the final stage, in which the creep rate increases in an
unstable manner until the material finally fails. This is the result of structural
changes within the material, such as cavity/void formation and localised
necking leading to a reduction in cross sectional area and hence an
increase in the effective stress. Linkage of the cavities/voids leads to the
formation of cracks and ultimately failure.
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13.1 Creep resistance

When choosing materials for high temperature applications, special care
must be taken to avoid the risk of creep fracture in structures operated for
extensive periods at high temperatures. The creep resistance of steel is
improved by solid solution strengthening from additions of carbon, chromium
and molybdenum. Small quantities of other carbide formers such as
vanadium, niobium, tungsten and titanium may be added for precipitation
strengthening or grain refinement. Chromium gives oxidation resistance and
forms carbides which increase strength at elevated temperatures.
Molybdenum stabilises the microstructure and impedes carbide coalescence
at elevated temperatures. These effects mean that some Cr-Mo steels can
be used up to 550°C without risk of creep failure, compared with C-Mn
steels which are only used up to 425°C. With the addition of Co, V, W and
Nb and with appropriate balancing of the levels of C, N and B, service
temperatures for 9%Cr steels of 625°C are currently possible, with a target
temperature of 650°C.
Creep resistance and strength of a material decrease as the temperature

increases and so creep failure of a component is evaluated on the basis of
service load and temperature and tensile properties at the service
temperature. As well as retention of strength at the working temperature, it
is important to consider the high temperature resistance to oxidation and the
microstructural stability, such as carbide precipitation, spheroidisation, etc.
Since the installation of many components will require welding, the reduction
in creep strength introduced by welding must always be considered. This
shows itself by the shorter creep lives of welded fabrications where welds
are exposed to appreciable cross-weld and system stresses. The failure
mechanism that has given rise to the greatest concern is cracking that
usually occurs at the outer edge of the visible heat-affected zone and is
generally referred to as type IV cracking, which is discussed below.
13.2 Creep-resistant steels

Creep resistant low alloy steels usually contain 0.5-9%Cr for improved
corrosion resistance and 0.5-1% molybdenum for enhanced creep strength.
The types of creep-resistant steel and their maximum service temperatures
for oxidation and creep resistance are given below.
Steel type Oxidation resistance Creep limit

°C °C
C-Mn steel 500 425
1
/2Cr 1/2 Mo 550 510
11/4Cr 1/2Mo 565 560
21/4 Cr 1Mo 580 595
9Cr 1Mo 600 600
9Cr1Mo mod 625 625
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Small additions of carbide formers such as V, Nb, W and Ti may be added

for precipitation strengthening or grain refinement, but may affect
transformation hardening and weldability.
13.3 Weldability of creep-resistant steels

The addition of alloying elements such as Cr, Mo and V increases the
hardenability of steel and reduces weldability. The latter is severely affected
if the steel hardens during rapid cooling after welding. As the Cr content
increases, the Ms and Mf temperatures decrease. Therefore an upper limit
may be required on the interpass temperature to ensure microstructural
transformation between passes and (as hydrogen is rejected upon
transformation to martensite) hydrogen escape during welding. As the Cr
content increases, the Ac1 temperature also increases so the PWHT soaking
temperature may increase and in view of the higher creep resistance, higher
temperatures are necessary for stress relaxation.
Creep-resistant steels can be welded using MMA, TIG, MAG, FCAW or

SAW, with matching filler materials to provide service performance. The
exception is 1/2Cr1/2Mo1/4V, which is welded using 21/4Cr1Mo filler.
Generally, the consumables have lower carbon content than the parent
metals. Low hydrogen processes are required and for MMA welding usually
only basic consumables are used. The exception is root runs on some pipe
applications, where special cellulosic electrodes can be used. Back purging
should be used when welding pipes with >2%Cr, to prevent loss of corrosion
resistance or coking.
The most significant problems encountered during welding and any

subsequent post-weld heat treatment are; HAZ cold cracking; loss of
toughness in the CGHAZ; reheat cracking; temper embrittlement and hot
cracking.
13.4 Reheat cracking

Reheat cracking is the intergranular cracking that occurs in the coarse-
grained region of the HAZ at elevated temperatures. This occurs in steels
alloyed with Cr, Mo, V, Nb, B and N and is usually only a problem for steels
containing three or more carbide formers, ie Cr, Mo and V. Reheat cracking
can occur either after PWHT or during prolonged service in the 350-650°C
temperature range.
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The high temperature (1,300oC) heating during welding results in grain

coarsening in the HAZ and any precipitates are dissolved. During cooling
below ~600oC, the dissolved impurities migrate to the prior-austenite grain
boundaries and embrittle them. During PWHT or service up to 650oC,
residual stresses are relaxed and carbides precipitate and strengthen the
interiors of the grains. As a result, the relaxation occurs as diffusion and
deformation of the weakened grain boundaries, resulting in grain boundary
cracking. Shown below are reheat cracks in the CGHAZ of a thick section
weld in 1/2Cr1/2Mo1/4V creep-resistant steel.
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13.5 Controlling reheat cracking

The risk of reheat cracking can be controlled by careful control of steel
composition. Various compositional parameters have been derived to allow
the susceptibility to reheat cracking to be assessed:
 G = Cr + 3.3Mo + 8.1V – 2.
 G<0 implies the material is not susceptible.
 G1 = Cr + 3.3Mo + 8.1V + 10C – 2.
 G1<2 implies the material is not susceptible.
 P SR = Cr + Cu + 2Mo + 10V + 7Nb + 5Ti – 2.
 P SR <0 implies the material is not susceptible.
In addition, it has been found that in steel the presence of high levels of Sb,
As, Sn and P are likely to increase the cracking risk, as well as C, Si and
Cu. It has also been found that cracking is more likely in the vicinity of
segregate bands within a steel, as in general the carbon, alloy and impurity
level are higher. As a rule of thumb, steel alloyed with three or more carbide
formers, eg Cr, Mo and V, are likely to be susceptible.
Use optimum heat treatment procedures and if tempering at 650-700°C,

follow by rapid cooling to redistribute impurities inside the grains. Apply
preheat to soften the structure and reduce residual stresses, avoid backing
strips and partial penetration welds and (particularly when welding
1
/2Cr1/2Mo1/4V steel) reduce stress concentrations by grinding the toes while
the weld is still hot.
13.6 Temper embrittlement

Temper embrittlement can occur in creep-resisting steels and weld metals
when exposed to temperatures within the 350-600°C range. This is caused
by the segregation of impurity elements such as Pb, S, Sb, Sn and Bi to
grain boundaries, thereby decreasing the notch toughness of the steel. This
can contribute to the risk of temper embrittlement. The occurrence of temper
embrittlement can be determined by measurement of the change in
transition temperature with a notched bar impact test, before and after heat
treatment. In most cases, the hardness and tensile properties of the material
will not show any change as a result of embrittlement, but the transition
temperature can be raised by as much as 100°C for embrittling heat
treatments. Embrittlement is fully reversible if the steel is reheated above
600°C and then cooled rapidly to below 300°C, but the best method of
avoidance is to reduce the embrittling impurities through control of raw
materials and steel production.
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Temper embrittlement can be assessed by a step cooling heat treatment, as

described in ASTM A387/A387M - 11 Standard Specification for Pressure
Vessel Plates, Alloy Steel, Chromium-Molybdenum. The heat treatment
involves heating samples in a furnace and holding at successively lower
temperatures, as shown below. This process is followed by Charpy testing
to determine a transition curve. The shift in Charpy transition temperature is
a measure of the embrittling effect of the impurities.
13.7 Type IV cracking

The thermal cycle to which the sub-critically heated regions of the HAZ are
subjected induces coarsening of alloy carbide and carbo-nitride precipitates,
thereby reducing the creep strength of this region. During extended elevated
temperature service, weldments are found to be creep-weak, with failure
occurring at the outer edge of the visible HAZ. The failure mechanism has
been referred to as mid-life cracking, as it occurred (commonly in pipes and
headers in steam service, in the power generation industry) after several
tens of thousands of hours service. From around 1990 onwards, grade 91
(9%Cr-1%Mo-V) steel has been used for pipe-work and for replacement
headers, without adequate consideration being given to the substantial
reduction in cross-weld creep strength that occurs in this steel during long
term service. The term type IV cracking is now more commonly used. It
occurs during long-term laboratory tests and in creep service, with the ratio
of cross-weld creep strength to parent metal creep strength decreasing
progressively as the stress is reduced (and therefore as the life is
increased). The strength ratio (typically for a 100,000 h life) is referred to as
the weld strength factor in European literature, but (rather confusingly) as
the weld strength reduction factor in North American literature.
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Equivalent time at 600°C calculated using L-M constant of C= 20

1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000
1.00
Grade 92
0.90
0.80 Grade 122

Weld strength factor
0.70
Grade 91
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000
Time at 650°C, h
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Revision Questions
1 Define creep and state various stages of it.
2 Name the major characteristics required by a creep-resistant material.
3 What effects do Cr and Mo have on steel?
4 What are the major problems encountered during welding of creep-resistant

steels?
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Section 14
Cryogenic Steels
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Cryogenic Steels
14 Cryogenic Steels
14.1 Cryogenic properties
Steels which are especially suitable for extremely low temperature service
are called cryogenic steels. There is a significant difference in the behaviour
of ferritic steels between low (sub-zero) and high temperatures. At sub-zero
temperatures, the dominant failure mechanism is brittle fracture; see the
ductile-brittle transition curves for steel below. However, at higher
temperatures (above the transition temperature), ductile fracture prevails.
Chemical processing equipment, including some oil and gas industry
installations, is required to work at sub-zero temperatures and thus the
behaviour of metals at temperatures down to -150°C needs consideration,
especially regarding welded design, where changes in section and welding
flaws may occur.
14.2 Applications of cryogenic steels

Gas Liquefaction temperature, oC Recommended material
Ammonia -33.4 Fine-grained, Al-treated
Propane (LPG) -45.5 Fine-grained Al-treated or
2.25%Ni steel
CO2 -78.5 3.5%Ni steel
Ethane -88.4
Ethylene -103.8 5-9%Ni
Methane -163
Oxygen -182.9
Argon -185.9
Nitrogen -195.8 Austenitic stainless steel
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14.3 Composition of cryogenic steels

Fine-grained steels can be used down to -60ºC, are widely employed for
LPG carriers, have low IIW CE and are produced by micro-alloying or
thermomechanically controlled processing, as summarised below. Fine-
grained steels are covered in more depth in a separate part of this course.
Al,Nb, V, Ti Nitrides and N

carbo-nitrides
Fine-grained steels
(increased strength
and toughness)
Normalising TMCP process Quenching and

and tempering tempering
Nickel is the most important alloying element that imparts low temperature
toughness to low carbon steels. Nickel steels have very good toughness
(down to -196°C for 9%Ni steels), a lower thermal expansion compared with
austenitic stainless steels and aluminium alloys and low thermal
conductivity. Varying amounts of nickel (up to 9%) are added and they have
low carbon content (less than 0.15%). The grouping system of nickel steels
according to ISO 15608 is:
The ability of Ni to improve low temperature properties of low carbon steels

is associated with two primary effects:
 Ferrite is the predominant phase in low carbon steels and nickel refines
the grain size of ferrite, which improves the notch toughness of the steel.
 In solid solution, nickel facilitates dislocation generation at low

temperatures, thus lowering the flow stress relative to the cohesive
strength level, with resultant gains in toughness.
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Cryogenic Steels
The effect of Ni addition on the Charpy impact toughness of steel is shown

below. At a sufficiently high temperature, fracture occurs by ductile tearing,
with high energy absorption. Lowering the test temperature eventually give
failure by brittle fracture, with low energy absorption. Non-nickel containing
steel has a transition temperature for the change from one fracture mode to
the other at best around -70oC, while the figure shows that the transition
temperature decreases to around -100oC for 3.5%Ni steel and to below
200oC for 9%Ni steel (as long as the level of impurities, particularly
phosphorus, is kept low).
Austenitic stainless steel (up to 8%Ni and 16-26%Cr) has a fully austenitic
structure and are used for cryogenic applications. Austenitic steels have
excellent toughness down to absolute zero (-273°C), with no ductile to brittle
transition.
14.4 Weldability of nickel steels

14.4.1 Ni steels (1-3.5%)
These low nickel steels can be treated as C-Mn, providing the effect of the
alloying on hardenability is taken into account. Hydrogen levels and preheat
in the range of 150-250oC need to be controlled. For the higher nickel
content, there is some increase in the risk of solidification cracking and
PWHT at 580-630oC may also be used. All arc welding processes can be
employed and MMA electrodes are generally of matching composition,
although high Ni electrodes of the Inconel type may rarely be used.
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14.4.2 Ni steels (5-6%)

The 5-6%Ni steels have a pearlitic/martensitic structure (QT steel) which
shows reduced toughness in the HAZ due to the increase in grain size in the
area heated by the weld thermal cycle to over 850°C. A low heat input
process is used to preserve the fine grain structure (<4.5kJ/mm); pulsed
welding can be beneficial and the interpass temperature should be a
maximum of 250°C; PWHT is carried out at 650°C, followed by rapid
cooling. Typical filler materials are Ni-based eg Inconel 82, Inconel 625.
Other weldability problems are similar to 9% Ni steel.
14.4.3 Ni steels (9%)

9%Ni steels must have a very low (maximum 0.006%) sulphur content to
avoid liquation and solidification cracking; hence they show no lamellar
tearing. They must have a very low (maximum 0.006%) phosphorus content
to achieve good low temperature toughness. They are not sensitive to stress
corrosion cracking and show a ductile martensitic structure (with maximum
hardness of 400HV) and have 5% retained austenite (QT steels). Austenite
in the structure acts as a sink for any hydrogen present and no preheat is
required for up to 50mm thickness, partly for this reason, but mainly
because they are welded with Ni-based fillers. They are welded using low
heat input (to avoid loss of toughness in the high temperature HAZ) and an
interpass temperature up to 250°C; PWHT is not normally required.
Hardness slightly increases in the HAZ near the fusion line where the
temperature exceeds 900°C, but this is associated with little drop in
toughness.
Filler materials are Ni-based: AWS A5.11 ENiCrMo-6 (EN ISO 14172 E Ni
6620) or ENiCrMo-3 (E Ni 6625). Therefore the weld metal under matches
the strength of the parent plate. The weld metal is also very viscous
(sluggish). Fully austenitic filler of type 16Cr-13Ni-Mn is prohibited, due to its
higher coefficient of thermal expansion than the parent metal and brittle
martensite formation near the fusion line. Cleanliness is very important to
avoid hot cracking and smooth blending between weld face and parent
metal is required to avoid any stress concentration. 9%Ni steel is strongly
ferro-magnetic and also has residual magnetism, which can give rise to arc
blow a problem during welding. AC current and demagnetisation before
welding may be required to overcome this.
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Cryogenic Steels
14.4.4 Weldability of fine-grained steels

Increasing the amount of acicular ferrite in the weld maintains high
toughness and a suitable welding consumable is required (eg a basic flux
based consumable). Slow cooling (due to high heat input) may result in a
coarser structure and should be avoided. Trace additions of Ti promote
acicular ferrite formation and boron reduces the amount of grain boundary
ferrite. Increasing the Mn content also promotes acicular ferrite, but with the
addition of 2-2.5%Ni, the Mn content must be lowered. The weld metal
should preferably contain 0.08-0.12%C and 0.02-0.06%O.
When welding, limit the heat input to approximately 4.0kJ/mm to avoid grain
growth; so preferably do not use single run procedures. In general, use only
basic filler materials and preheat to help avoid hydrogen-assisted cracking
and reduce shrinkage. No preheat is necessary for thickness up to 25mm
and IIW CE up to 0.40%; otherwise, the maximum preheat should be 150°C.
Limit the interpass temperature to approximately 250°C to avoid grain
growth. Post-heating is advisable (maintain the preheating time for 5min/mm
with a minimum 2h) and PWHT is optional. (It might be required only for
large thickness.)
14.5 Weldability of austenitic stainless steels

Welding consumables that are used for welding austenitic stainless steels
for cryogenic service have low carbon content and contain a controlled level
of a few percent of ferrite, rather than being entirely austenitic. The
presence of the ferrite guards against solidification cracking. Preheating is
not required; the maximum interpass temperature is usually 250°C and no
PWHT is applied.
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Revision Questions
1 List three major applications of cryogenic steels.
2 Why is the choice of a welding procedure more critical when the component is
to be used at sub-zero temperature?
3 What is the effect of Ni on the austenite to ferrite phase transformation

temperature?
4 What are the major problems encountered during the welding of 1-2%Ni steels
and how are they overcome?
5 How can we minimise the effect of reduction in toughness in the HAZ as a result
of welding Ni steels?
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Section 15
Aluminium and Light Alloys

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15 Aluminium and Light Alloys

15.1 Background
Aluminium has an FCC lattice structure. It forms a large number of alloys
with various other elements with a wide variation in mechanical properties,
dependent on the microstructure, composition and type of mechanical
working or heat treatment. Wrought aluminium alloys are classified into two
main classes: (a) Work hardening alloys (b) Heat treatable alloys.
15.2 Work hardening alloys

These are solid solution alloys whose strength can be enhanced by cold
working. All these alloys are weldable and do not respond to heat treatment.
15.3 Heat treatable alloys

Heat treatable alloys contain small quantities of elements such as Cu, Mg,
Zn and Si: for example, Al-Cu, Al-Cu-Mg, Al-Zn-Mg and Al-Mg-Si alloys.
They respond to heat treatment processes, in particular, precipitation
hardening. A full heat treatment consists of a solution treatment at 460-
530oC to form a uniform single phase solid solution followed by cold water
quenching that retains the solute in the solid solution. This is followed by an
ageing treatment either at room temperature (called natural ageing) or at
elevated temperature (artificial ageing) typically at 110-200oC. During
ageing, the dissolved solute is precipitated as particles of second phase
intermetallic compounds. The strength of the alloy depends on whether
these particles are coherent, semi-coherent or incoherent with the matrix.
These alloys are used in naturally aged or heat treated conditions. A
schematic of the ageing process is shown on the next page.
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Fast cooling (no

diffusion)
Single phase   supersaturated with

secondary 
Heat up to 200°C
(artificial ageing)
 supersaturated
 + fine precipitates
with secondary 
of 
Keep at room
temperature for an
extended period (natural
ageing)
 supersaturated
 + fine precipitates
with secondary 
of 
Heat to >200°C (over
ageing)
 supersaturated
+coarse ppts of 
with secondary 
15.4 Classification and temper designation of aluminium alloys

Aluminium alloys are usually classified by the four digit numbers originally
developed by The Aluminium Association. The first digit indicates the alloy
group, the last two digits indicate the specific aluminium alloy and the
second digit indicates modifications to primary alloys designated by the last
two digits.
1xxx pure Al
2xxx Al-Cu
3xxx Al-Mn
4xxx Al-Si
5xxx Al-Mg
6xxx Al-Mg-Si
7xxx Al-Zn
8xxx other elements
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1xxx, 3xxx and 5xxx alloys are non-heat treatable and have temper
designations, given as a letter (and two or three numbers) appended to the
four digit alloy designation, which indicate the alloy condition:
 F As fabricated – no control on mechanical properties.

 O Annealed, soft.
 H1x Strain hardened only.
 H2x Strain hardened and partially annealed.
 H3x Strain hardened and stabilised.
 H4x Strain hardened and lacquered or painted.
 Hx 24, 6, 8 – Quarter, half, three-quarters, fully hard eg H12, H24,
H36, H18.
2xxx, 4xxx, 6xxx, 7xxx and 8xxx are heat treatable and take one of the
following heat treatment designations as a suffix:
 T1 Cooled and naturally aged.

 T2 Cooled, cold-worked and naturally aged.
 T3 Solution treated, cold-worked and naturally aged.
 T4 Solution treated and naturally aged.
 T5 Cooled and artificially aged.
 T6 Solution treated and artificially aged.
 T7 Solution treated and overaged artificially.
Some examples of full aluminium alloy designations are; 1100-O which has
>99% Al+0.12Cu and is annealed; 2024-T3 which is alloy Al-4.4Cu-1.5Mg-
0.6Mn and is solution treated, cold-worked and naturally aged; 5052-H34
which is alloy Al-2.5Mg-0.25Cr and is cold-worked to the half hard condition.
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15.5 Weldability of aluminium alloys

15.5.1 Introduction
The main issues affecting the weldability of aluminium alloys are the
tenacious oxide film, the risk of hydrogen porosity, solidification crack
sensitivity at certain alloy compositions and loss of strength in the HAZ and
weld metal. However, it is important to recognise that welding aluminium is
very different to welding steel. It has high thermal conductivity so the heat
from the welding zone is quickly extracted. Its high thermal expansion
coefficient means that uneven expansion and contraction can occur during
welding, causing residual stresses and distortion. It does not change colour
before it melts which can be a disadvantage, since, in higher melting point
alloys, colour can be used as an indication of temperature during welding.
15.5.2 Porosity due to dissolved gases

Hydrogen can dissolve readily in molten aluminium, but the solubility
markedly reduces as the metal solidifies (shown below). This rejected gas
can then form porosity which may affect weld properties.
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There are several sources of hydrogen, the main ones being from the
workpiece and/or welding consumables:
 Filler wire
Sometimes filler wires contain contamination such as grease, dirt and
oxide (on to which moisture can be adsorbed).
 Shielding gases
Inert shielding gases are used in the MIG welding and TIG welding
processes. They can contain moisture and therefore hydrogen, the major
source of which could be plastic carrier pipes.
 Parent metal
Hydrogen may come from the parent metal, either due to contamination
on the metal surface (oxide with adsorbed moisture, grease, oil or paint)
or hydrogen dissolved within the metal, itself.
 Electrode coating
MMA electrode coatings are hygroscopic (absorb moisture). When these
electrodes are used, the absorbed moisture adds hydrogen to the weld.
However, the MMA process is rarely used for welding aluminium.
Porosity can be controlled by cleaning parent metal and consumable

surfaces before welding, storing electrodes in a moisture-free environment
and ensuring good quality gas shielding conditions, however the pipes
carrying shielding gases must be free from moisture.
15.5.3 Aluminium oxide film

Aluminium forms a strong surface oxide coating which is thin but strongly
adherent to the parent metal surface and dense enough to provide corrosion
resistance. Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) melts at 1926°C, whereas, pure
aluminium melts at 660°C. During welding, the Al2O3 layer can affect the
weld quality in two ways: firstly Al2O3 can hold moisture and grease which
are sources of hydrogen that can cause porosity in the welded structure.
Secondly, particles or films of Al2O3 remain solid during welding and
become trapped in the weld metal. This can result in the presence of oxide
films or lack-of-fusion, with concomitant reduction of ductility and strength.
The oxide coating must be removed prior to welding. Several mechanical,

chemical and electrical cleaning methods are available. Mechanical removal
can be achieved using suitable abrasive, eg emery paper, files or burrs, dry
machining, etc. Chemical removal utilises alkaline or acidic solutions, eg
sodium hydroxide solutions or butyl alcohol/phosphoric acid. Flux cleaning
can be employed by use of appropriate welding fluxes. Cathodic cleaning
blasts away the oxide coating during half cycle of the AC current in TIG
welding, or when using electrode positive DC welding. Pre-cleaning
requirements are especially stringent when using direct current electrode
negative TIG, as the arc exerts no additional cleaning action.
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15.5.4 Solidification cracking

Solidification cracking, also called hot cracking or hot tearing, is a
mechanism of cracking which develops during the solidification process.
The sensitivity to hot cracking is affected by alloy composition, because of
the influences of alloying on such parameters as freezing range, volume of
eutectic liquid, shrinkage strain etc. Susceptibility to solidification can be
represented for various aluminium alloys by a curve showing crack length
versus weight percent of the solute.
At low solute levels, any liquid films between solidifying crystals are thin or
discontinuous and the weld has reasonable resistance to cracking. At high
solute levels, there is sufficient eutectic liquid to back-fill cavities, created by
shrinkage of the solidifying metal and prevent cracking. However, at
intermediate levels of solute the level of eutectic liquid is such that the liquid
films form continuously between the solidifying metal crystals creating ready
paths for cracking, as the shrinkage strains develop. Since the sensitivity to
hot cracking is affected by variations in composition, dissimilar filler metals
can be employed to adjust weld pool compositions to more favourable
ranges. However, it is important to control the levels of dilution in such
welds, as high dilution of the filler metal by the parent material will shift the
weld pool composition back to potentially solidification sensitive levels.
Those aspects of the welding procedure which affect dilution are joint
configuration, variations in bevel angle, root gap, torch manipulation, etc.
Levels of dilution which are acceptable for welding carbon steels might not
be acceptable for welding of aluminium alloys.
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15.5.5 Loss of joint strength

Welding work-hardened alloys creates an annealed structure in the weld
and HAZ. It is not usually possible to recover the work-hardened strength of
completed components, so the joint is normally designed using the
annealed strength of the products. Sometimes, it is possible to locally
thicken structures adjacent to welds to accommodate this strength loss. The
dimensions of thickened regions need to accommodate the typically wide
HAZs which form in these high conductivity alloys. When age-hardened
alloys are welded, they also suffer softening in HAZs and weld metals are
also likely to have lower strengths than the parent metal. Guidance on the
as-welded strengths of heat treatable alloys is available in design codes and
may call for a reduction of up 50% of the age-hardened parent metal
strength within the weld zone.
Postweld heat treatment (PWHT) is occasionally employed to optimise joint

strength. As solution treatment may not be feasible for many completed
items, due to the likelihood of excessive distortion, PWHTs are likely to be
restricted to ageing. However, as dissimilar composition fillers are used for
heat treatable alloys, weld dilution will affect the response of the weld metal
and full T6 properties are unlikely to be created by the ageing of HAZs. The
exceptions are some 7xxx alloys, for which substantial recovery of HAZ
strength can occur by natural ageing. The important point is that the actual
weld strengths obtained by PWHT depend on weld procedure and whether
the material is in the solution treated or fully heat treated state before
welding. Local thickening can also be employed in the same manner as for
work hardening alloys.
15.6 Choice of filler metal

When choosing the optimum filler alloy, the application (end use) of the
welded part and its desired performance must be prime considerations.
Many alloys and alloy combinations can be joined using any one of several
filler alloys, but only one filler may be optimal for a specific application. The
primary factors to be considered when selecting filler metals are:
 Ease of welding.
 Sensitivity to weld cracking.
 Tensile strength of the weld.
 Weld ductility.
 Service temperature.
 Corrosion resistance.
 Colour match between the weld and the base alloy after anodising.
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Parent Filler metal (s) Heat Applications

metal treatable?
1xxx 1080A No Chemical plant, architecture
1200 (4047 prevents weld metal
4043A cracking where there is high
dilution)
4047A
3xxx 3103 No Buildings, heat exchangers
4043A
4047A
5xxx 5554 No Marine, automotive
5154A
5356
5556A
6xxx 4043A Yes Structural, automotive
5356
7xxx 5556A Yes Aerospace, defence
15.7 Application of welding processes

The main arc welding processes for welding aluminium and its alloys are
TIG, MIG. TIG is used for welding thinner sections, using AC current gives
half a cycle of cathodic cleaning in both manual and automatic processes.
MIG is used for heavier sections. MMA is rarely used now since it has poor
arc stability. It is possible to use gas welding (oxyacetylene or oxy-hydrogen
flame) with a flux and filler using a neutral flame. The difficulties with welding
aluminium alloys with traditional arc welding processes have meant that
aluminium alloys are increasingly welded using newer welding processes
such as laser welding or friction stir welding. Lasers have a concentrated
heat source which counters the high thermal conductivity of aluminium and
reduces distortion. Friction stir welding is a solid state welding process
which therefore avoids the problems of porosity and cracking in welds.
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15.8 Titanium alloys

Pure titanium forms a stable oxide layer, which is corrosion and oxidation
resistant. It is lightweight with high strength and high ductility and the
weldability is good. In pure titanium, there is a phase change from α phase
to β phase at 883°C.
Alloy type Comment

Pure titanium 99% pure titanium
α-stabilisers are Al, O, N, C
Low temperature phase
α (alpha) alloy
Low tensile properties
Non-heat-treatable
β-stabilisers are Cr, V, Mo, Cu, Mn, Ni
β-phase is metastable
β (beta) alloy Good formability
Highest strength and toughness from grain
refinement
Both α and β phases are present
Heat treatable
α-β (alpha-beta) alloy
Mechanical properties and weldability are
sensitive to the ratio of α to β phase
TIG or plasma welding is best suited to welding titanium. It is also possible

to weld titanium with laser, electron beam, resistance welding and friction
processes. Matching filler is usually used when arc welding and additional
gas shielding is required to protect hot weld metal and HAZ from the
atmosphere since at high temperature the weld absorbs atmospheric gases
rapidly. The main welding problems are contamination from the atmosphere
and from moisture and may result in weld embrittlement. Also, porosity can
occur when hydrogen becomes absorbed into the weld pool.
15.9 Magnesium alloys

Magnesium is the lightest structural metal, it is approximately 2/3 the density
of aluminium. However, alloying elements, such as Al, Mn, Zn and Zr, can
result in strengths equal to that of mild steel. Thus, alloys have excellent
strength to weight ratios. The alloys are either heat treatable or work
hardening like aluminium alloys. The material has high thermal conductivity
and thermal expansion coefficient, low melting point and forms a protective
MgO oxide layer, in a similar way to aluminium.
The weldability of magnesium alloys is improved by adding 10% Al since

this has a grain refinement effect. Sometimes stress relieving is necessary
to avoid stress corrosion cracking of alloys in corrosive service. High Zn
(>1%) alloys are prone to hot cracking and Mg-Zn alloys are sometimes
considered unweldable. The welding processes used are mainly TIG using
AC current, but resistance welding, oxyfuel gas welding are also possible.
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Revision Questions
1 What is the difference between heat treatable and non-heat treatable alloys?
Give one example from each group.
2 Explain the temper designation of Al alloys
3 What factors determine the weldability of aluminium alloys?
4 Which are important factors considered during choosing a filler metal?
5 What factors contribute to solidification cracking in aluminium alloys?
6 How is porosity of a weld in aluminium controlled?
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Section 16
Joining Dissimilar Metals

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16 Joining Dissimilar Metals

16.1 Differences in physical properties
When arc welding two dissimilar materials a number of aspects need to be
considered in addition to those associated with welding similar materials.
From a practical viewpoint, it may not be possible to make a fusion weld if
the two materials have significantly different melting points or thermal
conductivities, as it is essential to have controlled melting on both sides of
the joint simultaneously; otherwise there is a risk of lack-of-fusion and flaws.
16.2 Metallurgical incompatibility

Even if it is possible to fuse the metals, it may not be possible to produce an
adequate joint if the two materials are metallurgically incompatible.
Metallurgical incompatibility may lead to uncontrollable weld metal or HAZ
cracking, or a weld metal microstructure that cannot provide adequate
mechanical or corrosion performance. This may occur, for example, when
unacceptable levels of martensite or intermetallic phases are formed. The
fusion boundary region can have a range of compositions between that of
the parent metal and weld metal and may contain microstructures that are
unacceptable for service.
16.3 Recommendations for dissimilar welding

16.3.1 Introduction
The main types of dissimilar welded joints used in service are between two
different ferritic steels, eg C-Mn steel and creep-resistant steel, between a
ferritic steel and a stainless steel (usually an austenitic stainless steel) and
sometimes between two different stainless steels.
Other types of joints may be made between two non-ferrous metals such as
copper and aluminium, or between steel and a non-ferrous metal. These are
less common and can sometimes only be made by mechanical means or by
using specialised processes such as friction welding or electron beam
welding.
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16.4 Welding two different ferritic steels

When welding two different ferritic steels, such as Cr-Mo creep-resistant
steel and C-Mn steel, the filler material is selected to match the weakest
parent material strength. The preheat and maximum interpass temperature
must match the requirements for the highest alloy material, since this will be
the more susceptible to hydrogen cracking. The PWHT temperature is likely
to be a compromise between the requirements of the two steels. Where Cr-
containing alloy steels are subsequently exposed to elevated temperature,
carbon migration into the higher alloyed material will occur, giving carbon-
enriched and carbon-depleted zones on each side of the fusion boundary.
The consequences of this phenomenon must be considered when selecting
a welding consumable. Particularly where one of the steels to be welded is
very resistant to tempering and PWHT is required, one approach is to butter
the joint face with two layers of weld metal, give a PWHT at the appropriate
temperature, complete the joint and give a second PWHT at the
temperature appropriate to the second steel.
16.5 Welding ferritic steel to stainless steel

When welding C-Mn steel to stainless steel, the general recommendations
are to preheat only if necessary, keep the interpass temperature below
150°C and generally to avoid PWHT, since these precautions will prevent
problems such as sigma phase formation in the stainless steel. When C-Mn
steel or a Cr-containing steel and stainless steel or another Cr-containing
steel have been melted together in a weld pool, there is a risk that carbon
will diffuse to the higher chromium steel side during any subsequent
exposure of the weldment to elevated temperature, leaving a carbon-
depleted zone in the ferritic steel HAZ, while the higher chromium weld
metal becomes carbon-enriched, which can cause sensitisation or weld
decay. There is also a possibility of martensite formation at the ferritic steel
fusion line, giving a risk of hydrogen cracking. High dilution of some
austenitic stainless steel grades could result in weld metal compositions that
are sensitive to solidification cracking. Guidance on the choice of welding
consumable for dissimilar joints relevant to the power industry is given in
Table 2 of AWS D10.8-96. A range of consumables, mainly stainless steels,
is available for the welding of dissimilar joints, particularly when one of the
steels is a stainless steel, as discussed below.
Type 309L (24% Cr - 12%Ni) stainless steel allows the deposition of weld
metal with a -ferrite content up to 15%, which reduces the sensitivity to hot
cracking, compared with the fully austenitic type 310 deposits. This filler
material is currently the most commonly applied when joining C-Mn steels to
austenitic stainless grades. It can also be used for welding martensitic
stainless steels. However, low carbon 309 filler metals are not suitable for
applications where PWHT is required and for service temperatures above
400°C. This is because at such temperatures, -ferrite tends to transform
into  phase, which is hard and brittle.
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This happens relatively quickly at the typical PWHT temperatures for ferritic
steels and in the mid/long-term for high service temperatures. A higher
carbon variant has higher elevated temperature strength and is suitable for
elevated temperature exposure.
Type 312 (29%Cr – 9%Ni) stainless steel can be used for welding
hardenable steels (and can be used also for welding free-machining steels).
The high -ferrite content of this weld metal increases its tolerance to
dilution. The weld metal embrittles if subjected to PWHT. It should be used
neither for low temperature applications, nor for elevated temperature
service (above 300°C).
Type 310 (26%Cr - 21%Ni - 3.5%Mn) stainless steel deposits a fully

austenitic weld metal, with the Mn giving resistance to solidification cracking
and microfissuring. It can be subjected to PWHT and is suitable for
cryogenic applications. However, as the weld metal has a relatively high
coefficient of thermal expansion, it is not suitable for joints that may be
subjected to thermal cycling, as thermal fatigue may occur.
Type 307 (19%Cr – 10%Ni - 4%Mn - 1%Mo) stainless steel deposits a fully
austenitic weld metal, with the Mn giving resistance to solidification cracking.
The weld metal can be subjected to PWHT and is suitable for low
temperature applications.
Even when two materials are metallurgically incompatible, it may be

possible to make a satisfactory weld using a suitable filler metal that is
compatible with both. Where a welding consumable with a composition
similar to one of the materials is not appropriate, a Ni-based filler may be
adopted. Alloy 625 has been widely used. However, for high temperature
applications, EPRI and Metrode have developed EPRI P87, a Ni-based filler
metal, which contains a high Fe content and 9%Cr, the latter reducing
carbon migration during elevated temperature exposure when used to weld
9%Cr steels, thereby giving resistance to carbide formation at the fusion
boundary. Uses include welding Cr-Mo steels (including grade 91) to
themselves or to austenitic stainless steel. Under appropriate
circumstances, joints may be left as-welded or subjected to a PWHT or to
normalising and tempering. Buttered joint faces may be subjected to a
normalising and tempering treatment in a fabrication shop and the joint
completed in the field and left as-welded.
16.6 Welding two different stainless steels

The Schaeffler diagram, which is discussed below, can be used to identify
suitable fillers when combinations of stainless and other steels are welded.
The weld metal composition may be predicted (accounting for dilution) and
the likely cracking or embrittlement mechanisms identified.
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In general, unless hardenable alloy steels are being welded, preheat should
not be applied when welding austenitic stainless steels (to avoid
carbide/sigma phase precipitation). One exception is welding martensitic
stainless steels, when a 150-200°C preheat needs to be applied to avoid
cold cracking. However, it may be necessary to lower the temperature below
the Mf temperature prior to PWHT, to ensure full transformation to
martensite before, rather than after, PWHT. In general, keep the heat input
low. For fully austenitic weld metal, take precautions against hot cracking, ie
use filler with a minimum of 4%Mn.
16.7 NDT of dissimilar metal weldments

One final consideration when making dissimilar welds between C-Mn steels
and stainless steels is how they are going to be inspected. Ultrasonic testing
has difficulties with austenitic material, but is good for ferritic steels. The two
materials will have different permeability for radiography, making
radiographs harder to interpret, especially at the most critical fusion line.
Magnetic particle inspection is unsuitable for austenitic stainless steels and
Ni-base alloys.
16.8 Using the schaeffler diagram

The Schaeffler diagram is used to predict microstructural phases in stainless
steel weld metal. The nickel and chromium equivalents are read on the Y
and X axes, respectively and a point is plotted for each steel composition.
Ni eq = %Ni + 30 x %C + 0.5 x %Mn
Cr eq = %Cr + %Mo + 1.5 x %Si + 0.5 x %Nb
By plotting points for the two different parent metals, the average parent
metal composition may be estimated, weighted, if appropriate, by
accounting for the relative thicknesses of the parent metals and the joint
design. By then plotting a point on the Schaeffler diagram for the filler metal,
it is possible to estimate the weld metal composition, taking into account the
welding process and consumable, joint design and hence the dilution with
the parent metal of the weighted average composition. The point
representing the overall weld metal composition can then be used to predict
any cracking, embrittlement or weldability problems that might occur. An
example of the method is given for welding a 304L austenitic stainless steel
to a C-Mn steel using a 309L filler, the joint design is such that there is 30%
dilution of the weld metal with each parent metal.
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AWS D10.8-96, 1996 Recommended practices for welding of chromium-

molybdenum steel piping and tubing, American Welding Society.
Step 1: Find Creq and Nieq for the two parent metals.
Step 2: Find average parent (base) metal composition (P).
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Welding
consumable
P
A
Step 3: Find Creq and Nieq for the filler metal.
F
P
WM (30%
P
dilution)
Step 4: Find the composition of the weld metal (WM).
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WM (30% dilution)
Step 5: Assess the likely weldability problems associated with the weld
metal point.
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Revision Questions
1 How is the Schaeffler diagram used to assess the weldability of a dissimilar joint
and filler combination?
2 Compare the precautions that should be taken when welding two different C-Mn
steels to when welding two different stainless steels.
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Section 17
Welding Other Alloys

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17 Welding Other Alloys

17.1 Cast iron
Cast irons are iron-based alloys containing more than 2% and up to 7%C, 1-
3%Si and up to 1%Mn. As cast irons are relatively inexpensive, very easily
cast into complex shapes and readily machined, they are an important
engineering and structural group of materials. Unfortunately not all grades
are weldable and special precautions are normally required even with the
so-called weldable grades.
17.2 Types of cast iron

The composition of and structure of the cast irons allow categorisation that
can be related to the weldability of each type of cast iron. Compositionally,
the groupings can be related to the carbon and silicon contents of the
castings.
5
%C+1/3Si = 4.3
4.5
Spheroidal irons
3.5
C Content, %
3 Grey irons
2.5
White irons
2
Malleable irons
1.5
1
%C+1/6Si=2.0
Steels
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Si Content, %
As there is some overlap of these compositional ranges, the processing of

the cast irons influences which type of cast iron is obtained.
The iron-carbon diagram can assist in identifying which type of cast iron will
be obtained.
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For a typical composition in the range shown, all types of cast iron can be
obtained.
Fast Cooling Moderate Cooling Slow Cooling

Pearlite + Fe3C Pearlite + graphite Ferrite + graphite
flakes flakes Additions of Mg or Ce
White cast iron Pearlitic grey cast Ferritic grey cast iron
iron
Reheat: Hold at approximately 800-860°C for at least

30-60 hours.
(Oxidising atmosphere - whiteheart malleable cast iron
Reducing or neutral atmosphere - blackheart cast iron)
Fast Cooling Slow Cooling

Pearlite + graphite Ferrite + graphite
rosettes rosettes
Moderate cooling Slow Cooling

Pearlite + graphite Ferrite + graphite
nodules nodules
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Grey cast iron

Grey cast iron contains 2-4.5%C and 1-3%Si. The structure consists of
branched and interconnected graphite flakes in a matrix of pearlite, ferrite or
a mixture of the two. The graphite flakes form planes of weakness and so
strength, ductility and toughness are inferior to those of structural steels.
Grey cast iron has moderate strength (up to 275MPa), excellent
machinability and can be welded with difficulty, but weldability depends
upon the alloy additions.
Pearlitic grey cast iron.
Nodular cast iron

The mechanical properties of grey iron can be greatly improved if the
graphite shape is modified to eliminate planes of weakness, such
modification is possible if molten iron with a composition in the range 3.2-
4.5%C and 1.8-2.8%Si, is treated with magnesium or cerium additions
before casting. This produces castings with graphite in spheroidal form
instead of flakes, known as nodular, spheroidal graphite (SG) or ductile iron.
Nodular irons are available with pearlite, ferrite or pearlite-ferrite matrices
which offer a combination of greater ductility and higher tensile strength than
grey cast irons. Nodular cast iron has good machinability, the highest
strength and ductility of the cast irons and is readily welded.
Ferritic matrix nodular cast iron.
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White cast iron

By reducing the carbon and silicon content and cooling rapidly, much of the
carbon is retained in the form of iron carbide without graphite flakes.
However, iron carbide, or cementite, is extremely hard and brittle and these
castings are used where high hardness and wear resistance is needed, but
they are unweldable.
Malleable cast irons

These are produced by extended time (30-60hours or more at 850°C or so)
heat treatment of closely controlled compositions of white irons which then
decompose to give carbon rosettes dispersed in a ferrite or pearlitic matrix.
As the compact shape of the carbon does not reduce the matrix ductility to
the same extent as graphite flakes, a useful level of ductility is obtained.
Malleable iron may be divided into two classes; whiteheart and blackheart.
Both forms can have a matrix of ferrite or pearlite, depending on the cooling
rate (see phase diagram, above).
17.2.1 Welding cast irons
The partially melted zone is the most critical region in a weld in cast iron.
The high cooling rate means that metal can freeze as white iron (with the
highest hardness). To reduce the severity of cracking problems it is
important to select the proper filler metal and for the peak temperature and
time at high temperature to be reduced by control of the heat input, preheat
and interpass temperature.
Oxyacetylene welding
Because of the relatively low temperature heat source, oxyacetylene
welding will require a higher preheat than MMA. Penetration and dilution is
low and the wide HAZ and slow cooling will produce a soft microstructure.
Oxyacetylene welding is used with a slightly reducing flame and the
consumable has a slightly higher carbon and silicon content to match the
weld deposit.
Arc welding
There are two basic methods to avoid HAZ cracking when arc welding cast
irons – welding hot with high preheat and very slow cooling or welding cold
keeping the cast iron as cool as possible. Preheat helps to reduce residual
stresses and distortion and slows the cooling rate, resulting in lower
hardness and risk of cracking. It should be based on the microstructure and
strength of the casting and the higher the carbon content, the higher the
preheat temperature. Malleable or nodular cast irons usually require lower
preheat than grey cast irons. A casting with a complex shape usually
requires a higher preheat to control residual stresses and when welding
different thickness, preheat the thick member to decrease its heat sink.
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PWHT improves HAZ ductility, improves the machinability of the weld and
HAZ, reduces the brittleness of martensite formed during welding and
relieves residual stresses. It is carried out by burying the entire casting in
sand or vermiculite, by transferring the casting to a furnace or by covering
the casting with an insulated blanket. It’s also possible to postheat with a
torch. Peening of the weld with a round ballpeen hammer after welding
reduces stresses.
MMA is widely used in the fabrication and repair of cast, the disadvantage is
greater weld pool penetration and parent metal dilution, but using electrode
negative polarity will help to reduce the HAZ size. Ranges of MMA
consumables are available and can be used on weld and repair jobs. When
using the hot technique, cast iron electrodes are often used. The intense,
high temperature arc enables higher welding speeds and lower preheat
levels with the flux coating improving arc stability, reducing porosity and
adding alloying elements to give a near-matching weld deposit (with nodular
graphite structure). When opting for the cold technique, Ni-base electrodes
are usually used (replacing Cu-based fillers). Nickel does not form carbides
so carbon is rejected from the weld area as graphite, therefore the weld
metal volume increases and there is less risk of HAZ cracking, but they can
be sensitive to hot cracking (especially high Ni electrodes), which means
that dilution must be limited. Welds have generally higher strength and
ductility than with cast iron electrodes. With nickel filler the bevel angle
needs to be wider because nickel forms a very viscous metal weld pool.
MIG and FCAW can be used to weld cast irons, mainly using dip transfer.
They can achieve high deposition rates, whilst limiting the amount of weld
penetration. Solid wires used are nickel, Monel (70Ni-30Cu) or copper
alloys; cored wires used are Ni-Fe or Ni-Fe-Mn.
Weld face grooving creates an irregular weld interface to give less risk of
cracking. In the first step grooves are ground into the surface of the weld
prep and then filled with weld beads. Hence, the beads in contact with the
casting are deposited first when stresses at the fusion line are lowest and in
the second step the whole joint is filled.
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17.3 Nickel and nickel alloys

17.3.1 Solid solution strengthened alloys
Nickel alloys have excellent corrosion resistance (200 to over 1090°C) and
superior high temperature properties and heat resistance in addition to good
low temperature properties. Solid solution strengthened alloys contain
additions of principally chromium (high temperature and corrosion
protection), cobalt, copper (improved ductility), iron (high temperature,
strength), molybdenum (corrosion resistance), tungsten and vanadium.
Elements such as titanium, niobium and aluminium can be added to reduce
oxygen content and hence porosity, when welding.
Commercial solid solution strengthened alloys include:
Commercially pure (>99.5%) Ni, corrosion resistant, thermal expansion and

melting point similar to steel, used in chemical processing, electronics:
 Alloy 400 (Ni + 31.5%Cu)

Highly corrosion resistant in seawater, sulphuric and hydrofluoric acids.
 Alloy 600 (Ni + 15.5%Cr + 8%Fe)

Resists oxidising and reducing environments and severe corrosion at
temperature.
 Alloy 625 (Ni + 21.5%Cr, 2.5%Fe, 9%Mo, 3.6%(Nb +Ta)

Has excellent strength and toughness from cryogenic to high
temperature; oxidation, corrosion and fatigue resistant.
 Alloy 825 (Ni + 30%Fe, 21.5%Cr, 3%Mo, 2.25%Cu)

Have excellent corrosion and pitting resistance, used for service in
reducing acids and oxidising chemicals.
17.3.2 Precipitation hardened alloys

Controlled precipitation of the gamma prime phase within the nickel alloy
matrix strengthens these alloys. Precipitation can be caused either by heat
treatment or during slow cooling after casting. The range of alloying
elements used and the application of each of these elements is broadly the
same as for solution-hardened steels, however, the overall composition of
the alloy and the heat treatments used will be different. A commercial,
wrought, precipitation-hardened alloy is Waspaloy (Ni + 19.5%Cr, 13.5%Co,
4.3%Mo, 3.0%Ti, 1.4%Al, 2.0%Fe), which has excellent high temperature
strength and oxidation resistance up to 650°C.
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17.3.3 Welding nickel alloys

Pure nickel has extremely good weldability and can be welded using MMA,
TIG, MIG and SAW. The majority of the solid solution alloys may be welded
using MMA, TIG or MIG, with some alloys also weldable using SAW. The
precipitation hardened grades are more difficult to weld because of their
lower ductility and innate susceptibility to weld/HAZ cracking. However, with
care, many precipitation hardened grades may be welded using TIG and a
few grades also with MIG and MMA. SAW methods should not be used on
precipitation hardened nickel alloys. When welding precipitation hardened
alloys, start with the solution annealed or over-aged condition and then
PWHT to restore strength.
Nickel alloys are considered easily weldable to themselves and similar

materials using resistance welding techniques. When arc welding,
comprehensive gas shielding is needed generally argon, helium or Ar-He
mixtures. Ar + 5%H2 can only be used for single pass TIG welds since
hydrogen produces a hotter arc, but there is a danger of porosity in multi-
pass welds. Nickel alloys can also be laser and electron beam welded in a
similar manner to stainless steel.
When welding solid solution and precipitation hardened alloys, the annealed
and solution treated conditions should be used, respectively. Preheat is
generally neither required nor recommended to reduce the risk of porosity
due to moisture, the joint may be warmed to above ambient temperature
(>20°C) to drive off any condensates. If the material is in contact with
caustic soda, or HF acid, stress corrosion cracking is possible so residual
stress can be reduced by PWHT.
As a general rule, filler material for welding nickel alloys matches the parent
material; however, most filler materials contain small quantities of oxygen-
removing elements, such as aluminium, titanium and/or niobium to help
reduce the risk of porosity or cracking during welding.
17.4 Weldability problems

Despite the good weldability of nickel alloys, there are still a number of
potential flaws in the weld and HAZ. Generally the occurrence of all flaws
may be minimised by improving cleanliness before and during welding.
Solidification cracking
Hot cracking results from low melting point solute elements segregating to
the weld centreline. Sulphur, even very small quantities, can cause hot
cracking. Mn and Nb additions in filler metals are used to combine with S to
avoid this. Pb, B, P and Bi also form low melting eutectics. The problem may
be minimised by reducing the welding speed to produce a deeper weld pool
and improve depth-to-width ratio and having a small grain size.
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Porosity
The principal cause of porosity is entrapment of slag/surface oxide/air (O2
and N2)/surface contamination (yielding O2 and H2), which become
incorporated into the weld pool during welding. To avoid porosity, attention
must be paid to the cleanliness of the joint preparation and the effectiveness
of the gas shield in TIG and MIG welding processes. Preheat might be
required to remove moisture condensation. Adding oxygen-removing
agents, such as aluminium, titanium (also Mn, Si or Fe), can also help
reduce porosity. Aluminium and titanium can form small islands/slag spots
so interpass cleaning is critical.
Oxide inclusions
Slag and surface oxide can also cause particulate inclusions. Oxides of Ti,
Nb, Cr and Ni itself all have much higher melting temperatures than the
base metal, so oxides trapped in the weld pool form inclusions. Surface
oxide, especially that formed at high temperature, must be removed by
machining or grinding (wire brush only polishes it making it harder to see but
still present).
Lack of sidewall fusion

Molten nickel weld metal is very viscous which means that the bevel angle
may need to be increased and accurate weld metal placement is required,
to avoid lack of sidewall fusion when welding.
17.5 Copper and copper alloys

17.5.1 Welding pure copper
Copper and copper alloys are chosen because of their corrosion resistance
and electrical and thermal conductivity. Copper metal has an fcc crystalline
structure that melts at 1083°C. Its main features are outstanding thermal
and electrical conductivity and good atmospheric oxidation and corrosion
resistance. Copper is extremely tough while being very ductile and has a
thermal expansion coefficient 1.3 times than that of steel.
Copper, because of its high thermal conductivity, may need substantial

preheat to counteract the very high heat sink. Thin section material can be
welded without preheat, however, over 5mm thickness all grades need
preheat to produce a fluid weld pool and avoid lack of fusion defects. The
high energy density of electron beam welding makes it useful for thick
sections.
Sometimes it is easier to braze pure copper than to weld it, however, the
preferred welding processes are TIG and MIG. Helium-rich shielding gases
may be used instead of pure argon as they give a higher arc voltage. When
fusion welding pure copper, high oxygen content in the material may lead to
embrittlement in the HAZ and weld metal porosity. Phosphorus deoxidised
copper is more weldable but residual oxygen can result in porosity in
autogenous welds, especially in the presence of hydrogen.
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Porosity can also result from the presence of hydrogen in the hot solid
metal, from moisture and is best avoided by using appropriate filler wire
containing deoxidants (Al, Mn, Si, P and Ti), using dry inert gases and
drying electrodes and fluxes before welding.
High levels of distortion and residual stress can result when welding copper
due to the high thermal expansion coefficient and this can lead to weld or
HAZ cracks. To avoid this, preheat and free expansion of components
during welding are required.
17.5.2 Brasses
Brasses are alloys of copper and zinc. When considering weldability,
brasses can be conveniently separated into two groups, low (up to 20%)
and high (30-40%) Zn. Nickel silvers contain 20-45%Zn and Ni to improve
strength. Low zinc alloys have higher ductility, while higher zinc brasses
have lower ductility. The main problem in fusion welding these alloys is the
volatility of zinc which results in white fumes of zinc oxide and weld metal
porosity. Only low zinc brasses are normally considered suitable for fusion
welding using the TIG and MIG processes.
To minimise porosity, a zinc-free filler wire should be used, either silicon

bronze or an aluminium bronze. High welding speeds will reduce pore
coarseness. TIG and MIG processes are used with argon or argon-helium
mixture. For oxyacetylene welding an oxidising flame is used. Preheat is
normally used for low (<20%) Zn to avoid lack of fusion defects because of
the high thermal conductivity, although preheat is not needed in higher zinc
content alloys.
17.5.3 Bronzes
There are several types of bronzes:
 Phosphor bronze contains 1-10% tin and up to 0.4% phosphorus and

can be welded using matching filler.
 Silicon bronze contains typically 3%Si and 1%Mn and is probably the
easiest bronze to weld.
 Gun metal is essentially tin bronze with up to 5%Zn and may additionally
have up to 5%Pb. The higher lead content alloys are considered
unweldable due to hot cracking problems in the weld metal and HAZ.
Bronzes are generally considered weldable (apart from leaded gun metal)
and a matching filler composition is normally employed.
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17.5.4 Aluminium bronze

There are essentially two types of aluminium bronze; single phase alloys
containing 5-10%Al, with a small amount of iron and two phase alloys
containing up to 12%Al and about 5%Fe with specific alloys also containing
nickel, manganese and silicon. Gas shielded welding processes are
preferred for welding this latter group of alloys. In TIG welding, the presence
of a tenacious, refractory oxide film requires AC (with argon shielding), or
DC (with a helium shielding gas). Preheat is not normally required except
when welding thick section components.
Single phase alloys can be susceptible to weld metal cracking and HAZ
cracking can occur under highly restrained conditions. It is often necessary
to use matching filler metals to maintain corrosion resistance but a non-
matching, two phase, filler will reduce the cracking risk. Two phase alloys
are more easily welded. Rigorous cleaning of the material surface is
essential, both before and after each run, to avoid porosity.
17.5.5 Copper nickel alloys

Copper nickel alloys (cupronickels) contain 5-30%Ni with specific alloys
having additions of iron and manganese; 90/10 and 70/30 (Cu/Ni) alloys are
commonly welded grades. These alloys are single phase and generally
considered readily weldable using inert gas processes and to a lesser
extent, MMA. Matching filler is normally used but 70/30 is often regarded as
universal filler for these alloys. Cupronickel alloys have a thermal
conductivity similar to low carbon steel and can normally be fusion welded
without preheat.
As the alloys do not contain deoxidants, autogenous welding is not

recommended because of porosity. Filler metal compositions contain
typically 0.2-0.5%Ti to prevent weld metal porosity. Argon shielding gas is
normally used for both TIG and MIG but in the former, an Ar-H2 mixture, with
appropriate filler, improves weld pool fluidity and produces a cleaner weld
bead. Argon gas backing is usually recommended, especially in pipe
welding, to produce an oxide-free root underbead.
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Revision Questions
1 Compare welding cast iron using oxyacetylene and MMA processes.
2 What are the two main types of nickel alloy? What applications is nickel alloys
used for?
3 What filler would you select for welding brass and why?
4 Are cupronickels weldable and if so, how would you weld them?
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Atoms
Atom - the smallest • The main atomic particles are:
possible particle of a – protons (in the nucleus).
chemical element that
– neutrons (in the nucleus).
retains its chemical
properties. – electrons (orbit the nucleus).
Crystalline Structure • Number of protons (atomic number)
determines the chemical element.
• Number of neutrons determines the
TWI Training and Examination Services isotopes of an element  different
atomic mass.
EWF/IIW Diploma Course
• Number of valence electrons
governs the bonding behaviour.
Copyright © TWI Ltd 2012 Copyright © TWI Ltd 2012
Chemical Bonds Ionic Bond

• Physical phenomenon of substances being held together • A metal donates an electron atoms
by attraction of atoms. (becoming a positive ion) and a non-
metal accepts this electron
• Can determine some of the physical properties of a (becoming a negative ion). Transfer of
substance (eg melting point, conductivity). electron
• These ions are attracted to each

Chemical other by electrostatic forces.
bonds
positive negative
Ionic compounds: ion ion
• Tend to have high melting points.
• Become electrically conductive when melted or dissolved.
Ionic bond Covalent Metallic • Are generally brittle.
bond bond • Eg NaCl (salt).
Covalent Bond Metallic Bond

atoms
• Atoms share one or more pairs • Metal ions sit within a lattice
of electrons to form a surrounded by delocalised
molecule. Sharing of shared electrons.
electron
• Occurs between non-metals. • Electrostatic attraction between
• Covalent compounds: ions.
– Have low melting points . • Metallic bond accounts for many physical positive Electron
ion cloud
– Have poor electrical conductivity. molecule characteristics of metals:
– Interatomic (covalent) bonds are always stronger than – Thermal/electric conductivity.
intermolecular bonds. – Strength and ductility (layers of atoms can slide past
– Eg CO2, H2O, N2. each other).
– Lustre.
1-1
Crystals Crystalline Structure
The arrangement of atoms inside the unit cell defines the crystalline
• Crystal - a solid in which the constituent atoms are packed
structure.
in a regular order in a repeating pattern extending in three
b.c.c. f.c.c. h.c.p.
dimensions (space lattice).
• Smallest repeating unit = unit cell.
• Crystals form during solidification.
Single Single crystal solid
Number of Coordination number

centres of • Number of nearest neighbouring atoms to any atom located in the
solidification space lattice - 8 for b.c.c. ; 12 for f.c.c. ; 12 for h.c.p..
Polycrystalline • Affects inter-atomic distances and ability to accommodate
Multiple solid (grains) interstitial atoms.
Slip Planes Slip Systems in Different Metals and Alloys

• Planes with high density of atoms (close packed).
More ductile More brittle
• Slip of atoms along these planes leads to plastic
fcc bcc hcp
deformation - dislocations move along slip planes.
Aluminium Chromium Cadmium
Copper Iron and most Cobalt
Gold Steels Magnesium
Lead Molybdenum Zinc
Nickel Tungsten Zirconium
Silver
Stainless steel
(austenitic)
f.c.c. has 4 slip planes (1 is shown) h.c.p. has 1 slip plane fewer slip
planes, less ductile
Allotropes Solidification of Metals

• If an element exists in more than one 1. Nuclei form, sometimes known
 bcc
crystal form they are called allotropes. 1400°C
as seed crystals.
• Phase changes and allotropism can be  fcc 2. When the temperature of
useful in steel. molten metal falls to its freezing
– Grain refinement. 910°C
point, single units of the crystal
– Precipitation hardening. lattice begin to form.
– Structure refinement.  bcc 3. From these, dendrites form in
• But, expansion and contraction during the the direction of cooling and
allotropic change can cause problems. interlock until the grain Columnar structure of weld
• Alloying can change temperature range of structure is complete. metal
a crystal structure stability (eg 18Cr and 9 Iron or steel phases vs.
temperature 4. Impurities collect at the grain
Ni stabilizes fcc crystal structure at room boundaries.
temperature).
1-2
Grain Boundaries Recrystallization – Solid State Transformation
High
Grain -
temperature
regular
pattern - low (above
energy
recrystallization
temperature)
 3 atoms
thick
• Grain boundaries have higher • Grain boundaries disappear.
energies than the grain • Reduced boundary length.
• At grain boundaries, the atomic Grain boundary interiors.
- no pattern - • Reduced energy, closer to
arrangement is disrupted. • Structure is far from energetic energetic equilibrium.
high energy
Structure becomes amorphous. equilibrium.
• Better electric conductivity.
• High toughness and YS.
Crystal Structure Imperfections Crystal Structure Imperfections
• Crystalline materials deform by

Point imperfections movement of dislocations.
• Dislocation movement is easier
Linear imperfections
on close pack planes (slip
Interstitials Substitutional Vacancies planes).
• Dislocations needed for Dislocations
deformation, but, too many
dislocations get in the way of
each other: Work Hardening.
Dislocation Movement Types of Deformation
• Edge dislocation Elastic deformation:

• Atomic bonds are stretched but not broken.
Plastic deformation:
• Permanent deformation.
• Atomic bonds are broken and new ones formed.
• Screw dislocation • Dislocations move through the crystal lattice.
ELASTIC PLASTIC
YIELD
POINT
Dislocation movement can be impeded by point defects

(precipitates, vacancies, interstitial atoms) or grain boundaries.
1-3
Strengthening Mechanisms Strengthening Mechanisms
Alloying: Work hardening

– Mixture of phases with different properties (Ferrite • Cold working generates and moves dislocations through
and pearlite for example). the lattice.
– Alloying elements in solution distort the lattice and • Dislocations tend to entangle making further movement
make dislocation movement harder. Depending on harder.
size of alloying element: • Used mainly in alloys that do not respond to heat
• Interstitial: Smaller atoms than matrix, such as C, N, H treatment, such as austenitic stainless steels and
and O in steel. aluminium alloys.
• Substitutional: Alloying element atom size close to that of • Work hardening increases strength but lowers ductility.
the matrix. Examples are silicon in aluminium, Cr, Mn, P • Ductility recovered (at the expense of strength) by
and Ni in iron. recovery annealing, normalisation or full annealing.
Strengthening Mechanisms Strengthening Mechanisms

Precipitation (age) hardening Grain refinement
– Small, evenly distributed second-phase particles distributed – Only strengthening mechanism which increases both the strength
in a ductile matrix are commonly used for alloy and toughness.
strengthening. – Heat has large influence on grain size as grains can grow at high
– PH heat treat by high temperature anneal to dissolve temperature.
second phase, quench, then lower temperature ageing  – In welding small grain size of both weld metal and HAZ is desirable.
finely dispersed precipitates. • HAZ grain size control by controlling heat input and use of
– For precipitation to occur, the second phase must be multipass welds.
soluble at an elevated temperature and must show Quenching
decreasing solubility with decreasing temperature. (Will be – Rapid cooling, in the case of steels from fcc austenite phase field.
shown in detail in Phase Diagram Lecture). – Carbon is trapped, deforming the bcc lattice and resulting in high
– Examples: strength and hardness but low ductility and toughness (except for
• Aluminium-copper and copper-berillium. very low C).
• HSLA steels (No ageing needed though). – Ductility and toughness recovered by tempering.
1-4
Alloys
Alloys are substances with metallic properties

composed of at least two elements, of which at
least one of them is a metal.
Alloys and Phase Diagrams
Why do we need alloys?
TWI Training and Examination Services • To obtain materials with superior properties.
EWF/IIW Diploma Course • To match requirements that cannot be fulfilled
by pure materials alone.
Solid Solution Types of Phase Diagram

A solid solution is a microscopically homogeneous and random Alloy Systems
distribution of atoms of one kind (solute) throughout atoms of
another (solvent).
With total With total With total

solubility in solubility in solubility in
liquid and solid liquid phase liquid phase
phase (solid and total and partial
Substitutional: diameter of solute Interstitial: diameter of solute atom
solution). insolubility in solubility in
atom = diameter of solvent atom ± is much smaller than diameter of
15% (eg Ni in Cu). solvent atom (eg C in Fe). solid phase. solid phase.
Alloy Systems Using the Phase Diagram

System with total solubility in liquid and solid phase: Cu Determine the phases present at different temperatures
- Ni alloy system 100% Liquid
T (°C) Liquid
T (°C) T (°C) phase
Liquid
1455 °C T1 Mixture (mush)
of liquid and
solid phase
T3
T2 Solid
1085 °C Solid
100% Solid
phase
100% Cu 100% Ni 100% Cu 100% Ni

60% Cu
2-1
Using the Phase Diagram Using the Phase Diagram
Find the temperatures at which solidification starts/ends Determine the concentration of phases at a specific
T (°C)
temperature (T)
Liquid Liquid
T (°C)
TStart
T = 1232°C
TEnd Solid
Solid solid phase

liquid phase
66% Cu 57% Cu
100% Cu 60% Cu 100% Ni 100% Cu 60% Cu 100% Ni

Alloy Solidification - Coring Alloy Solidification - Coring

60% Cu
Liquid T (°C) • During solidification, first solid to form
T (°C)
has a different composition to the last
solid to form.
• Therefore chemical composition and
TStart properties vary through the dendrite.
Solid
• The larger the distance between
TEnd
liquidus and solidus lines, or the higher
the cooling rate, the larger the
inhomogeneity.
• Can only be corrected by heat treatment
for long time at high temperature (eg 24
100% % Cu at end of % Cu at start of 100%
Cu Ni
hours @ 1000°C) then slow cooling.
solidification solidification
Using the Phase Diagram The Lever Rule

Determine the quantity of phases present at a specific • Used to predict the proportions of phases present at
temperature (T) - the lever rule a specific composition and temperature.
T (°C)
Liquid • Use for solid and solid phases, as well as solid and
liquid phases.
A
• Imagine a lever, where the quantities of the phases
T = 1232°C balance the lever arms, so % of  phase > % 
C phase.
Solid % of solid = A = 66-60

C 66-57
% %
100% Cu 66% Cu 60% Cu 57% Cu 100% Ni

2-2
The Lever Rule Alloy Systems
Determine the quantity of phases present at a specific
Alloy systems
temperature (T) - the lever rule.
T (°C) 
Quantity of ,
QN/M

L N 
T = 1232°C With total With total With total
Quantity of ,
M solubility in solubility in solubility in
QL/M
solution). insolubility in solubility in
solid phase. solid phase.
100% A 66% A 60% A 57% A 100% B
Alloy Systems Eutectic Alloy Features

System with total solubility in liquid phase and total
insolubility in solid phase, eg Bi - Cd alloy system • It is a mechanical mixture between two components
at a specific concentration.
T (°C) T (°C)
• It has the lowest melting/solidification point among all
Liquid 321 °C
the alloys.
271 °C • Solidification occurs at a fixed temperature.
Liquid + Bi Liquid + Cd • Usually it consists of a lamellar
146 °C
Solidus line structure.
• An alloy system can posses more
Eutectic
than one eutectic alloy.

Eutectic + Bi Eutectic + Cd
100% Bi 40% Cd 100% Cd

Solidification in Bi - Cd Alloy System Eutectic Reaction in Bi - Cd Alloy System

Crystals of
Liquid T (°C) T (°C)
pure Cd T (°C)
T (°C)
Liquid 321 °C
321 °C
TStart 271 °C
271 °C Liquid
Liquid + Cd
Liquid + Bi Liquid + Cd
146 °C Solidus line 146 °C
Solidus line Crystals
of pure Cd
Eutectic
Liquid phase Solid phase Bi + Cd
composition composition
100% Bi 80% Cd 100% Cd
100% Bi 80% Cd 100% Cd
2-3
The Eutectic Alloy in Bi - Cd Alloy System Alloy Systems
146 °C
T (°C) Liquid Eutectic (Bi + Cd) T (°C) Alloy systems
Liquid 321 °C
271 °C
146 °C
Solidus line With total With total With total
solubility in solubility in solubility in
Eutectic Bi + Cd solution). insolubility in solubility in
solid phase. solid phase.
100% Bi 40% Cd 100% Cd
Alloy Systems Solidification in Cu - Ag Alloy System

System with total solubility in liquid phase and partial solubility in Crystals of  Liquid
solid phase: Cu - Ag alloy system T (°C) T (°C) T (°C)
1085°C 1085 °C
Liquid
962 °C TStart Liquid 962 °C
Liquid + 
Liquid + 
Liquid +  Liquid + 
T (°C)    780 °C
 780 °C
Solidus line Solidus line
8% Ag 91% Ag
Eutectic
+
Solid phase Liquid phase
composition composition
100% Cu 72% Ag 100% Ag 100% Cu 30% Ag 100% Ag

Eutectic Reaction in Cu - Ag Alloy System Solid State Phase Transformations

T (°C) T (°C) T (°C) Liquid T (°C)
1085 °C
Liquid 962 °C
Liquid + 
Liquid +  
  780 °C
Eutectic  +  Solidus line + +


Crystals of 
Eutectoid
+
100% Cu 30% Ag 100% Ag

780 °C 100% A 100% B
Liquid Eutectic ( + ) Eutectoid: similar to eutectic, but solid to solid phase change
2-4
Partial Solubility in the Solid Phase Age Hardening
Single phase, 
• Insolubility of one element in the solid phase of the (uniform solid solution)
other means that particles of one solid phase will
precipitate in the other solid phase.
α
• Less effective if occurs under slow cooling (equilibrium

conditions).
α+ Normal
• Precipitates tend to nucleate on existing grain cooling
βsec
boundaries.
• Second phase precipitates can age harden the alloy. Grain

boundary
Range of age hardening alloys precipitates
Age Hardening Age Hardening (Eg Aluminium Alloy)

• Dissolve any second phase particles (solution heat Single
treatment) . phase 
• Nucleate and grow small precipitates (precipitation heat Heat up to
treatment). 200°C
(artificial Fast cooling
ageing) (no diffusion)
Heat up
to 500°C
(over +coarse
Keep at room ageing) ppts of 
temperature for
 + fine long time (natural
precipitates of  ageing)  supersaturated with
secondary 
Precipitate Size vs Temperature Practical Implications of Age Hardening
• Increased hardness and tensile strength.

• Size of precipitates become coarser as the
ageing temperature is increased.
• Ageing temperature controls distribution of the
second phase as well as size.
• Many fine and uniformly dispersed precipitates
are more effective than few coarse precipitates.
• If heating is too prolonged/excessive, the alloy
resoftens.
2-5
The Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram Phases in Iron
Iron-Carbon diagram is complex, but breaks down into several smaller
phase diagrams: • Liquid, L (melting point of steel is between 1147 and
• Peritectic reaction 1550°C).
– Is a three-phase reaction in which, upon cooling, a liquid and a solid
phase transform to give one different solid phase. • Delta iron, , a bcc high temperature iron phase.
– In the Fe-C system this occurs at high temperature and is characterized
by the transformation of liquid plus delta ferrite to austenite. • Austenite, , a fcc phase, stable from 723 to 1447°C.
• Eutectic reaction
– Occurs in cast irons with more than 2.1 wt% carbon.
• Ferrite, , a bcc iron phase, stable down to room
– In the Fe-C system, the peritectic occurs at 1148oC and is characterized temperature.
by the transformation of liquid to austenite plus cementite.
• Eutectoid reaction • Iron carbide, Fe3C, a higher carbon compound also
– Occurs at 727oC and involves the transformation of the residual austenite called cementite, which along with  forms pearlite (a
to a lamellar structure of ferrite and cementite, called pearlite.
– Solid to solid transformation.
lamellar eutectoid).
– The most important part of the phase diagram for predicting the phases
in steels in service.
Iron-Carbon Peritectic and Eutectic Reactions Iron Carbon Eutectoid Reaction
Iron Carbon Phase Diagram Steel Microstructures
Hypoeutectoid steels Hypereutectoid steels

2-6
Steel Microstructures Phase Diagram - Advantages
• One diagram is valid for an entire alloy system.

• At a specific temperature, can determinate:
– Phases present.
– Percentage of each phase for various alloy
compositions (lever rule).
• Determination of melting/solidification points of all alloys.
Eutectoid steel • Offers information regarding solubility.
• Determine phase changes that occur with a change in
composition and/or temperature.
• Useful for determining heat treatment temperature.
Hypo-eutectoid steel Hyper-eutectoid steel
Phase Diagram – Disadvantages
• Takes into consideration only two elements.

• Does not indicate the structural arrangement of
the phases ie lamellae, globules, films.
• Does not indicate the structural distribution of
the secondary phases ie either distributed within
grains or deposited at grain boundaries.
• Shows only the equilibrium (slow cooling) state,
not representative of production or welding.
Copyright © TWI Ltd 2012
2-7
Overview of Steel Manufacture
Blast Furnace Electric arc furnace

steelmaking
Primary Steelmaking
Steel Manufacture Basic oxygen
steelmaking
Secondary Steelmaking Ladle refining
TWI Training and Examination Services

EWF/IIW Diploma Course Casting Ingot casting
Continuous
casting Shape casting
Processing Rolling/Forging/Extrusion
Blast Furnace Blast Furnace Process Overview
Input:
• Iron ore.
• Coke  carbon.
• Hot air  oxygen.
• Limestone.
• Firebrick lining.
Output:
• Pig iron.
• Slag.
• Waste gases.
Blast Furnace Reactions Blast Furnace Reactions
Stage 2 – Iron ore

reduced to iron oxide:
• 3Fe2O3 + CO → 2Fe3O4 +
CO2
• Fe2O3 + CO → 2FeO + CO2 500°C
Stage 1 – Coke is burnt:
Stage 3 – Iron ore reduced to 800°C
• C (from coke) + O2 (from iron oxide:
hot air) → CO2 + Heat 1800°C
• Fe3O4 + CO → CO2 + 3FeO
• CO2 + C → 2CO
3-1
Blast Furnace Reactions Blast Furnace Reactions
Stage 4 – Iron oxide The function of the

reduced to molten iron: limestone/lining:
• FeO + CO → CO2 + Fe • CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
1000°C • FeS + CaO + C → CaS (slag)

+ FeO + CO
Stage 5 – Iron oxide reduced
1600°C
to molten iron:
• FeO + C → CO + Fe
Pig Iron Properties Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS)
• High carbon content – up to 4.5%. Oxygen converter - main

• High level of impurities – approximately 1.5% Si, features:
0.05% S and 0.15% P.
• Oxygen promotes fast
• Low tensile strength. refining reactions  high
• Very low ductility. productivity.
• Exothermic reactions 
• High amount of dissolved gases.
relative low operation costs.
• Good bath agitation 
reliable control of process.
• Can have basic (Thomas) or
Pig iron typically converted to steel using Basic Oxygen acid (Bessemer) lining.
Steelmaking (BOS) process.
Slag and Lining Influence Electric Arc Furnace Steelmaking
Type of Basic
Acid
slag/lining
• Contain lime (CaCO3).

• Contain silica (SiO2). Charging
• Si, Mn, C, P and S are removed. (scrap,
• Si, Mn and C are removed
by oxidation. • Require deoxidisers - ferro- iron ore).
manganese, ferro-silicon or
• Cannot remove S and P.
aluminium.
2Al + 3FeO (soluble) 3Fe + Al2O3(solid) Reduction (add
Melting Oxidation (add
alloy elements and
Mn + FeS (soluble) Fe + MnS(slag) (addition of oxidic slag to
reducing slag to
O2/fuel). remove C, P, N).
2CO (soluble) + Si 2C + SiO2(solid) remove O2 and S).
3-2
Electric Arc Furnace - Features Ladle Refining
• Can lead to alloy elements
• Electric arc is formed between 3 graphite electrodes; O2 oxidation (Si, Mn).
temperature can be as high as 3500°C  all possible grades • All mechanical properties drop,
of steel can be melted without passing oxidizable alloy especially notch toughness.
elements into the slag.
• Forms nitrides.
• Can be charged with scrap, pig iron and ore  very versatile. • Strain ageing.
Remove
• Lancing with O2 and working slag additions can help control N2 • YS and UTS increase, toughness
gases
the steel composition. and elongation decrease.
• Low capital investment but high operation costs (power rating • Strong austenite stabiliser.
can be up to 150,000 kW). Ladle
refining • Can reduce oxides.
• Surface of bath, except at points where arcs are burning, is H2
• Leads to cracking and porosity.
covered with slag  excellent control of steelmaking
reactions. • Responsible for hot cracking.
Remove S and P • Improved machinability.
Ladle Refining Vacuum Arc Remelting
• Primary deoxidisation can be done with Si and Mn.

• Al is a strong deoxidiser used for secondary deoxidisation; also
restricts the coarsening of austenitic grains.
• N can be removed by Ti, Zr or V.
• S can be removed with Ca or even better with rare earth metals
(Ce, La and Nd) which form stable sulphides with high melting
points (over 2200°C) and small, globular shape.
• All these elements can form oxides very easily  preliminary
deoxidisation is required.
• P is removed by basic slag:
phosphorus + oxygen = phosphorus pentoxide.
phosphorus pentoxide + lime = calcium phosphate (slag).
Vacuum Arc Remelting - Features Electroslag Remelting
• Metallurgical reactions include decarburisation to a very

low degree.
– Removal of Zn, Mg, Ca, Pb, Cu, Al, Si and Mn.
– No loss of Cr, Ni, Co, Mo, V or Ti occurs.
– For S and P a slag is required.
• Steel has an extremely low gas content  isotropic
mechanical properties, better fatigue properties, improved
toughness, greater ductility, better creep resistance.
• Narrow alloying tolerances can be achieved.
• The electrode can be prepared by vacuum induction
furnace or vacuum arc remelting.
• Requires relative long period of time.
3-3
Electroslag Remelting - Features Ingot Casting Defects - Pipes
• ESR takes place at atmospheric pressure, under a protective

layer of conductive slag  no electric arc.
• Excellent microstructure due to directional, progressive
solidification  improved properties.
• Steel is free from segregation and non-metallic inclusions; also
low gas content  isotropic mechanical properties.
• Closely controlled chemical composition through metered
additions during remelting.
• Excellent ingot surface (smooth and defect-free) and internal
soundness  no need to treat the ingot (material can be used
as-cast).
• Somewhat costly. Narrow end up - leads to Wide end up - no Feeder head - no pipe
secondary pipe secondary pipe inside ingot
Ingot Casting Defects Continuous Casting
• Non-metallic inclusions and segregation. Ladle

turret
• Cracks due to ingot mould shape.
Tundish
Open-end
mould
Cooling
chamber Straightening Shears Cooling bed
rolls
Three Strand Continuous Casting Continuous Casting
Advantages
• Faster than rolling from
ingots - 300 t steel in 45
min compared to 12 h.
• Cheaper - no ingot
moulds, handling, etc.
• No piping problems.
Disadvantages
• Impurities segregate at
the centre of the plate.
3-4
Shape Casting Rolling
• Liquid metal fills a cavity within a mould and solidifies Principle of operation - thickness reduction through
into a useful shape. compression.
Input: Output:
Ingots, other Long length
rolled products with
products. uniform cross
section (blooms,
slabs, billets,
plates, etc).
Rolling Products Plastic Deformation During Rolling
Stages of rolling Equiaxed Elongated

• Primary rolling - large ingots converted to blooms and crystals crystals
slabs.
• Secondary rolling - blooms and slabs converted to plates,
sheets, profiles etc.
– Slab used to make plate, sheet and pipe. Typical cross- Increase in
sectional dimensions: 3000 x 200mm. hardness and
– Bloom used to make rolled shapes and I-beams. Typical tensile strength
cross sectional dimensions: 150 x 150mm.
Decrease in
– Billet used to make bars, rods and wire. Typical cross Degree of plastic deformation ductility
sectional dimensions: 50 x 50mm up to 120 x 120mm.
Types of Rolling Types of Rolling
Intermediate
annealing Spontaneous
recrystallization
Rolling below Rolling above
recrystallization Cold rolling recrystallization Hot rolling
temperature temperature
3-5
Effect of Rolling on Steel Inclusions Overview of Sheet Steel Production
Stringers
Forging Methods Typical Forged Product
Forging involves the deformation and Open die forging

shaping of metals under localised
compressive forces.
Hammer
Forging lines
Closed die forging Anvil
Upper die
Flash
Lower die Gutter
Extrusion Drawing
Extrusion is used to produce a length of material Drawing is a process

with a fixed cross-sectional profile by forcing the in which the cross-
material through a shaped die under high pressure. sectional profile of a
wire or pipe is
Direct extrusion: reduced or altered by
pulling through a
Die drawing die.
Billet Ram
3-6
Material Properties
• Yield strength and ultimate tensile strength.

• Ductility.
• Notch (impact) toughness.
Material Testing • Fracture toughness.
• Hardness.
• Corrosion resistance.
TWI Training and Examination Services • Creep resistance.
EWF/IIW Diploma Course • Fatigue resistance.
• Physical properties (density, thermal conductivity,
etc).
Round Tensile Test Tensile Test - Definitions

• Performed on parent metal or weld deposit. • Yield strength - the point at which
• Determine YS, UTS, elongation and RoA. plastic deformation occurs without
any increase in the force ie at
Parallel length yield plateau.
Gauge length • Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) -
stress corresponding to the
maximum force.
• Proof strength - stress at which a
certain non-proportional extension
Radius Diameter of the
is achieved (defined for when
reduced section
there is no yield plateau).
Gripped end
Tensile Test - Definitions Cross Weld Tensile Test
• Elongation - the % • Machined across the weld

increase in the original so that parent, HAZ and
gauge length. weld metal are sampled.
• Weld cap may be ground
• Reduction of area (RoA) off.
- maximum change in • Measure the UTS and
CSA occurred during position of fracture only.
test expressed as a • 3 areas with dissimilar
percentage of the properties make
original CSA. measurements of yield or
elongation inaccurate.
4-1
Toughness Charpy V-notch Impact Test Specimen
• Toughness is the resistance of a material to

fracture.
Impact toughness tests:
• Charpy impact test.
• Drop-weight nil-ductility test.
Fracture toughness tests: Specimen
dimensions from
• CTOD test. ASTM E23
• R-curve testing.
Charpy V-notch Impact Test Assessing Charpy Test Results
To define the type of failure can also measure:

Specimen Pendulum
• Lateral expansion.
(striker)
• Amount of crystallinity.
Anvil
(support)
Bend Test Methods Fatigue Testing
Guided bend test • Inexpensive qualitative test. • Apply a cyclic stress range
• Test coupon wrapped around to a specimen and count the
number of cycles to failure.
a former.
• Similar specimens can be
• Any defects in the outside of used to plot a S-N (stress
the specimen will be opened versus no. of cycles) curve.
up. • Parent metals spend a lot of
• Brittle regions will cause lifetime initiating fatigue
fracture. crack.
• t<12mm weld face or root • Intrusions at weld toes mean
bends. most of life is in propagation
for welds.
• t>12mm weld side bends.
4-2
Creep Testing Hardness
• Constant stress is applied to a tensile • Hardness is the resistance of a material against

specimen. penetration.
• Test done at elevated temperature.
• Measure strain over time. • It is measured by indentation under a constant
• Creep failure occurs in three distinct phases. load.
– Primary creep: rapid increase in length, creep rate • There is a direct correlation between UTS and
decreases as the metal work hardens.
– Secondary creep: constant creep rate, forms bulk hardness.
of the creep life of a component.
– Tertiary creep: when the creep life is almost Hardness tests:
exhausted, voids have formed and the effective
cross sectional area has been reduced. • Brinell.
– Creep rate then accelerates until the specimen
finally fails. • Vickers.
• (Rockwell).
Hardness Test Hardness Test Machine
• Hardness testing can measure hardness in different

areas of a weld joint or in parent metal.
• Used to assess resistance toward brittle fracture, cold
cracking and stress corrosion cracking sensitivity in H2S.
Information to be supplied on the test report:
• Material type.
• In the case of welded joints, the location of indentations
(See BS EN 1043-1.).
• Type of hardness test and load applied on the indenter.
• Hardness value.
Vickers Hardness Test Brinell Hardness Test
d1  d2
d
2
d1  d2
d
2
4-3
Metallographic Examination Metallographic Examination
Stages in metallographic examination:

• Cutting of the specimen - must be performed
mechanically not thermal cutting.
• Mounting of sample in resin or Bakelite.
• Wet grinding using silicon carbide abrasive paper.
• Polishing using diamond pastes spread onto a suitable
cloth mounted onto a buffing wheel.
• Etching - heavy etch for macro, light etch for micro
• Examination - up to 10X magnification for macro, 100-
Macro examination Micro examination 1200X magnification for micro.
Metallographic Examination
• Used for detecting weld defects (macro).
• Measuring grain size (micro).
• Point counting the proportion of different constituents.
• Detecting brittle microstructures, precipitates, etc.
• Assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold
cracking and corrosion sensitivity.
Information to be supplied on the test report:
• Material type. • Location of examined area.
• Etching solution. • Weld imperfections (macro).
• Magnification. • Phase, constituents,
• Grain size. precipitates (micro).
4-4
Heat Treatment
Controlled heating and cooling to bring about desired

changes in metals and alloys.
Objectives:
Fundamentals of Heat Treatment
• Microstructural changes improve mechanical
properties ie toughness, machinability, strength.
TWI Training and Examination • Reduce residual stress level.
Services
Global Where? Local
Carrying Out Heat Treatment Heat Treatment Equipment
Furnaces and ovens

Heating and Heat Localised Heat
Treatment – Gas fired
cooling bulk treatment • Special attention to environment control.
specimen • Heat from oxygen + fuel gas (methane, propane).
Localised heat
• High concentration of oxygen may result in scaling,
Furnaces and sources a neutral environment is beneficial.
ovens Temperature • Avoid heat gradients.
control? Use Flame heating • Radiant tube furnaces to avoid contact with
Gas fired
thermocouples, combustion product.
Electric optical Induction heating – Electric furnaces
pyrometers • Cleaner environment.
Laser heating • Expensive.
Localised Heat Treatment Localised Heat Treatment
• Heating and cooling a specific portion of a

• Heating and cooling a specific portion of a component ie gear edge, case or surface
component ie gear edge, case or surface. hardening, weld PWHT.
hardening, weld PWHT. • Gas flames such as oxygen + methane or
• Gas flames such as oxygen + methane or propane.
propane. • Induction hardening uses resistance heating from
• Induction. eddy currents induced on the metal piece.
• Electric heating blankets. Water cooled copper induction
coil
Part to be heat
treated
5-1
Thermocouples Heat Treatment Cycle
Temperature
• Require two dissimilar wires (metal or semiconductor) Important parameters:
welded together at their ends. Soaking temperature
• Heating rate.
• Temperature difference causes a voltage (potential
difference) between the wires. • Soaking temperature.
• Soaking time
Hot Cold
(1h/inch).
(measuring) (reference)
junction junction • Cooling rate.
Thermoelectric
potential difference
Time
Heating Soaking Cooling
V
Types of Heat Treatment Heat Treatment Temperatures
• Annealing. oC
Annealing Phase change

• Normalising. Welds and Homogenizing and hot working
to austenite
• Recovery and recrystallisation. parent metals Austenite
Acm Normalising
910
• Stress relief. A3
Normalizing
Annealing
Recovery and
• Quenching and tempering. 727
recrystallisation No phase
Parent metals Recovery and recrystallization A1
change
• Precipitation hardening. 600
PWHT and PWHT
Stress Relieve Stress relief and
PWHT
500
0.022 0.77 2.0
Full Annealing - Steel Normalising
• Heated to high temperature (partial or full

• Steel heated just to where austenite is stable.
austenitic).
– Hypereutectic steels are partially austenitized to avoid • Air cooling – fairly rapid.
cementite formation on grain boundaries during slow • Grain refinement.
cooling. Pearlite
• Stress relief.
• Hold for some time and then slow cool.
Pearlite
• Higher strength.
• Coarse grain size.
• Higher toughness.
• Reduced strength.
• Increased ductility.
• Homogeneous. Ferrite
Ferrite
5-2
Recovery and Recrystallisation Recovery and Recrystallisation
Heat treatment temperature (oF)
• Cold work increase strength and reduce ductility and
toughness.
• Reversed by recovery and recrystallisation.
– But if temperature too high excessive grain growth
leads to drop in strength and toughness.
• Recovery reduces the stored energy in cold-worked or
deformed (rolled) material.
• Dislocations move and align at heat treatment
temperature (recovery).
• New defect-free grains nucleate from grain
boundaries and grow (recrystallisation). Heat treatment temperature (oC)
Non Equilibrium Heat Treatment - Quenching Non Equilibrium Heat Treatment - Quenching
oC • Heating to annealing heat treatment

temperature range.
910
Austenite
Acm • Fast cooling to increase hardness.
– Brine (Water and salt).
A3
727
Annealing
– Water. Increased quench severity
A1
– Oil.
• Ductility and toughness are drastically
0.008
0.05
0.83 2.0 reduced.
• Usually followed by tempering.
Tempering Tempering
• Subcritical (Below Ae1) heat treatment to tailor

hardness/strength of martensite.
• Performed after quenching to reduce the brittleness.
• Ductility and toughness are improved.
• Removes stresses due to quenching.
Hardness
Low C steel (0.12C) After tempering at 700°C for 30

Annealed at 900°C for 30 minutes; minutes and air cooled.
Water quenched. 245Hv
As- 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 oC 380Hv
quenched
5-3
Heat Treatments Following Welding Stress Relief and PWHT
oC
• No phase transformation.
• Stress relief • Slow heating and cooling
– Carried out at lower temperature, to reduce Austenite (max: 50°C/h).
Acm
residual stresses. 910 • Soaking time 1hr/inch of
thickest section.
A3
A1
• Usual temperature for
• PWHT 727
PWHT – 550 to 650°C.
– Carried out at higher temperature. Not only 600
PWHT
• Stress Relief carried out
relieves stresses, but also softens the hard Stress Relief
after cold work or welding
HAZ microstructure. 500 and at lower
0.022 0.77 2.0
Carbon content in
temperatures.
weight %
PWHT Recommendations PWHT Effect on Residual Stress
• Provide adequate support (low Ys at high temperature). YS at room

Soaking PWHT
temperature temperature
• Control heating rate to avoid uneven thermal expansions. temperature
• Control soak time to equalise temperatures.
• Control temperature gradients - No direct flame impingement.
• Control furnace atmosphere to reduce scaling. Residual
stress level
• Control cooling rate to avoid new residual stresses.
• PWHT:
– Specific heat treatment codes are required. YS at soaking
– Specimen thickness, composition, type of treatment. Actual temperature
– Some procedures are given in ASME VIII, ASME31.1, 31.3, 31.8. YS
– API620.
Time
Stress Relief
• Stress relief reduces residual stress and increases

toughness.
• Slow heating and cooling (max 50°C/h).
• Soaking time = 1h/inch.
• Usual temperature for C-Mn steels = 550-600°C.
5-4
Iron and Carbon
• Pure iron is not a

structural material.
Plain Carbon and Carbon - Manganese
• Small additions of carbon
Steels greatly affect mechanical
properties.
• Steels are ferrous alloys
containing up to 2%
TWI Training and Examination carbon.
Services • Above 2% carbon usually
only cast iron.
Steels - Terminology Steels Terminology – Other Alloys

Carbon steels HSLA
– Low C.
– Plain C steels.
– Micro-alloyed with Nb, V, Ti for grain refinement and precipitation hardening.
• Up to 1% Mn.
– Strengths up to 560MPa (80ksi).
• Specified based on properties and max C content.
TMCP
– C-Mn steels.
– Thermo Mechanically Controlled Processed.
• Similar to plain C steels but with Mn contents of between 1 – HSLA is TMCP.
and 1.65 weight %.
– Variant of TMCP is Accelerated Controlled Cooling (ACC) to describe steels
Alloy steels rapidly cooled following hot rolling.
– Metastable martensite microstructures to meet its strength and – Microstructures of ACC steels are acicular ferrite and bainite.
toughness requirements. – Strengths up to 560MPa (80ksi).
– Alloys specified based on element additions to increase – Special processing (Martensite also in microstructure) strengths up to 825MPa
(120ksi) are possible.
hardenability to achieve designated strength, ductility and
Others
toughness.
– Austempered, Martempered / Maraging / Creep resistant / DP, TRIP, TWIP /
– Total alloying content <5%. Ballistic.
Weldability: Carbon Equivalent TTT and CCT Diagrams

Carbon equivalent is used to rank steels according to their TTT = Time Temperature CCT = Continuous Cooling
weldability, measured as the resistance to hydrogen assisted Transformation Diagram Transformation Diagram
fabrication cracking:
C > ~0.18C Austenite phase field Austenite phase field
M 6
n
C
r
M 5
o
V
N
i 1
C 5
u
CE ≤ 0.4
Temperature (0C)
Temperature (0C)
C
EI
   Good weldability Phase transformations measured

   
I
W
under continuous cooling conditions
CE ≥ 0.5
Poor weldability
C < ~0.18C Phase transformations measured
S
i 0
M
n
C 2
u 0
C
r
N
i 0
M 1
o 5
V 1
under isothermal hold conditions

pc
5
B
  Most applicable to welding

3
      
m
Time (s) Time (s)
Show transformation products of austenite under non-equilibrium conditions

Less of an issue at lower C levels
6-1
TTT and CCT Diagrams CE and CCT Diagrams
900 900
Advantages:
Ac3 Start Ac3 Start
Ac1 • Includes effect of all Ac1
700 Ferite 700 Ferite
Pearlite
alloying elements Pearlite
Finish
• Show transformations Finish
500
Bainite that occur under non- 500
Bainite
equilibrium conditions
Ms >CE
Disadvantages: Ms
300 300
Martensite Martensite
• Are specific to one
Ferrite and
Mf Bainite Ferrite and alloy composition Mf
100
Martensite Pearlite 100
Time Time
Weldability of C-Mn Steels: CE<0.4 Weldability of C-Mn Steels: 0.4<CE<0.5
• Low susceptibility to hydrogen cracking. • Weldability is still good when using low
• Preheat generally not required. hydrogen welding process or consumables.
• Low hardenability means weld and HAZ hardened • Some risk of hydrogen cracking due to
zones not severe, even if rapidly cooled. increased hardenability, especially thicker
• Easily welded with arc, gas or resistance welding sections.
processes. • For thickness >25mm preheat at 40-75°C.
• Use low-alloy filler metal matching parent metal • Maintain interpass temperature >100°C.
mechanical properties.
• PWHT thick sections or if high joint restraint.
Weldability of C-Mn Steels: CE>0.5 Interpass Temperature
• A temperature, specified as minimum and/or maximum

• Risk of formation of hard martensite in the HAZ. for the deposited weld metal and adjacent base metal
• Weld metal and HAZ are susceptible to before the next pass is started.
hydrogen cracking and low toughness. • Steels which require preheat, must be kept above
• Low hydrogen welding processes must be used. minimum interpass temperature between the weld
passes.
• Preheat at 150-250°C, depending upon carbon
• Heat input is often adequate to maintain the interpass
content, maintain interpass temp >150°C. temperature, depending on plate thickness.
• Slow cool and PWHT. • Maximum interpass temperatures are imposed to limit
grain coarsening, or to ensure transformation from
austenite between passes.
6-2
Summary of Heating Requirements Welding Flaws in Steels
C and C-Mn Steels:

Carbon Preheat Interpass PWHT • Hydrogen cracking/cold cracking.
Equivalent temperature Temperature (oC) temperature (oC)
(oC)
• Solidification cracking/hot cracking.
CE ≤ 0.4 Not required Not specified Not required
• Weld metal porosity.
0.4 ≤ CE ≤ 0.5 40-75°C 100-200°C 525-650°C
• Lamellar tearing.
(thick section) (thick section)
Low Alloy Steels:
CE ≥ 0.5 150-200°C 150-300°C 550-650°C
• Same as C and C-Mn steels + reheat
cracking.
HAZ Toughness Effects of Composition on HAZ Toughness
• Thermal cycle and shrinkage strains affect • Lower C or CE (typically down to around 0.3
microstructure and properties of the parent IIW CE) generally improves HAZ toughness.
material.
• Reduction induces in hardenability.
• Nearly always reduces toughness in the HAZ.
• Reduction in tendency for M-A formation.
• Lowest toughness (C-Mn steels) in:
– Grain coarsened as-welded HAZ associated with • Increased tendency for auto-tempering
the last pass of a weld (coarse and/or hardened (increase in martensite start temperature).
structures). • But very low C or CE can result in formation of
– Intercritically reheated grain-coarsened HAZ coarse microstructures at higher heat inputs.
regions (martensite or coarse carbides on grain
boundaries).
HAZ Toughness in C-Mn Steels HAZ Toughness in C-Mn Steels

• Toughness is reduced with increasing C content.
• Decrease in toughness due to the decrease in the martensite start (Ms)
temperature with increasing C content and therefore to a decrease in the
extent of auto-tempering of the martensite formed.
0 490
Calculated Ms, °C
-10 28J Transition Temperature, °C 480
-20 470
28J Transition Temperature, °C
-30 460
-40 450
Ms, °C
-50 440
-60 430
-70 420
-80 410
-90 400
-100 390
0.05 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.19 0.21 0.23
% Carbon
6-3
Effects of Heat Input on HAZ Toughness Improving Toughness in C-Mn Steels
• Generally decreases with increased heat input.
• Low carbon content.
– Change in transformation product from (eg) tough
auto-tempered low C martensite to more brittle – Carbon increases yield and tensile strength.
upper bainite/Widmanstätten ferrite. – Carbon decreases Charpy impact energy.
– Increase in grain size.
• Use fine grained steels.
• Low CE steels only produce auto-tempered
martensite at very low heat input. – Small grains have higher toughness.
– Toughness at normal low heat input can therefore – Add Al, Ti grain refiners.
be lower than that of higher CE steels. • Low heat input.
– Toughness often better than that of higher CE
steels. – Limits HAZ grain growth and weld grain size.
• Bainitic microstructures softer. – But, need to avoid hard phases in HAZ.
Improving Toughness in C-Mn Steels Improving Toughness in C-Mn Steels
• Low nitrogen content. • Low carbon martensite.

– N can cause strain age embrittlement. – Tempered martensite with low carbon has high
toughness.
– Mainly in root pass from N in parent steel.
– But, consider weldability.
• Use a clean steel.
• Add nickel.
– S,P cause low Charpy toughness.
– Improves toughness in even small amounts.
– Add Mn to form MnS inclusions. – Promotes acicular ferrite in weld metal.
– Limit S to <0.01% (or much lower). – Cryogenic steels 2.5-9% Ni.
• PWHT. • Use basic flux.
– Tempers martensite. – Controls oxygen content to promote acicular
– Stress relief. ferrite in weld metal.
Multi - vs Single-pass Welding
• Reheat thermal cycle of subsequent passes refines

previous weld metal  improved toughness.
• Tempering effect of subsequent welds  reduced
residual stresses.
• Low heat input per pass  limited grain growth and
higher toughness.
• Less dilution  better control of weld composition.
• Preheat effect  reduced hydrogen level.
• But, lower productivity from larger number of passes.
6-4
HSLA Steels
• High strength low alloy (HSLA) steels have high strength

(up to 700MPa yield) with <0.12% carbon.
• Good weldability from low carbon equivalent.
Fine-Grained • High toughness.
Micro-Alloyed Steels • Obtain strength and toughness from fine grain structure.
• Use micro-alloying.
TWI Training and Examination Services • And/or thermo-mechanically controlled processing
(TMCP) or quenching and tempering (QT).
• Use for structural applications, pressure vessels,
pipelines.
Grain Size Effect on Yield Strength Grain Size Measurement

• ASTM E 112. Coarse grains Fine grains
Increase in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
grain size
Decreasing grain size

Fine-Grained Structural Steels Microalloyed Steels
Designation system – BS EN 10025 • Usually alloyed with Nb and/or V (max. 0.10%)

Delivery condition:
and Ti (up to 0.025%).
Structural steel • Nb controls re-crystallisation during rolling.
- N = normalised
• Additional precipitation hardening effect.
- M = thermomechanical rolled
S 275 NL • Fine grains and precipitates give high strength
and toughness.
min. YS for t  16 mm: L = Specified minimum
• Ni, Mo for higher strength or thicker sections.
- 275 values of impact energy at • Low C content  excellent weldability.
- 355 temperatures not lower than
- 420
• Heat input and preheat limited to avoid grain
-50°C (optional)
- 460 growth.
7-1
TMCP Steels Thermomechanical Rolling
• Thermo-mechanically controlled process (TMCP) steels

– high strength and toughness with low carbon content.
(Equiaxed crystal)
• Manufactured by:
– Rough rolling – Fairly high temperature deformation of
austenite gives rapid recrystallisation and fine austenite grains.
– Finish rolling – Lower temperature rolling below region of rapid
recrystallisation. Deformation bands act as sites for
subsequent austenite transformation.
– Accelerated cooling – Typically between 5-15°C/second
between 800-500°C, followed by air cooling from 500°C.
Strengthening from refinement of ferrite grains and enhanced
precipitation hardening in micro-alloyed steels. Zig-zags are rolling operations
Weldability and Application of HSLA Steels Steel Grades

• Pipe line steels
Advantages
– API 5L/ISO 3183 eg X52, X60, X65, X70, X80.
• Low carbon/IIW CE  less danger of cold cracking  – 52 is the yield strength in ksi.
little or no preheat. • Structural steel (buildings, bridges)
– EN 10025, EN 10113, EN 10137 eg S355N, S550A.
• Compared with carbon steels, thinner sections are – S means structural steel, 355 is yield strength in MPa, N, M or A is
required to carry same load. delivery condition (normalised, TMCP or annealed).
• Pressure vessel steels
Disadvantages – EN 10028, EN 10149, EN 10225, EN 10210 (replace BS4360:1990)
• Narrow range of heat input to prevent grain growth  – Eg P355N, P means for pressure purposes.
accurate setting of parameters. • Thermomechanically rolled steels
– EN 10025-4.
• Use overmatched filler metal  risk of weld metal HICC. • Quenched and tempered steels
• Risk of lower strength and toughness on fusion line. – EN 10025-6:2004+A1:2009, DefStan 02-736 Part 1 [Q1(N)], ASTM
A514, A517.
• PWHT temperature limited. – Used for submarine hull construction, earth moving equipment, cranes
and offshore oil and gas wells.
7-2
Structure of the Weld
TWI Training and Examination Services Welds contain three

EWF/IIW Diploma Course regions; parent metal, HAZ
and weld metal.
Heat Input Effect of Heating Cycle on C-Mn Steel

Heat input = volts x amps x thermal efficiency
• The maximum temperature
travel speed
Tm  type of
High heat input welds: transformation.
– Single pass welds.
– Large weld bead. • The amount of time spent
– High dilution.
above a specific
temperature  the amount
– Slow cooling  grain growth in HAZ  low toughness.
of transformation.
– Deep narrow arc weld  solidification cracking risk.
Low heat input welds: • The cooling time between
– Multi-pass welds. 800-500°C  type of
– Smaller weld bead. microstructure and thus the
– Fast cooling  hard brittle zones in HAZ. hardness after welding.
– Control heat input and/or use preheat.
Formation of Molten Pool Weld Solidification
8-1
Microstructure of MMA Weld Metal Microstructure of MMA Weld Metal
E 7018, 4 mm diameter • Small laths of ferrite, of

electrode low aspect ratio (1-2
microns in width), formed
in intragranular regions. Acicular
• Forms at around 650°C to ferrite
550°C, after the grain
boundary ferrite.
• Interlocking appearance.
• Usually associated with
excellent toughness.
Microstructure of MMA Weld Metal Dilution
• Polygonal aspect. • The ratio of the volume of parent metal melted to the total weld
Primary volume is known as the dilution of the weld.
• The result of high
ferrite temperature • Some dilution is necessary to ensure adequate fusion.
transformation • Single-pass welds and joints with shallow bevel angles generally
(proeutectoid)  its have higher dilution.
formation is favoured in • Lower dilution means less risk of cracking (the parent steel usually
high heat input welds. contains more S, P, C etc than does the filler metal).
• Large amounts are not • Dilution is also affected by the welding process - MMA (high dilution)
beneficial for toughness. vs. EBW (low dilution).
• It has generally lower
strength than other
products.
HAZ Regions Grain Coarsened HAZ
• Closest to fusion line.

• Full austenitisation and time
for grain growth.
• Highest hardness  loss of
ductility.
• Coarse grain structure
has poorest toughness.
• Fast cooling may give
Martensite.
• Slower cooling  Ferrite
and carbide.
8-2
Grain Coarsened HAZ Grain Coarsened HAZ
Coarse grain HAZ transformation products Coarse-grained HAZ transformation products

• Slow cooling  coarse laths of ferrite + carbide • Fast cooling  Martensite
• FS(A) = Ferrite with

aligned second
FS(NA)
phase,  poor
toughness. FS(A)
• FS(NA) = Ferrite
non-aligned carbide
 better
toughness.
Grain Refined HAZ Intercritical HAZ
• Temperature between A3
• Temperature just above A3 - and A1 - partial
doesn’t allow grain growth austenitisation.
in the time available. • Carbon will diffuse into
• Several austenite grains austenite regions; they are
nucleate from each ferrite either stabilised as retained
grain on heating and then austenite or transform on
several ferrite grains cooling.
nucleate from each • Such regions are referred
austenite grain on cooling. to as MA phases.
• Grain size is reduced. • Carbides in the steel are
spheroidised.
Subcritical HAZ Multi-run HAZ Microstructure
• Temperature below A1 - no
phase transformation.
• Similar effect to tempering.
• Spheroidisation of
carbides is the only visible
effect.
• Relaxation of internal
stresses  slight
softening.
• Ferrite and pearlite (or
other) micro-structure is
preserved.
8-3
Multi-pass Weldment Microstructures Multi-run HAZ effects
Run 2
CGHAZ run 2
FGHAZ run 2
Run 1
Intercritically reheated
CGHAZ run 1 Refined CGHAZ run 1
Multi- vs Single-pass Welding
• Reheat thermal cycle of subsequent passes

normalises/refines parts of the microstructure in the
previous weld metal  improved toughness.
• Tempering effect of subsequent welds  reduced
residual stresses.
• Low heat input per pass  limited grain growth.
• Less dilution  better control of weld composition.
• Preheat effect  reduced hydrogen level.
• But, lower productivity from larger number of passes.
8-4
Hydrogen (Cold) Cracking
Cracking in Welded Joints

• Intergranular or transgranular.
• Delayed cracking - can occur up to 48 hours after
welding.
Factors for Cold Cracking Summary - Cold Cracking

High plate Low amperage, Contaminated, Rich hydrogen
• Presence of hydrogen (>15ml thickness high travel speed dirty surface filler
H/100g).
• Susceptible microstructure/high
hardness (>350HV). High Low heat No preheat,
CE input low interpass
• High tensile stress (>0.5 YS). Hydrogen
contamination
• Low temperatures (<300°C,
usually <150°C). Fast cooling rate
Hydrogen scales:
Poor joint design Hydrogen
– A >15 ml H/100g. and/or fit-up diffusion
Hard, brittle
– B = 10-15 ml H/100g. martensitic
– C = 5-10 ml H/100g. structure
Hydrogen trapped in
High stress
– D = 3-5 ml H/100g. martensite lattice
– E <3 ml H/100g.
Cold Cracking
Sources of Hydrogen Microstructure
• Decomposition of H bearing compounds.

• Hard microstructures at greater risk.
• Welding consumables.
– Flux coated rods (MMA).
• Fast cooling gives hard microstructures.
– Flux shielding (SAW). – High heat input better.
– Shielding gases. – Some benefit from preheat.
• Rust, grease, dirt or oil surface • Higher carbon, higher alloy steels at greater
contamination. risk.
• Hydrogen in weld metal measured in
millilitres of dissolved hydrogen per 100g of
weld metal (ml H/100g).
9-1
Temperature Effect on Cold Cracking Post Weld Heating
• Hydrogen (cold) cracking occurs once material has

cooled to <300°C and more likely, <150°C. • Heating temperature = minimum interpass
• Hydrogen cracking can be avoided by keeping material temperature plus 200-300°C.
warm for sufficient time to allow hydrogen to diffuse out. • Applied immediately after welding, no
• Preheat slows cooling – enhances diffusion. cooling to the room temperature allowed.
• Maintain interpass temperature and then PWHT • Also appropriate where a partially filled weld
immediately after welding. is to be cooled.
• As cold cracking can occur after some time, welds often • Heating duration is a function of thickness
left to cool for 24 or 48 hours before inspection is but minimum 2 hours.
carried out, so that any hydrogen cracking will be
detected.
Calculating Preheat Calculating Preheat Temperature
Preheat for C and C-Mn steels can be calculated from

BSEN 1011 Part 2 in the following way:
• Step 1 - Determine the combined thickness.

• Step 2 - Calculate the carbon equivalent (CE).
• Step 3 - Calculate the heat input.
• Step 4 - Select the hydrogen level/scale.
• Step 5 - Choose the appropriate diagram and read off
the required preheat.
Heat input (kJ/mm)
Location of Hydrogen Cracks Cold Cracking Avoidance

Carbon steels
• Reduce weld metal hydrogen by proper selection of
welding process/consumable.
HSLA steels
• Use dry shielding gases.
• Clean joint from rust, grease and solvents.
• Apply preheat.
• Maintain a specific minimum interpass temperature.
• Apply post heat on completion of welding.
• Use multi-run instead single-run technique.
• Use a temper bead or hot pass technique.
• Reduce residual stress, blend weld profile.
Parent IIW CE > Weld IIW CE Weld IIW CE >> Parent IIW CE • Use austenitic or nickel filler.
Cracking mainly in HAZ Cracking occurs in the weld
9-2
Solidification (Hot) Cracking Summary - Hot Cracking Causes
High thermal Poor weld profile
stress Sulphur forms a (deep, narrow)
eutectic at grain
boundaries
Excessive travel
speed Poor joint fit-up
(wide gap)
High dilution
Reduced grain
Primarily boundary Poor weld bead
austenitic cohesion shape (concave)
Caused by: solidification
– High level of impurities in weld/parent metal. Coarse grain

Wide freezing structure
– Poor cleanliness on joint preparation. range
– High level of restraint.
– Inappropriate weld bead size or shape. Hot cracking
Composition Solidification Cracking Mechanism
• Weld metal composition controls susceptibility

to cracking.
• Sulphur and Carbon bad.
– Manganese good.
– MnS less of a problem than FeS.
• Other elements also contribute to a lesser Melting temperatures:
extent. • Steel - approx 1,500°C.
• (Fe+FeS) eutectic = 985°C.
• (Mn + MnS) eutectic = 1,570°C.
Hot Cracking and Weld Profile Hot Cracking and Weld Profile
Deeper and narrow weld

beads are prone to
solidification cracking
(depth: width ratio >2:1).
In order to avoid
solidification cracking, Wrong Right
(washed (slightly
reduce penetration and up, too convex,
increase bead width wide/high not full
and width)
(depth: width ratio ~0.5:1). concave)
9-3
Hot Cracking and Weld Profile Hot Cracking and Dilution
Arc voltage effect Filler metals often formulated to resist hot cracking.
Avoidance of high dilution welding conditions or joint geometries
associated with high dilution, is advisable.
Increased arc voltage
Shielding gas effect (MIG/MAG)
Argon Argon-Helium Helium CO2

• Dilution also affected by welding process (MMA vs. EBW)
and shielding gas (CO2 vs. Ar and Ar-CO2 mix).
Avoidance of Hot Cracking Summary - Hot Cracking Avoidance

Reduce Add Mn Reduce heat input
Control the travel speed restraint to avoid coarse
grains
Decrease Mn forms inclusions with

sulphur before Fe can Improve joint fit-
travel speed
react (higher up
temperature reaction)
Reduce heat Reduce dilution
input to lower (eg avoid rutile
dilution electrodes)
Refine (purify) the weld metal TM = 1620°C
Increased hot Low S steel
Change joint
FeS + Mn  Fe + MnS Not soluble in the design ductility
Reduce C%
weld metal -
FeS + CaO  FeO + CaS separates into slag
Avoid hot cracking
Liquation Cracking Liquation Cracking Mechanism
• Liquation cracking occurs at high temperature, due

to shrinkage strains.
• Forms between grains near the fusion line.
• Caused by:
– High level of impurities in weld/parent metal.
– Poor cleanliness on joint prep.
– High level of restraint.
• Can occur in steels
• Phase 1 - as a result of heat cycle, liquid films of (Fe +
• Prevalent in Al alloys, Ni alloys FeS) eutectic appear near fusion line.
and stainless steels.
• Phase 2 - during cooling, liquid films of (Fe + FeS)
eutectic are subjected to tension  cracking.
9-4
Lamellar Tearing Segregation
Rolling direction
Causes of lamellar tearing:

• High level of through-thickness strain.
• Weld orientation. Use Z-grade material
• Material susceptibility. eg BS EN 10164.
Avoiding Lamellar Tearing Reheat Cracking
Design of fillet welds to avoid lamellar tearing

• Occurs in creep resistant alloys containing >2 of: Cr,
Mo, Nb or V.
• Occurs in the coarse grained HAZ (occasionally in
the weld metal).
• Precipitates dissolved during the weld thermal cycle
remain in solution when cooled.
• Reheating (PWHT, service), causes them to grow,
strengthen the grain and weaken the g.b.
•  reheat cracking along grain boundary forms at
350-550°C.
Reheat Cracking Avoidance of Reheat Cracking
• Control the heat input during welding  small narrow

CGHAZ; finer grain size.
– But: balance the beneficial effect for reheat cracking
against the risk of cold cracking.
• On reheating, heat through 350-550°C as quickly as
possible (over 600°C precipitates coarsen and grain
strengthening reduces).
– But: maximum heating rates are specified in some codes
• Control amount of residual elements.
• Reduce stress concentration by grinding toes (while hot for
V alloyed grades); avoid backing strips and partial
penetration welds.
9-5
Assessing Reheat Cracking Sensitivity Weld Repairs
Probability of sensitivity to reheat cracking, PSR • Repairs are very expensive - 3 to 10 times the
cost of getting it right the first time.
P SR = %Cr + %Cu + 2%Mo + 10%V +7%Nb + 5%Ti - 2
• If you have found cracking do you need to repair it
< 0  less susceptible to reheat cracking or not?
• Is the defect outside the limits in the acceptance
P SR standard?
• Can it be shown to be tolerable in an ECA?
≥ 0  susceptible to reheat cracking
• Why has the cracking occurred? How will it be
Increased sensitivity to reheat cracking avoided again after repair?
• Often either the welder or fit-up problems, but
could be the WPS parameters.
5Cr 1Mo 2.25Cr 1Mo 0.5Mo B 0.5Cr 0.5Mo 0.25V
Carrying out Weld Repairs
• Removal of the flaw (grinding, machining or gouging),

position of the flaw and shape of subsequent groove.
• How many times can you re-weld? (often 3 max)
• Already undergone PWHT? Can further PWHT be carried
out after repair and still comply with the WPS?
• May need to qualify the repair weld procedure. Use
existing range of approval from the original WPS?
• How will repair weld be inspected? Inspect after grinding
to ensure the cracking is entirely removed.
• Provide extra welder training and/or improve the fit-up of
the joint.
• Access for welding, confined spaces?
9-6
Definition
The deterioration of a metal due to chemical or (very often)
electrochemical reactions with its environment.
Common types of
corrosion
Introduction to Corrosion
TWI Training and Examination Services General Galvanic Crevice

corrosion corrosion corrosion
Stress
Intergranular Pitting corrosion
corrosion corrosion cracking
Reactions During Corrosion Reactions During Corrosion
For example rusting of iron or steel. Corrosion = Red-Ox reaction

Iron + water + oxygen Rust
Fe + H2O + O2 Fe(OH)2 Oxidation Reduction
Current flow
• Chemical or electrochemical reaction of iron with oxygen
and water = exchange of electrons. • Oxidation = metal atoms • Reduction = oxygen atoms
• Iron is said to be oxidised – its atoms lose electrons. release electrons. accept electrons.
• Water and oxygen are said to be reduced – their atoms • Anode (up direction in Greek) • Cathode (down direction in
gain electrons. is where the oxidation reaction Greek) is where the reduction
takes place  anode is reaction takes place 
• REDOX.
consumed. cathode builds-up.
REDOX REDOX Potential
• Oxidation is electron loss (eg iron loses electrons). • Defined as a measure of the affinity of a substance for
2Fe 2Fe2+ + 4e- electrons compared with that of hydrogen (which is set
at 0V).
• Measured in volts.
• Reduction is electron gain. • Substances more electronegative than hydrogen have
O2 + 2H2O + 4e- 4OH- positive redox potentials  they are capable of
oxidising.
• Corrosion is a balance of reduction and oxidation. • Substances less electronegative than hydrogen have
- REDOX negative redox potentials  they are capable of
2Fe + 2H2O + O2 2Fe(OH)2 reducing.
10-1
Galvanic Series Types of Corrosion 1 - Galvanic Corrosion
Relative potentials in seawater: Practical implications of the galvanic series:
• Platinum. More positive REDOX
• Gold. potential • The more anodic metal will corrode – use as large an
• 316 Stainless steel. anode as possible to reduce the penetration rate of
Least active, increasingly corrosion.
• Titanium.
inert  cathodic • The farther apart the two metals, the faster will be the
• Nickel.
corrosion rate – choose metals closer together to reduce
• Copper.
the corrosion rate.
• Tin.
• To protect against galvanic corrosion.
• Mild steel. More negative REDOX – Electrically insulate dissimilar metals from each other.
• Cadmium. potential – Eliminate the electrolyte.
• Zinc. Most active  anodic – Use a corrosion inhibitor.
• Magnesium. – Connect a third anode (sacrificial anode).
Types of Corrosion 2 - General Corrosion Types of Corrosion 3 – Intergranular Corrosion
• Corrosive attack is localised at

and adjacent to grain boundaries.
• Occurs in stainless steel due to
Cr carbide precipitation
(sensitisation); in case of welded
stabilised grades (eg 321, 347)
• Corrosion attack proceeds at the same velocity over the entire surface
can take the form of knife line
– Rate of corrosion can be determined = mm/year, mpy. corrosion in HAZ.
• In case of stainless steel, occurs almost exclusively in acidic or strong
• Resistance against this type of
alkaline solutions.
corrosion is improved by lowering
• Resistance against this type of corrosion is improved by increasing the
the C content, control the welding
Cr and Mo content in the steel or passivation in case of Cr, Fe, Ni, Ti.
procedure or by addition of Ti or
• For stainless steels apply pickling (to remove high temperature scale)
Nb (stabilisation).
followed by passivation (to restore Cr oxide layer).
• Corrosion allowance may be specified in design.
Types of Corrosion 4 - Pitting Corrosion Types of Corrosion 5 – Crevice Corrosion
• Highly destructive non-uniform attack due to localised breakdown of

• Attack occurs in narrow crevices filled with a liquid and where the
passivity (the pit becomes the anode whilst the surface becomes the O2 level is very low (differential aeration).
cathode = effect of differential aeration). • Eg gasket surfaces or under bolt/rivet heads, weld toes.
• Results in holes in the metal. • Under-deposit corrosion = when corrosion occurs under non-
• In stainless steel occurs most commonly in chloride-containing metallic deposits or coatings on the metal surface.
environments or oxidising salts.
• Resistance against this type of corrosion is improved by increasing Cr • Materials resistant to pitting corrosion are also resistant to
and Mo content; N has also a favourable influence. crevice corrosion.
10-2
Avoiding Crevice Corrosion Types of Corrosion 6 - Stress Corrosion Cracking
Remove crevices: • Material can remain uncorroded

generally while fine branched cracks
• Use welds instead of bolts or rivets. progress through it (cracking can be
• Avoid non-removable backing strips. either intergranular or transgranular).
• Seal welds and avoid partial penetration welds. • In austenitic stainless steel occurs in
• Design vessels to avoid stagnant areas and ensure complete chloride or halogen containing solutions -
risk increases with increasing salt
drainage.
concentration, tensile stress and service
Prevent the environment in the crevice becoming temperature (seldom found below 60°C).
corrosive: 1. Austenitic stainless steel resistance is
• Use non-absorbing gaskets. improved by increasing Ni content.
• Remove accumulated deposits frequently to allow free 2. Ferritic stainless steel (without Ni) is
circulation of fluids and avoid stagnant areas. insensitive to SCC.
• Ensure complete drainage. 3. Duplex stainless steel is more resistant
to SCC than austenitic stainless steel.
SCC Main Contributing Factors Common Corrosion Protection Techniques
Material employed Environment, Coatings:

(microstructure). temperature and • paints, plating, weld cladding, anodising, metal
exposure time. spraying.
Inhibitors:
SCC • Add suitable chemicals to control the environment.
Cathodic protection:
• impressed current or sacrificial anodes (eg
galvanised steel).
Level and
Anodic protection:
distribution of
tensile stresses. • Passivating stainless steel (next slide).
Pickling and Passivation Corrosion Testing
• A very thin layer of chromium oxide naturally grows on • Ranking tests

the surface of stainless steels = passive layer. – Relative corrosion resistance of materials in an
environment
– ASTM G48 etc.
1) Pickling involves applying highly corrosive acids to a
metal or alloy to remove areas of lowered corrosion
resistance eg weld oxide. • Electrochemical tests
2) Passivation involves immersion in nitric acid to regrow – Critical Pitting or Crevice Temperature
the passive layer by oxidation. – Pitting Potential
– ASTM G150 etc.
• The passive state has a higher redox potential than the
active state (active state is when corrosion is occurring). • Don’t necessarily represent service conditions – as-
received/as-welded metal, environment, temperature.
10-3
Stainless Steels - Properties
• Corrosion resistance.
• Oxidation resistance.
• High temperature strength.
Welding of Stainless Steels • Toughness at low temperatures.
• Ductility/formability.
• Resistance to stress corrosion cracking.
TWI Training and Examination Services • Strength and wear resistance (if work hardened).
EWF/IIW Diploma Course • Addition of Cr (>13%), Ni and Mo make stainless
steels more expensive than carbon steels.
Types of Stainless Steel Properties of Austenite and Ferrite
Ferritic Fe-Cr, <0.1%C, bcc, α
Martensitic Fe-Cr, 0.03-0.30%C, bct

Stainless α’
steels Austenitic Fe-Cr-Ni, fcc, 
Ferrite:
• Toughness transition like C- Austenite:
Fe-Cr-Ni (+others), steels. • No toughness transition.
Precipitation
martensitic, semi or fully • Ferromagnetic. • Used at cryogenic
hardened
austenitic, • Dissolves sulphur (less hot Temperatures.
cracking). • Non-ferromagnetic.
Duplex Fe-Cr-Ni-Mo-N, 50%  • More likely to form sigma • Insoluble to sulphur (risk of hot
(bcc) 50%  (fcc) cracking).
phase.
Effect of Alloying on Structure The Schaeffler Diagram
• Cr, Mo, Si, Nb, Al stabilise ferrite.

• Calculate Cr 
• C, Ni, Mn, N stabilise austenite. equivalent and Ni
• Schaeffler diagram used to predict structure in equivalent from
weld metals. weld. composition
• DeLong diagram alternative taking account of N. • Predicts the
expected weld metal
phases present. 
11-1
Delong Diagram Measuring Ferrite Content
• Measure metallographically by estimating the

percentages of ferrite and austenite in a
stainless steel microstructure.
• Ferrite number (FN) can be determined by a
magnetic measuring technique.
• For low levels of ferrite the percentage of
ferrite and the ferrite number are the same.
• Includes a nitrogen term in Ni equivalent.

Ferritic and Martensitic Stainless Steels Precipitation Hardened (PH) Stainless Steels
• Ferritic SS contains 13-30% Cr, <0.1% C. • Three types – Martensitic, Semi-austenitic,

– No phase transformations. Austenitic.
– Main welding problem is grain growth at high
• Good corrosion and oxidation resistance.
temperature.
– Used for vehicle exhausts, cutlery etc. • High strength and hardness at room temperatures,
but service limited to below 310°C.
• Martensitic SS contains 11.5-18% Cr, high
carbon (0.03-0.30%) C. • Lower ductility and notch toughness than austenitic
– Moderate corrosion resistance. SS.
– High strength service up to 400°C. • Some PH austenitic grades are considered non-
– Very sensitive to hydrogen (cold) cracking. weldable.
Austenitic Stainless Steel Austenitic Stainless Steel Grades
• Contains 18-27% Cr, 8-22% Ni, <0.1%C. • 304 – 19 Cr + 9 Ni + 0.05 C.

• 304L – 19 Cr + 9Ni + 0.02 C (improved corrosion
• No phase changes. resistance).
• No problems with hydrogen cracking. • 304H – 19Cr + 9Ni + 0.07C (improved creep strength).
• 304N – 19Cr + 9Ni + 0.05C + 0.13N.
• Weld composition can contain  ferrite as well as . • 316 – 17Cr + 12Ni + 0.05C + 2.5Mo (improved pitting
• Risk of hot cracking - sulphur very insoluble in  corrosion resistance).
forms FeS films. • 321 – 18Cr + 10Ni + 0.05C + 0.3Ti (stabilised).
• 347 – 18Cr + 11Ni + 0.05C + 0.6Nb (stabilised).
• 5-10% ferrite in the weld helps reduce risk of hot • Filler metal 308L – 21Cr + 10Ni +1.5Mn + 0.5Si + 0.05C
cracking as S dissolves in  but risk of phase. (use to weld 304L parent metal).
• Welds can suffer weld decay. • Filler metal 309 – 24Cr + 13Ni +1.5Mn + 0.5Si + 0.1C
(for dissimilar welds, buttering carbon steels).
11-2
Welding Austenitic Stainless Steel Duplex Stainless Steel Features
• Structure is 50% ferrite + 50% austenite.

• Usually use matching filler metals (or use 308
• Good resistance to stress corrosion cracking and
to weld 304). pitting in aqueous chloride-containing media.
• Weld with low heat input. • YS twice that of austenitic stainless steels  difficult
• Don’t need preheat or PHWT. to cold form.
• Ductile-to-brittle transition due to large amount of
• Reduce weld volume to minimise distortion.
ferrite  service temperature -40 to 260°C.
• Maintain effective shielding gas and root
• Sensitive to 475°C embrittlement.
purge to minimise oxidation.
• Above 540°C can get  phase precipitation.
Duplex Stainless Steel Microstructure Pitting Resistance Index
Duplex stainless steels are divided into groups

according to their pitting resistance equivalent number
 ferrite
(PREN).
 austenite PREN = %Cr + 3.3 %Mo + 16 %N
1. 23% Cr alloy lean PREN = 25

2. 22% Cr alloy duplex PREN = 30-36
3. 25% Cr high alloy duplex PREN = 32-40
Parent metal microstructure contains grains of 4. 25% Cr superduplex PREN > 40
ferrite and austenite, roughly 50:50.
Pitting Resistance Welding Duplex Stainless Steels
• Assessment of pitting corrosion resistance often • Not usually possible to maintain 50% austenite: 50% ferrite in
made using ASTM G48. autogenous weld metal, as higher cooling rate can mean only
partial transformation from ferrite to austenite on cooling.
– Immerse test piece of material in ferric chloride solution.
– In practice 30-70% austenite: 70-30% ferrite is acceptable.
– Typically 24 hour immersion.
• Austenite balance can be assured with filler metals over-
– Determine critical pitting temperature (CPT) below which alloyed with nickel.
pitting does not occur within the test timeframe. • Reduced corrosion resistance from:
• Weld metals. – Inadequate phase balance in the HAZ (generally ferrite too
– lower CPTs than equivalent composition of parent metal,
high) Partitioning of elements (Cr, Mo into ferrite and Ni, N
into austenite).
due to segregation in weld microstructure.
– Precipitates of nitrides and sigma phase in the HAZ
– to maintain corrosion resistance in weld metal, use filler (similar to weld decay).
metals over-alloyed with chromium and molybdenum, or • Reduce problems by using over-alloyed fillers (additional
even nickel-base alloys. nickel for toughness, additional Cr, Mo, N for corrosion
resistance).
11-3
Welding Problems in Stainless Steels Predicting Weldability Problems
• High temperature grain coarsening in ferritics.

• Low temperature hydrogen cracking martensitics.
• Hot (solidification) cracking.
  ferrite in weld metal suppresses cracking.
• Sigma (σ) phase embrittlement.
• Weld decay (sensitisation).
• 475°C embrittlement.
• Heat tint.
Weld Decay Weld Decay/Sensitisation
• Also called sensitisation or inter-crystalline corrosion.

• Susceptible temperature range: 500-850°C  no
preheat/PWHT.
• Carbon diffuses to grain boundary and combines with
Cr to form carbides.
• Leaves a Cr-depleted layer adjacent grain boundary
which is susceptible to corrosion.
• Corrosion cracking along grain boundaries in HAZ.
• Avoid by using low carbon grades, eg 304L.
• Or add elements to combine with carbon eg 321
(contains Ti), or 347 (contains Nb).
Sigma Phase Precipitation Sigma Phase
Fe-Cr equilibrium diagram

This image cannot currently be display ed.
• Sigma () phase is a high chromium brittle

intermetallic phase.
• Precipitates between 500 and 1000ºC over time. 
• Forms more readily in ferrite than in austenite. 
• Affects toughness and corrosion resistance.
• Grades containing Mo require less time for  phase
precipitation.
• Control the amount of  in austenitic SS welds and
the thermal cycle.  phase on  grain boundary
Sigma phase
11-4
475°C Embrittlement Solidification Cracking
• Weld metal containing delta ferrite will be • Most common problem for austenitic stainless steel
susceptible to 475°C embrittlement. welds.
• Dramatic fall in toughness after extended • Ferritic stainless steels are less prone because:
exposure to 400-550°C (worst at 475°C). – Lower coefficient of thermal expansion.
• Due to formation of chromium-rich precipitates – Greater solubility for sulphur and phosphorus.
and decomposition of ferrite. • Avoid by:
• Embrittlement increases as chromium content – Low sulphur weld metal (<0.003%).
increases. – Adding manganese to the filler metal.
• Not generally significant for materials with a – Ensuring 3-10%  ferrite in austenitic weld metal.
ferrite number less than 14FN. – Ensuring good cleanliness when welding.
Heat Tint
• Heat-tint is the oxidation of the root bead and

adjacent HAZ during welding of stainless steels.
• Cr-rich scale is formed, the surface becomes Cr-
depleted which impairs corrosion resistance.
• Need good shielding and backing (purging) gas.
– Shield: Ar or Ar/He mixtures.
– Purge: Ar or N2.
• Use several volumes of purge gas before welding.
• Maintain purge for 3 or 4 weld passes in multi-pass
weld.
11-5
Why do we need Overlays and Coatings?
• Surfaces often need to resist wear, corrosion, or heat degradation.

• Materials that resist these surface degradation mechanisms are
usually unable to provide the required bulk strength and toughness.
• They are often also too expensive to be used for the entire
Surfacing component.
• Using them for the entire part can also be costly or impractical from a
manufacturing point of view.
• Hence overlays and coatings are used to achieve the required
TWI Training and Examination Services surface properties, whilst maintaining the strength and toughness of
the base material at a reasonable overall manufactured cost.
EWF/IIW Diploma Course • There is a wide variety of surfacing techniques available, ranging in
thickness from 5μm (0.005mm) to about 5mm or more.
• This course focuses on weld overlays and also touches on the
welding of galvanised steel components.
Wear Types of Weld Surfacing

Build-up and repair
• Solid particle erosion: Hard particles carried by a fluid stream
abrade a surface. • Worn or damaged surfaces can be replaced by building up the
• Liquid droplet erosion: Droplets hit a surface at speeds high surface with a weld metal which approximates the composition
enough to erode it. and/or mechanical properties of the parent metal, in order to
• Abrasion: Like erosion, this is also caused by hard particles, but restore the original component dimensions.
they are forced against the surface rather than being carried in a Hardfacing
stream of air or liquid. For example, digger teeth are abraded by rock • A softer material is given a wear, abrasion or erosion resistant
and sand. surface using a hardfacing alloy with high wear resistance, such
• Metal-to-metal wear: Includes galling, fretting, adhesive wear and as high-carbon CoCr alloys (eg Stellite®), tungsten carbide, Cr-
others. Mo steels, or martensitic steels.
• Cavitation: A special type of wear caused by shock waves in a Cladding
liquid, due to collapsing bubbles of vapour in the liquid.
• Can use thermal spraying to deposit thin, hard ceramic or tungsten • Cladding provides a corrosion or oxidation resistant surface on a
carbide coatings. less corrosion resistant material. An example is the deposition of
• Use welding to deposit hard-facing alloys where greater toughness, a stainless steel (309, 316) or nickel-based layer (625, 825) on a
shock loading or higher thickness is required. carbon steel base.
Clad Pipes Cladding Methods – Overview

• Inside and/or outside clad. Cladding
Methods
Fusion Laser Solid State

Welding Welding Welding
Roll
Explosive bonding Mechanical
Arc welding ESW
cladding (metallurgical cladding
cladding)
MMA GTAW GMAW SAW FCAW PTAW
12-1
Clad Steel Features Buttering
Parent plate • Buttering is the term for depositing a layer of weld metal
T onto the face of a weld preparation or surface which will
then form part of a welded joint.
(10-20%)T
Cladding • Engineer the composition of the buttered weld metal
(with dilution of parent) to prevent cracking when the
• Corrosion/abrasion resistance provided by the cladding. subsequent weld is made.
• Mechanical strength provided by the parent plate.
• Example: To deposit a weldable surface for making
• Lower cost compared to alloyed plate.
repairs to med/high carbon steel vessels.
Full thickness alloy
T < 10 mm plate
Required
material
thickness (T)
T > 10 mm Clad steel plate
Arc Welding Surfacing Techniques I Arc Welding Surfacing Techniques II

Manual Metal Arc (MMA): Plasma Transferred Arc Welding
• MMA is a common hardfacing process and uses coated electrodes. Due to its (PTAW):
low cost and the ease of transporting the equipment, this flexible process is • The PTAW process is easily automated,
ideally suited to repair work. providing a high degree of
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW): reproducibility of the weld overlays.
• In GTAW welding (TIG welding) the hardfacing material is fed in (usually by • Because of the highly concentrated
hand) in the form of a rod. Hot wire TIG can increase deposition rates to
match those of the GMAW/MAG process but with a GTAW quality deposit. heat source, this has high deposit rates
• Advantages of the GTAW process include simple manual operation and good and can achieve a very low level of
control of the welding arc. The process can also be mechanised, in which dilution in the overlay.
case a manipulator is used to move the workpiece in relation to the welding • Because the hardfacing materials are in
torch and the hardfacing rod or wire. powder form, it is possible to produce
• Welding rods used for GTAW Welding can also be used for hardfacing with overlays from many different materials
the oxy-acetylene welding process. (and combinations of materials) with a
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW); Submerged Arc Welding (SAW): wide range of hardness and other The PTAW Process
• Consumable hardfacing wire (which can be a cored wire) is fed continuously properties. (Image © Deloro Stellite Inc., used with permission)
from a spool through the welding torch into the arc, where it is melted and
transferred to the workpiece. SAW can also use a flat strip consumable.
Strip Cladding (SAW and ESW) Submerged Arc Strip Cladding (SAW)
• Similar to conventional welding, but using strip instead of wire filler

metal. Strip widths commonly 15-240mm; thickness 0.5mm.
• Deposition rate (for 60mm strip) up to 36kg/hr for ESW and 20kg/hr
for SAW.
• Used for relatively large and thick components; eg internal surfaces
of pressure vessels and large diameter pipe; reclamation of steel
mill rolls.
• Therefore: need manipulation to enable welding in the flat position.
• ESW: Reduced dilution:  single layer cladding possible (SAW
may need two layers).
• Very slow cooling rates produces a coarse grained HAZ 
hydrogen cracking is not a problem but there is a risk of underclad
(reheat) cracking.
• Flux must be electrically conductive.
Courtesy of ESAB AB Courtesy of ESAB AB
12-2
Submerged Arc Strip Cladding Electroslag Strip Cladding (ESW)
• Range of application including weld hard facing and

corrosion resistant alloy cladding.
Courtesy of ESAB AB Courtesy of ESAB AB

Courtesy of ESAB AB
Laser Weld Deposition Explosive Cladding

Laser weld deposition:
• Workpiece heated with a laser beam.
• Powder hardfacing material fed into the laser beam and melted.
Advantages:
• Narrow heat-affected zone.
• Fast cooling rate.
• Low heat input.
• … therefore:
An almost stress free overlay.
A significantly finer microstructure.
A higher hardness (usually).
A word of caution:
• Usually, the fast cooling leads to a higher hardness; but in some
hardfacing alloys that rely on time-dependent carbide growth during
solidification for their wear properties, it can lead to unexpectedly
poor wear resistance.
Explosive Cladding Roll Bonding (Metallurgical Cladding)
Advantages: Metallurgically clad (roll bonded) pipes:

– Solid state welding: – Are manufactured by hot rolling the plates of the
• Ability to join a wide variety of dissimilar metals. different materials together to produce a metallurgical
bond between them.
– Parent plate is stationary:
– The advantages compared with overlay welding are that
• Can join components of a wide range of sizes.
there is no dilution from the base material.
Disadvantages: The advantages compared with explosive cladding are:
– Geometric configuration must allow a uniform – Higher bonding quality.
progression of the detonation front:
– Reduction of weld length due to larger dimensions.
• Limited to flat plate, cylindrical and conical structures.
– Use of thinner clad material is possible.
– There are some safety issues (use of explosives).
12-3
Mechanical Cladding Weld Dilution
• Mechanically clad pipes. Base metal dilutes the weld metal:

– Prepared pipe package. – 40-50% adjacent to the fusion line.
– Corrosion-resistant liner inside the low-alloy steel pipe. – Drops to around 5-25% in subsequent passes.
– Expanded by high internal pressure inside a special • Depends on weld method, technique, parameters.
tool. • For example, for thin as-machined deposits, PTAW can
• The spring-back effect of the ferrite outer pipe is provide lower dilution than GTAW.
greater than that of the inner pipe, when the pressure Disadvantages:
is released. – Affects the corrosion resistance, hardness and wear
• This results in residual compressive stress on the resistance of the deposit.
inner pipe of ca. 50-100 MPa, which provides a – Most standards and specifications specify the
homogenous contact. acceptable dilution level at the as-machined weld
thickness.
Welding before or after Galvanising Filler Metals for Welding Clad Steel
Before:
• Use a filler metal that matches the silicon content of the base steel. The Si
When welding carbon steels clad with stainless
content of a steel has a dramatic effect on the thickness of the galvanised steels:
zinc layer.
• If, for example, the weld filler metal has a higher Si content than the steel, • Alloy 625 can be used to weld complete joint.
the galvanised assembly will have a visibly thicker Zn coating on the weld • E308, E316 and E347 type stainless steel filler wires
area.
• Hot dip galvanising of welded structures can cause Liquid Metal should NOT be deposited directly onto carbon steel plates
Embrittlement of the structure at areas of stress concentration, such as (dilution  fully austenitic).
dramatic section changes or badly prepared weld finishes.
After: • E309/E309 Mo are suitable over-alloyed fillers to
• Care is required when welding galvanised steels. Zn vapour may cause compensate for dilution.
porosity in the welds with high speed welding processes such as GMAW
or laser. • E2209 (duplex stainless steel) fillers may also be used
• Breathing in of metal oxides such as zinc and copper can lead to an acute where higher strength is required.
flu-like illness called metal fume fever. Read the MSDS and use breathing
apparatus.
Welding Clad Steel Plate Bore Mismatch of Clad Pipes

Some weldability problems for clad steels are: • Can’t simply machine the bore – removes clad layer.
• Major problem when no bore access.
• Maintaining the continuity (ie corrosion resistance) of
• Solutions:
the cladding.
– Equalise mismatch around
• Difficulties with dissimilar metal welding. 3 mm bore
circumference. 3 mm clad
• Mismatch of the bore diameters. mismatch thickness
– Machine to bore match
• NDT and access restrictions.
(counter-bore).
• Thermal fatigue.
– Clad bore of large diameter
tube and re-machine.
 Can use nickel alloy (alloy 625) to weld clad steel.
– Swage small bore
 Or use a buttering layer (eg 309 SS) between clad layer and
– Purchase to tight tolerance.
carbon steels. Root land typically
1.5-2 mm
12-4
Cutting Clad/Lined Steel Welding Clad Steel Plates – Single Sided
Cutting methods Weld metal - 309
type stainless steel
or Inconel
Thermal cutting Mechanical cutting

No root face on
carbon steel Cladding
Plasma Laser Shear + machine Water jet Step 1 - Faces bevelled.

Step 3 - Welded from C steel side only.
2.5-3.2 mm
Sheared from clad side – Sheared from carbon steel Step 2 - Fit-up.
correct. side – wrong.
Welding Clad Steel Plate Welding Clad Steel Plate

Step 4 - Root gouge.
• Butt welding if both sides accessible - six stage
process. Gouge from
Weld metal stainless steel side
(carbon steel)
Stainless steel
cladding - 304
(316) type
Step 6 - Protective plate welded on
Step 5 - Weld from stainless steel side.
(optional).
min. 1.6 mm Root run - 309 Fill runs - 308
(309Mo) type (316) type Stainless steel Stainless steel
Step 1 - Faces bevelled stainless steel stainless steel protective plate fillet weld
from carbon steel side. Step 3 - Weld from
carbon steel side.
No gap
Step 2 - Fit-up.
Welding Clad Steel Plate Welding Clad Steel Pipe – Single Sided
• Butt weld from both sides – alternative method. Step 2 - Fit-up.
Step 2 - Fit-up.
Cladding 2.5-3.2 mm
No root face on
Step 1 - Faces bevelled and carbon
carbon steel 2.5-3.2 mm plate cut back to expose cladding. 3rd run - extra Fill runs -
Cladding
Weld metal - 309 low carbon carbon
Step 1 - Faces bevelled. Root run - 308 steel filler
type or Inconel steel filler
Weld metal - matches or 316 type 2nd run -
Weld metal - 309 stainless steel
type or Inconel 309 type
or Inconel
Root run - 308

or 316 type
Step 4 – Clean root and weld from SS Step 3a - Welded with stainless Step 3b - Welded with stainless + C steel
Step 3 – Weld from C steel side. side. steel/Ni base filler only. filler.
12-5
Standards and Quality Control Techniques for
Overlay Welds
Thermal Spraying
• Feedstock is melted and deposited to form a coating.
• Surface preparation is important (cleaning, degreasing,
roughening).
• Typically 50-500μm thick, but thicker is possible.
• Coatings are quite rough as-sprayed; they may require
machining or grinding to a final thickness and finish.
• Part temperature remains below about 150ºC.
• Processes can be classified according to:
– Energy source.
– Coating feedstock.
– Velocity of coating feedstock particles or droplets.
– Environment the coating process is performed in.
Thermal Spraying Powder and Wire Flame Spraying
Powder Flame Spraying Plasma Spraying
12-6
HVOF Deposition
12-7
Creep
• Creep is a slow and progressive deformation under

the application of a load (below the material yield
Creep-resistant Steels stress) at high temperature.
• Risk of intergranular creep cracking.
• The high service temperature, service loads and
time impose special considerations in choosing
TWI Training and Examination Services creep resisting materials.
EWF/IIW Diploma Course • Need also to consider high temperature corrosion
resistance, microstructural stability, weldability and
crack sensitivity.
Creep Curve Creep-Resistant Steels

Creep occurs in three stages, primary (initiation), secondary
How is creep resistance Ferritic steels:
(steady state) and tertiary (accelerating).
improved? C-Mn steels
Strain ()
Secondary (steady-
• Solid solution strengthening from ½Mo steel
Primary Tertiary
creep state) creep creep Fracture C, Mo, Cr. ½Cr ½Mo ¼V steel
• Small additions carbide formers 1Cr ½Mo steel
such as V, Nb, W and Ti may
2¼ Cr 1Mo (V) steel
also be added for precipitation
strengthening or grain 5Cr 1Mo steel
refinement. 9Cr 1Mo steel
• Cr gives oxidation resistance.
0 Time (hr) • Mo stabilises the microstructure.
Creep-Resistant Steel Features Welding Creep-Resistant Steels
• Alloyed with Mo and Cr  increased hardenability  • As alloy content increases, weldability decreases  only low
control of hydrogen is essential. hydrogen consumables must be used.
• Cr improves resistance to oxidation. • Main welding problems:
• Mo stabilises Cr carbides and increases the strength at – HAZ cold cracking.

elevated temperatures; also impedes carbide – Loss of toughness in CGHAZ.
coalescence at elevated temperatures. – Reheat cracking.
• They offer greater tensile and creep strength at – Hot cracking.
elevated temperatures compared with carbon steels.
• Weld using MMA, TIG, MAG, FCAW or SAW, with matching
– C-Mn steels are used up to 425°C. filler materials to provide service performance.
– Cr-Mo steels used up to 625°C. • Always back purge when TIG welding pipes >4%Cr.
13-1
Welding Creep-resistant Steels Problems for Creep Resistant Steels
• As Cr content increases, Ms temperature decreases 

upper limit on interpass temperature to get microstructural • Reheat cracking.
refinement and H escape.
• Temper embrittlement.
• As Cr content increases, Ac1 temperature increases 
PWHT soaking temperature can increase. • Hydrogen cracking.
• Creep-resistant, so need high PWHT temperature.
• Take precautions against hot cracking.
• Usually, only basic consumables are used; exception - root
runs on some pipe applications where special rutile
electrodes can be used.
Reheat Cracking Reheat Cracking Location
• Occurs in the CGHAZ at elevated temperatures.

• Always intergranular.
• Occurs in steels alloyed with Cr, Mo, V, Nb, B and N. Reheat crack in CGHAZ of a thick section X 50
• Either after PWHT or prolonged service at 350-600°C. of ½Cr-½Mo- ¼V creep-resistant steel.
Reheat Cracking Mechanism Reheat Cracking Mechanism

High temperature heating during welding PWHT heating up to During PWHT, residual stresses are
(over 1300°C) During cooling down to 1000°C relaxed through plastic deformation
650°C
austenite reduces its solubility for
impurities
Carbide/nitride precipitation occurs

Grain size All precipitates are inside grains
increase in dissolved (no pinning)
CGHAZ Relaxation occurs due to grain
Impurities (As, Sn, S, P) migrate to grain
boundary deformation
boundaries below ~600°C
Grain interior becomes stronger than

grain boundary
Overall area of grain boundary Grain boundaries become
decreases weakened CRACKING OCCURS
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4

13-2
Effect of Vanadium on Reheat Cracking Prevention of Reheat Cracking
• Vanadium produces precipitates inside the grain. • Low heat input and multi-run welding with careful bead
placement to reduce grain growth.
• Vanadium carbides, nitrides and carbo-nitrides are – But risk of hydrogen cracking.
very fine compared with other precipitates  • Reduce stress concentration by grinding toes (while
effective pinning of dislocations. hot for V alloyed grades); avoid backing strips and
• For reheat cracking, need three or more carbide partial penetration welds; sharp notch defects not
formers to be susceptible, eg Cr, Mo and V. allowed.
• Use optimum heat treatment procedures, ie exact
• Therefore control steel composition to < 0.1%V. soaking time, temperature and heating/cooling rate.
• But, ~0.25% V used to obtain enhanced creep – Temper at 650-700°C, followed by rapid cooling to
resistance. Difficult to weld. redistribute impurities inside the grains.
Sensitivity to Reheat Cracking - Alloy

Sensitivity to Reheat Cracking
Composition
∆G = Cr + 3.3Mo + 8.1V – 2
∆G < 0 implies the material is not susceptible. Increased sensitivity to reheat cracking
∆G1 = Cr + 3.3Mo + 8.1V + 10C – 2
∆G1< 2 implies the material is not susceptible.
5Cr 1Mo 2.25Cr 1Mo 0.5Mo B 0.5Cr 0.5Mo 0.25V
PSR = Cr + Cu + 2Mo + 10V +7Nb + 5Ti – 2
PSR > 0 susceptible to reheat cracking.
PSR < 0 less susceptible to reheat cracking.
K = Pb + Bi + 0.03Sb (ppm)
K < 1.5 to achieve freedom from reheat cracking.
Temper Embrittlement Temper Embrittlement

Can be practically assessed by step cooling followed by Charpy
• In steels exposed to 350-600°C, impurity test to measure:
elements segregate to grain boundaries. • The shift in transition temperature.
• Toughness drop, eg minimum 55J at 10°C.
• P, Sb, Sn and As are most damaging providing
Mn and Si are relatively high. 593°C
Temperature (°C)
1 h 538°C
• Embrittlement is fully reversible, if steel is 15 h 523°C
reheated above 600°C. 24 h 495°C
48 h 468°C
• Loss in ductility of grain boundaries, in addition 72 h 415°C
to grain body strengthening, leads to Remove from
intergranular embrittlement. furnace
Time (hours)
13-3
Cryogenic Steels
Key considerations
• Modification of composition to achieve properties
suitable for low temperature.
– Toughness is the main concern.
Cryogenic Steels – Grain size.
– Can be further improved by alloying with Ni.
• Service temperature is important.
– Fine grain size allows service down to -60oC.
EWF/IIW Diploma Course – Nickel allows lower temperature applications.
– Variation in content depending how low the service
temperature is.
Fine Grain Al-killed Steels Features of Ni-Alloyed Steels

• Widely used for LPG carriers.
• Very good toughness (down to -196°C for
• Have low CE; micro-alloyed and TMCP.
9%Ni).
Nitrides carbo-
Al, Ti nitrides N • Lower thermal expansion compared with
austenitic stainless steels and Al alloys.
Increased Increased • Low thermal conductivity.
toughness Fine-grained steels strength
• Nickel is the main alloy element (up to 9%).
Normalising and
TMCP process
Quenching and • Low C content (less than 0.15%).
tempering tempering
Effect of Ni on Steel Toughness Transition Curve Ni-Alloyed Cryogenic Steel Types

Energy Grouping system acc. ISO 15608
(J)
Subgroup 9.1: Steels with Ni  3.0%
Ni alloy
Carbon steels - Subgroup 9.2: Steels with 3.0% < Ni  8.0%
Nickel steels group 9
additions
Subgroup 9.3: Steels with 8.0% < Ni  10.0%

Temperature (ºC)
14-1
Effect of Ni on Impact Toughness
Transition Curve
Weldability of Cryogenic Steels
• Applicable welding processes: MMA, TIG, MAG, FCAW

and SAW. OFW not recommended.
• Sensitive to hot cracking  limit C, P and S content;

cleanliness is important.
• Hydrogen-assisted cracking is an issue when not using
nickel-based fillers.
• Use low heat input processes in order to preserve the
fine grain structure (less than 4.5kJ/mm); also to avoid
HAZ softening in QT grades; pulsed welding is
beneficial.
Welding 2.3% and 3.5% Ni Steels Welding 5% Ni Steel
• Use basic filler materials (for good toughness and • Pearlitic/martensitic structure (QT steel)  reduced
hydrogen control). toughness in the HAZ (layer heated over 850°C)
• Preheat in the range 150-250°C to avoid cold due to increase in grain size; low hydrogen process
cracking; exact value depends on thickness, essential
restraint and hydrogen potential. • Use low heat input processes in order to preserve
• Interpass temperature: max 350°C for 2.3% Ni; the fine grain structure (less than 4.5kJ/mm);
max. 250°C for 3.5% Ni. pulsed welding beneficial
• PWHT at 620-730°C may be used. • Interpass temperature max. 250°C; PWHT at
• Matching filler materials available; Inconel type (Ni- 650°C, followed by rapid cooling
Cr-Fe) filler might be used for 3.5% Ni. • Filler materials are Ni based, eg Inconel 82, Inconel
625.
Welding 9% Ni Steel Welding 9% Ni Grades
• Very low S content (max 0.006%) to avoid liquation • Welding process usually used: MMA, MIG and SAW
cracking  no lamellar tearing.
• Very low P content (max 0.006%) to improve low
• Interpass temperature 250°C.
temperature toughness. • PWHT not normally required.
• Not sensitive to stress corrosion cracking. • Plates must be cleaned at least 25mm from the edge
• Tempered (ductile) martensitic structure (max 400HV) + (oxide layer is adherent); if flame cutting is used, heated
5% retained austenite (QT steels); austenite reduces layer must be removed by grinding.
risk of cold cracking + Ni based filler  no preheat • Strongly ferro-magnetic (and also may have residual
required for thickness up to 50 mm. magnetism)  arc blow is a potential problem.
• Hardness slightly increases in the HAZ near fusion line • Avoid contact with electromagnets for moving or for NDT.
(T>900°C) but with little drop in toughness.
• Use low heat input to avoid loss of toughness in the high • For welding, AC current and demagnetisation before
temperature HAZ, eg pulsed MIG. welding may be required.
14-2
Filler Materials for 9% Ni Steel Welding Fine-Grained Al-Killed Steel
• Increase the amount of acicular ferrite in the weld.
• Filler materials are currently only Ni-based: AWS
– Avoid slow cooling rate which
A5.11 ENiCrMo-6 (EN ISO 14172 E Ni 6620) or
promotes coarser structure.
ENiCrMo-3 (E Ni 6625)  under-matching on
strength, high viscosity (sluggish); cleanliness very – Add B + Ti to aid acicular
important to avoid hot cracking. ferrite formation; B reduces
the amount of grain boundary
• Fully austenitic filler of type 16Cr-13Ni-Mn are ferrite.
prohibited; disadvantage is the higher coefficient of
thermal expansion than the parent metal and brittle – Increase Mn content and add
martensite formation near the fusion line. Ni (2-2.5%).
• Smooth blending between weld face and parent – Keep C in the range 0.08-
metal is required to avoid stress concentration. 0.12% and O in the range
0.02-0.06%.
Welding Fine-Grained Al-Killed Steel
• Limit the heat input to approximately 4.0 kJ/mm to avoid

grain growth; avoid use of single run procedures.
• Use only basic filler materials.
• Preheat helps to avoid cold cracking.
• No preheat necessary for thickness <25 mm and CE
<0.40%; otherwise, maximum preheat should be 150°C.
• Limit interpass temperature to approximately 250°C to avoid
grain growth.
• Post-heating may be required (maintain preheat for
5min/mm thickness, with minimum 2 h).
• PWHT is optional (might be required for high thickness).
14-3
Types of Aluminium Alloys
Al alloys
Aluminium and Light Alloys Wrought Cast Al

alloys alloys
Work Heat Non-heat Heat

hardening treatable treatable treatable
or non-heat
EWF/IIW Diploma Course treatable
Classification of Aluminium Alloys Alloy Designation

Wrought Al alloys Four digit number:
Work hardening alloys Heat treatable alloys x x xx • 1xxx pure Al.

• 2xxx Al-Cu.
Single phase alloys, • Solution heat treat at temperature • 3xxx Al-Mn.
strengthened by alloying where a uniform solid solution is
and cold working. formed. • 4xxx Al-Si.
Alloy group Identify the
• Solid solution • Soak, then quench to room alloy
• 5xxx Al-Mg.
hardening and/or, temperature. Solute elements retained
Modification of
• 6xxx Al-Mg-Si.
in the solid solution.
• Deformation such as original alloy • 7xxx Al-Zn.
rolling, drawing, • Ageing is then done at room
• 8xxx other
forging. temperature (natural ageing), or
elevated temperature (artificial ageing), elements.
at 100-200˚C.
Temper Designation Non-heat Treatable Temper Designation Heat Treatable
Letter plus numbers:

• T1 – cooled and naturally aged.
F – as fabricated – no control on mechanical
• T2 – cooled, cold worked and naturally aged.
properties. • T3 – solution treated, cold worked and
O – annealed and recrystallised. naturally aged.
H1x – strain hardened only.
• T4 – solution treated and naturally aged.
H2x – strain hardened and partially annealed.
H3x – strain hardened and stabilised. • T5 – cooled and artificially aged.
H4x – strain hardened and lacquered or painted. • T6 – solution treated and artificially aged.
Hx2, 4, 6, 8 – quarter, half, three-quarters, fully hard • T7 – solution treated and overaged artificially.
eg H12, H24, H36, H18.
15-1
Alloy Designation Welding of Aluminium Alloys
Some examples: • Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) surface coating.

• High thermal conductivity.
• 1100-O 99min Al+0.12Cu, annealed. • High thermal expansion coefficient.
• 2024-T3 Al-4.4Cu-1.5Mg-0.6Mn, heat treated. • Low melting temperature (660ºC).
• 5052-H34 Al-2.5Mg-0.25Cr, half hard. • Absence of colour change with increasing
• 3003-H14 Al-1.2Mn, half hard. temperature.
• Risk of porosity.
Half hard = partially cold worked • Risk of solidification cracking.
• Loss of strength at welded joint.
Hydrogen Porosity Porosity in TIG Welded Aluminium
• Formation of pores due

to dissolved gases. Liqui
d
• Hydrogen very insoluble

in solid aluminium. 1
Solubility/cm3
• A major problem. 0.69
• Solubility of hydrogen
varies with temperature. 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
T
(oC)
Sources of Hydrogen Hydrogen Control
• Welding consumables – the most significant source.

Electrodes:
– MMA electrodes – coating is hygroscopic.
• Electrodes must be protected from atmosphere –
– Filler wire – contaminants such as grease, oxides may
storage in environment with minimum moisture
include moisture.
content.
• Shielding gases.
• Welds made with covered electrodes must be clean.
– Impurity within shielding gases.
– Plastic pipes carrying shielding gases may absorb Parent metal:
moisture. • Surfaces must be cleaned and dried prior to welding.
• Parent metal. Shielding gases:
– Sintered alloys. • Tubing used must be resistant to moisture absorption,
– Cast alloys. eg metal pipes.
– Hydrated Al2O3 on the metal surface.
15-2
Aluminium Oxide Surface Coating Removal of Oxide Coating
• Al highly reactive - reacts with oxygen in air to • Mechanical removal – eg emery paper, burr.
form layer of Al2O3 on parent metal. • Chemical removal.
• Al2O3 layer adsorbs moisture from atmosphere – – Cleaning solutions – etching solutions eg alkali.
a source of hydrogen giving porosity in weld. – Flux cleaning – use of welding fluxes.
• Melting point of Al2O3 is 3 times higher than Al • Cathodic cleaning.
alloy: (1926oC). – Blasts away the oxide coating – half cycle of the
• Solid Al2O3 particles or films may enter the weld. AC current in TIG welding or positive electrode
welding.
• Reduced weld strength, ductility and quality (lack
of fusion etc).
Hot Cracking Hot Tearing Alloy Ranking
• Centreline cracking in the weld cap or root. Peak susceptibility to hot

• Caused by susceptible weld composition. tears
– Alloy composition and dilution (not impurities). High strength

due to thin Back filling of
– Weldability tests rank alloys in terms of hot cracking hot tears due
Total crack length
liquid films
risk. to large
– Avoid sensitive composition. quantity of
eutectic
• Thermal and mechanical effects.
– Initiate at trailing end of weld pool from high shrinkage
and thermal stresses tearing liquid films at the grain
boundaries.
– Joint geometry and restraint.
Wt % solute
Loss of Joint Strength Welding Processes and Consumables
• Welding work hardened alloys  annealed weld and

HAZ. • Arc welding, mainly TIG for Parent
Filler alloys
Heat
metal treatable?
thinner sections, MIG for
• Can’t recover the work hardened strength. heavier sections. 1xxx Al 1080A No
Al 1200
– Re-designed joint to accommodate this strength Al 4043A
loss, eg use thicker parent material near to the joint. • Also resistance welding, laser,
3xxx Al 3103 No
friction stir welding, E-beam.
• Wide HAZ with low strength large grains. 5xxx Al 5554 No
• Welding age hardened alloys  annealed weld, over- Al 5154A
Al 5356
aged HAZ. Al 5556A
– Thicker parent metal at the joint as before, or, 6xxx Al 4043A Yes
– Weld in solution-treated condition and age harden Al 5356
after. 7xxx Al 5556A Yes
15-3
Titanium Alloys
General characteristics:
• Forms a stable oxide layer.
• Corrosion and oxidation resistance.
Titanium Alloys
• Light weight.
• High strength.
• Phase change from α phase to β phase on
heating to 883oC in pure titanium.
Types of Titanium Alloys Welding of Titanium Alloys

Pure titanium 99% pure
α alloy α-stabilisers – Al, O, N, C: TIG or plasma are best suited:
• Low temperature phase. – Adequate gas shielding is required.
• Low tensile properties. – Protect hot weld metal and HAZ from atmosphere
• Non-heat-treatable.
– high temperature of the weld reduces its corrosion
β alloy β-stabilisers-Cr, V, Mo, Cu, Mn, Ni:
resistance.
• β-phase is metastable.
• Good formability. Welding Problems:
– Contamination – from atmosphere and moisture,
α-β alloy Both α and β phases exist: nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen may result in weld
• Heat treatable. embrittlement.
• Mechanical properties and
weldability are sensitive to the
– Porosity from dissolved hydrogen.
ratio of α to β phase.
Magnesium Alloys
• Magnesium is the lightest structural metal.

• Less dense than Al (approximately 2/3).
• Alloying elements such as Al, Mn, Zn, Zr may result in
strengths equal to that of mild steel.
Magnesium Alloys
• High strength to weight ratio.
• Heat treatment and work hardening (as Al).
• High thermal conductivity and thermal expansion
coefficient.
• Low melting point.
• Forms protective MgO oxide layer on surface.
15-4
Welding of Magnesium Alloys
Weldability:
– 10% Al improves weldability by grain refinement.
– High Zn (>1%) alloys are prone to hot cracking.
– Stress relieve to avoid SCC in corrosive service.
Welding processes:
– TIG, using AC current.
– Resistance.
– Oxyfuel gas.
15-5
Arc Weldability of Dissimilar Metals
General arc
weldability problems
Joining Dissimilar Materials Differences between Metallurgical

physical properties incompatibility
eg melting point, eg undesirable
TWI Training and Examination Services thermal conductivity, microstructures due to
EWF/IIW Diploma Course expansion coefficient. mixing parent metals.
Considerations for Dissimilar Welds General Recommendations

• Obtaining adequate fusion.
– Difference in melting points. Welding Two Dissimilar Ferritic Steels:
– Difference in thermal conductivity. • Filler material will generally match the weakest
– Risk of lack of fusion flaws. parent material strength.
• Different thermal expansion coefficients. • Preheat, interpass and soaking temperature for
– May cause distortion. PWHT (if required) must match requirements for
• Metallurgical compatibility. highest alloy material.
– Dilution. • Use only basic (low hydrogen) filler materials.
– Poor mechanical or corrosion resistance. • Clean thoroughly joint preparation surfaces.
– Risks of cracking.
– Selection of filler metal/buttering.
General Recommendations General Recommendations
Welding Ferritic to Stainless Steel: Welding Dissimilar Stainless Steels:

• Preheat only if necessary; keep interpass temperature • Do not preheat when welding austenitic stainless steels (to
below 150°C; avoid PWHT; avoid high dilution, select avoid carbide/sigma phase precipitation).
filler metal carefully. – Exception is welding martensitic stainless steels, then apply
a 150-200°C preheat to avoid cold cracking.
• Carbon diffusion from ferritic to higher Cr stainless side;
carbide enriched stainless weld metal  weld decay. • For fully austenitic weld metal take precautions against hot
cracking ie use filler with more than 4% Mn.
• Risk of hydrogen cracking in martensite at the ferritic • When welding stabilised (347, 321) to non-stabilised steel,
steel fusion line. the filler should be either low carbon or stabilised to avoid
• Risk of hot cracking in austenitic weld metal from poor carbide precipitation.
mixing. • Limit the heat input.
• Difficulties with NDT. • Consider the Schaeffler diagram.
16-1
Using Schaeffler Diagram Selecting Filler Using Schaeffler Diagram
Step 1: Find Creq and Nieq for the two parent metals.
• The Schaeffler diagram is used to predict
microstructural phases in stainless steel weld
metal. Parent metal A -
• Plots chromium equivalent against nickel C-Mn steel.
equivalent. B Parent metal B -
• By plotting points for the parent steel(s) and the 304L stainless
filler metal, it is possible to estimate the weld A steel.
metal composition.
• This can then be used to predict any cracking or
embrittlement that might occur.
Selecting Filler Using Schaeffler Diagram Selecting Filler Using Schaeffler Diagram
Step 2: Find the average parent metal composition. Step 3: Find Creq and Nieq for the filler metal.
Average parent
metal composition
P depends upon: Filler metal F -
F
B • Thickness of B 309L.
parent metals. P
P
A • Joint design. A
Selecting Filler Using Schaeffler Diagram Selecting Filler Using Schaeffler Diagram
Step 4: Find the composition of the weld metal. Step 5: Assess the likely weldability problems associated
with the weld metal point.
Weld metal
point W
depends upon:
F • Welding process. W (30% dilution)
• Joint design.
P
W (30%
dilution) • Consumable.
Dilution
16-2
• Cast Iron.
• Nickel alloys.
• Copper alloys.

Cast Iron Types of Cast Iron

Chemical composition: Readily weldable
Cast iron Can be welded
• Iron with, Not weldable
• C (2-7%).
• Si (1-3%).
• Mn (up to 1%). Grey Nodular Malleable White
Cast iron main features:
• Relative cheap.
• Easy to cast.
Whiteheart Blackheart Pearlitic
• Readily machined.
• Often poor weldability. (decarburised (outdated)
surface)
Grey Cast Iron Nodular Cast Iron
• Moderate strength (up to Graphite flakes Spheroidal graphite

• Also called spheroidal
275 MPa). graphite (SG) or ductile
• Excellent machinability. iron.
• Poor ductility and • Obtained by adding Mg
toughness. or Ce to grey cast iron.
• Can be welded but
• Good machinability.
weldability depends
upon the alloy additions. • Highest strength and
ductility of the cast irons.
Pearlite, ferrite or pearlite- • Readily welded. Pearlite, ferrite or pearlite-
ferrite matrix ferrite matrix
17-1
White Cast Iron Malleable Cast Iron
White cast iron: Malleable cast iron
• Due to rapid cooling, carbon forms Fe3C.

• Very brittle, with poor ductility. Whiteheart Blackheart Pearlitic
• Highest hardness, good wear resistance.
High C white cast Low C white cast Low C white cast
• Unweldable. iron iron iron
Malleable cast iron:
Furnace with reducing
Furnace with oxidising Furnace with reducing
• Produced by heat treatment of white cast iron (annealing atmosphere → high C
atmosphere → C% fully
above 870°C for more than 60 h). atmosphere → C% fully retained in pearlite
core with decarburised retained in ferrite matrix matrix
• Irregular shape graphite nodules precipitate and grow into a skin
ferrite or pearlitic matrix.
• Good ductility. • Homogenous, better • Higher strength but
• Depending upon the matrix and the annealing atmosphere, • Non-homogenous. mechanical properties. lower ductilit.y
can be whiteheart, blackheart or pearlitic. • Can be welded. • Unweldable. • Unweldable.
Cast Iron Weld Zones Welding Processes for Cast iron

• MMA:
Partially melted region - most critical zone in the weld – Higher heat input  lower preheat required.
– Deeper penetration, greater dilution.
• High cooling rate  metal freezes as white iron (highest – Wide range of consumables.
hardness). – Used on weld and repair jobs.
• To reduce the severity of cracking problems reduce the • MIG/FCAW:
peak temperature and the duration at high temperatures – Mainly dip transfer.
– Achieve high deposition rates.
 controlled heat input, preheat, interpass and proper – Solid wires are Ni, Monel (70Ni-30Cu) or Cu alloys.
filler selection. – Cored wires are Ni-Fe or Ni-Fe-Mn.
• Oxy-fuel welding:
– Low heat input  require a higher preheat.
Partially – Low dilution, wide HAZ, slow cooling  softer microstructure.
HAZ melted region – Slightly reducing flame.
– Consumable has slightly higher C and Si to give matching weld
deposit.
Electrodes for Welding Cast Iron Base Metal Preparation

Cast iron electrodes Weld face grooving • Step 1- grooves are
• Flux coating improves arc stability, reduce porosity and adds ground or gouged into the
alloying elements. surface of the weld prep,
• Matching weld deposit (nodular graphite structure). then filled with weld.
Ni base electrodes • Step 2 - fill the whole joint.
• Widely used to weld cast irons (replacing Cu-based fillers).
Note: Use wider angle bevel
• No Ni carbide  C rejected from weld area as graphite  than for steel - Ni filler is very
weld metal volume increase  less risk of cracking. viscous.
• No preheat required. Advantages:
• Sensitive to hot cracking (especially high Ni electrodes) 
limit dilution. • Weld interface is irregular → less risk of cracking.
• Welds have higher strength and more ductility than cast iron. • Beads in contact with casting are deposited first when
stresses at the fusion line are lowest.
17-2
Preheat of Cast Iron PWHT and Stress Relief of Cast Irons
Why?
• Preheat reduces residual stresses and distortion,
• Improve the ductility and machinability of weld and
slows the cooling rate  lower hardness, less HAZ.
cracking. • Relieve residual stresses.
• The higher the carbon content the higher the • Reduce the brittleness of martensite formed during
preheat. welding.
• A casting with a complex shape will usually How?
require a higher preheat to control residual • Bury the entire casting in sand or vermiculite.
stresses. • Cover the casting with an insulated blanket.
• Transfer the casting to a furnace.
• When welding different thicknesses, preheat the
• Postheat with a torch.
thick member to decrease its heat sink.
• Peen the weld with a round ballpeen hammer.
Cast Iron Weldability Summary
Factors that affect weldability
Heat input from Parent metal Type of welding

welding microstructure consumable
Nickel and Nickel Alloys
• Controls the width of • Nodular and malleable • Cast iron electrodes
HAZ and the amount irons less likely to form require preheat,
of martensite martensite. matching
formed. • Coarse graphite flakes properties.
• Influenced by cause lack of ductility. • Ni base filler do not
preheat/interpass, • Ferrite increases require preheat;
multi-pass welding ductility, whilst Fe3C more ductile than
and PWHT. reduces it. parent metal.
Typical Ni Alloys (Solid Solution) Welding Nickel Alloys
Nickel 200 – pure nickel >99.5% Ni

• Corrosion resistant, thermal expansion and melting point similar to Welding processes available for Ni alloys:
steel, used in chemical industry and electronics.
• Arc welding processes: MMA, TIG and MIG;
Monel alloy 400 - Ni + 31.5%Cu SAW only for solid solution strengthened
• Highly corrosion resistant in sea water, H2SO4 and HF acids. alloys, not ppt hardened.
Inconel 625 - Ni + 21.5%Cr, 2.5%Fe, 9%Mo, 3.6%(Nb +Ta) • Resistance welding (spot, seam, projection)
• Excellent strength and toughness from cryogenic to high • Power beam processes - EBW and LBW.
temperature; oxidation, corrosion and fatigue resistant.
Incoloy 825 - Ni + 30%Fe, 21.5%Cr, 3%Mo, 2.25%Cu

• Excellent corrosion and pitting resistance and for service in
reducing acids and oxidising chemicals.
17-3
Welding Nickel Alloys Ni Weldability Problems
• Solid solution hardened are readily welded. Hot cracking:
• Precipitation hardened grades are harder to weld.
• Even in very small quantities (starting at 0.003%)
– Lower ductility, susceptibility to cracking, possibility of ageing.
– Use solution annealed/overaged  weld  PWHT restore S  hot cracking.
strength. • Mn and Nb additions in filler metals are used to
• Consider the service conditions and environment. combine with S.
• Preheat 20°C to avoid porosity; cleanliness very important. • Pb, B, P and Bi also form low melting eutectics.
• Shielding gases: Ar, He or Ar-He mixtures. • Tendency for hot cracking is increased for coarser
– Ar + 5% H2 only for single pass TIG welds; H2 produces hotter grain sizes (coarser than ASTM no. 5).
arc but danger of porosity in multipass welds.
• Reduce welding speed to improve depth-to-width
• If material is in contact with caustic soda or HF acid, SCC is possible
 reduce residual stress by PWHT. ratio.
• Use matching filler with added de-oxidisers (Al, Ti, Nb).
Ni Weldability Problems Ni Weldability Problems
Porosity: Oxide inclusions:

• Forms due to contamination with O2 and N2; also H2 • Oxides have much higher melting temperatures than
from surface contamination. the base metal  oxides trapped in the weld pool
• Preheat might be required in case of moisture form inclusions.
condensation; also careful cleaning. • Surface oxide must be removed by machining or
• Avoid oxygen contamination by using welding fluxes, grinding; wire brush only polishes the oxide.
shielding gases and/or additions of Mn, Nb, Ti, Al  Lack of sidewall fusion/poor blending:
Al and Ti can form small islands/slag spots so
• Molten weld metal is very viscous  increase bevel
interpass cleaning is critical.
angle; accurate weld metal placement is required.
Copper Welding
• Good atmospheric oxidation and corrosion resistance.

• Copper is a very effective heat sink (high thermal conductivity).
– High heat input, interpass, preheat (for >5mm thickness).
Copper and Copper Alloys – For thick components preheat may be as high as 600°C.
– Copper alloys have lower thermal conductivity (can be 70%
lower).
• TIG and MIG are preferred welding processes.
• He-Ar shielding gases are used instead of Ar (higher arc
voltage).
• To avoid porosity, use filler wires with deoxidants (Al, Mn, Si and
Ti).
17-4
Copper - Weldability Problems Copper - Weldability Problems
Porosity:
Hot cracking:
• From presence/diffusion of H2 into the hot solid metal.
• Due to O2 and impurities that form low melting • Water vapours are trapped inside, leading to porosity or
point eutectics (eg Pb, Bi). cracking.
• Avoidance: • Avoidance: use PDO or oxygen-free grades, dry inert
– Use slag/inert gases to protect molten weld pool. gases; dry electrodes and fluxes before welding.
– Add deoxidisers (Mn, Si, Zn, Al, Ti). High level of residual stresses/distortions:
– Use boron-based deoxidising fluxes and forge the
• Due to the high thermal expansion coefficient.
weld joint (to fragment the oxide layer).
• Can lead to weld/HAZ cracks.
• Preheat and free expansion of components during welding
are required.
Welding Copper Alloys - Brasses Welding Copper Alloys - Bronzes
Brasses (Cu-Zn) and nickel silvers (Cu-Zn-Ni) Phosphor • 1-10% Sn + up to 0.4% P.

bronze • Normally welded with
Low Zn (<20% Zn) matching consumables.
Lower
Brasses ductility
• Tin bronze + <5%Zn +
High Zn (30-40% Zn) <5%Pb.
Bronze
Gunmetal • Alloys with high Pb content
• Zn volatility is the main problem  only low Zn brasses are types
considered not weldable due
considered weldable, use Zn-free filler to avoid porosity. to hot cracking problems.
• TIG and MIG are preferred welding processes.
Silicon • Contain 3% Si + 1%Mn.
• Ar and Ar-He shielding gases are used.
bronze • Easiest of the bronzes to
• Use oxidising flame on OFW. weld.
Welding Copper Alloys – Al Bronze Welding Copper Nickel Alloys
Single phase • Contain 5-10% Al + small • Cupronickels contain 5-30%Ni.

alloys additions of Fe.
• Readily weldable by TIG, MIG and (to a less extent) MMA.
• Can be susceptible to hot
Aluminium • Thermal conductivity similar to carbon steels  no
cracking.
bronze preheat required.
types
Two phase • Contain 12% Al + 5%Fe + • Matching filler may be used, although 70%Cu-30%Ni is
Ni and Mn. often used for 90%Cu-10%Ni.
alloys
• Easier to weld.
• Filler materials contain 0.2-0.5%Ti to avoid porosity.
• Main problem is Al2O3 formation → TIG and MIG preferred. • Ar shielding normally used; Ar-H2 mixture used to improve
• TIG welding - use AC, or DC with He shielding gas. fluidity and produce a cleaner weld.
• Cleaning is essential to avoid porosity. • Ar backing recommended (especially in pipe welding) to
• Low thermal conductivity → preheat not normally required. prevent root oxidation.
• Matching filler materials to maintain corrosion resistance.
17-5

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IIW/EWF Diploma –

Materials and Their Behaviour (Advanced)

Training & Examination Services

4.12 Hardness testing

The number of protons (ie atomic number Z) determines the chemical

1.2 Chemical bonding

In ionic bonding, a metal atom donates an electron (becoming a positive ion)

In covalent bonding, atoms share one or more pairs of electrons to form a

Metallic bonding occurs as metal ions sit within a lattice surrounded by

Metallic bonding accounts for many physical characteristics of metals

1.3 Crystal structures

The co-ordination number is the number of nearest neighbouring atoms to

1.4 Atomic structure and mechanical properties

More ductile More brittle

The transition between the two crystallographic structures occurs at a

1.5 Solidification of metals

Columnar structure of weld metal.

1.6 Recrystallisation – solid state transformation

1.7 Crystal structure imperfections

Vacancy Substitutional Interstitial

Edge dislocations consist of an extra half-plane of atoms.

Screw dislocations consist of a step of atoms in the crystal structure.

If enough stress is applied to the material, it will deform by dislocation

1.8 Types of deformation

As the temperature increases the strength decreases and the toughness

1.9 Strengthening mechanisms

1.9.2 Work hardening

1.9.3 Grain refinement

1.9.4 Precipitation hardening

A fine dispersion of second phase precipitates confers the highest strength

Binary Alloy Systems

Solid Solution Eutectic Combination

Total solubility in liquid Total solubility in liquid Total solubility in liquid

An eutectic is a mixture of two (or more) substances which liquefies at the

2.3 Using phase diagrams

1 Determine the phases present at different temperatures.

2 Find the temperatures at which solidification starts/ends when an alloy

3 Determine the composition of phases at a specific temperature (T).

4 Determine the quantity of phases present at a specific temperature (T)

At 1232oC, the amount of solid phase is given by dividing the length A by

2.4 The lever rule

2.5 Solidification and microstructure

In the copper-silver system, an alloy of 30% silver will start to solidify at

(copper-rich) and  (silver-rich) phases.

2.6 Solidification and coring

2.7 Age hardening

An age hardening heat treatment involves dissolving any second phase

Fast cooling (no

Single phase   supersaturated with

2.8 Solid state transformations

2.9 Introducing the iron carbon phase diagram

The eutectoid reaction occurs at 727oC and involves the transformation of

The room temperature microstructure of slowly cooled steel depends on the

2.10 Advantages and disadvantages of phase diagrams

2 On your sketch mark the position where an age-hardenable copper-rich alloy

4 Describe the phase formation sequence and microstructure formation as a hypo-

In an integrated steelworks the entire manufacturing process, from the

3.2 Primary steelmaking

3.2.1 Iron ores

 Haematite (Fe2O3) is reddish grey or blackish red and contains

3.2.2 The blast furnace

C (from coke) + O2 (from hot air) → CO2 + heat

3Fe2O3 + CO → CO2 + 2Fe3O4

Fe2O3 + CO → 2FeO + CO2