Biofuels: Che 525 - Che Elective Ii: Renewable Energy Technologies

CHE 525 - ChE ELECTIVE II: Renewable Energy Technologies
BIOFUELS
Submitted by:
DIONISIO, Charles Amiel P.
REDUBLO, Anne Paulinne P.
Submitted to:
Dr. Denvert C. Pangayao

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction 3
Status of Biofuels 4
Global Setting 4
Philippine Setting 6
Impacts of Biofuels 10
Advantages 10
Disadvantages 11
Categories of Biofuels 14
Solid Biofuels 14
Liquid Biofuels 17
Gaseous Biofuels 18
Bioethanol Energy Technology 20
Biodiesel Energy Technology 22
Biogas Energy Technology 25
Environmental Impacts 46
References
RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 2

Dionisio, Charles Amiel P. | Redublo, Anne Paulinne P.
INTRODUCTION
Known petroleum reserves are limit resources. Various studies put the date of the
global peak in oil production between 1996 and 2035. Biomass energy technologies use
waste or plant matter to produce energy with a lower level of greenhouse gas emissions
than fossil fuel sources. In developed countries there is a growing trend towards employing
modern technologies and efficient bio-energy conversion using a range of biofuels, which
are becoming cost-wise competitive with fossil fuels.
Biofuel is referred to as liquid or gaseous fuels for the transport sector that are
predominantly produced from biomass. A variety of fuels can be produced from biomass
resources including liquid fuels, such as ethanol, methanol, biodiesel, Fischer-Tropsch
diesel, and gaseous fuels, such as hydrogen and methane. Liquid biofuels are primarily used
to fuel vehicles, but can also fuel engines or fuel cells for electricity generation. There are
several reasons for biofuels to be considered as relevant technologies by both developing
and industrialized countries. They include energy security reasons, environmental concerns,
foreign exchange savings, and socioeconomic issues related to the rural sector. Due to its
environmental merits, the share of biofuel in the automotive fuel market will grow fast in the
next decade.
The biggest difference between biofuels and petroleum feedstocks is oxygen content.
Biofuels have oxygen levels from 10% to 45% while petroleum has essentially none making
the chemical properties of biofuels very different from petroleum. All have very low sulfur
levels and many have low nitrogen levels. Biomass can be converted into liquid and gaseous
fuels through thermochemical and biological routes.

STATUS OF BIOFUELS GLOBALLY
Source: Renewables 2016 Global Status Report
Bioenergy production continued to increase in 2015, helping to meet rising energy

demand in some countries and contributing to environmental objectives. However, the
sector also faced a number of challenges, in particular from low oil prices and policy
uncertainty in some markets.
Bio-heat production for buildings and industrial uses grew slowly in 2015, with modern
uses of bio-heat rising by approximately 3% from 2014 levels.
The use of bio-power has increased more quickly – averaging some 8% annually – with
rapid growth in generation notable in China, Japan, Germany and the United Kingdom.
Ethanol production increased by 4% globally, with record production levels in the United
States and Brazil.
Global production of biodiesel fell slightly due to constrained production in some Asian
markets, although growth continued in the major producing countries (the United States
and Brazil).

As seen in the figure above, bioenergy contributes more to primary global energy
supply than any other renewable energy source. Total energy demand supplied from
biomass in 2015 was approximately 60 exajoules (EJ). The use of biomass for energy has
been growing at around 2% per year since 2010. Bioenergy plays a role in all three main
energy-use sectors: heat (and cooling), electricity and transport. The contribution of
bioenergy to final energy demand for heat (traditional and modern) far outweighs its use in
either electricity or transport.
Solid biomass represents the largest share of biomass used for heat and electricity
generation, whereas liquid biofuel represents the largest source in the transport sector.

STATUS OF BIOFUELS IN THE PHILIPPINES
Source: International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) 2017
The Philippines has three main power grid systems as well as off-grid systems serving
the three major island groups Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. Total installed generating
capacity has reached 17,943 MW out of which only 15,933 MW is dependable capacity that
can be made available to generate electricity whenever needed. This accounts for nearly
90% of the total. Dependable grid-connected capacity is currently 12,970 MW.
Generation capacity based on fossil fuel accounts for 72% of the total, and
geothermal and hydropower account for most of the remainder, as illustrated in Figure 7.
This shows the insignificance of variable renewable energy sources such as wind and solar
power and biomass in the power system at the moment.
The Philippines produces a large amount of agricultural residues annually from farm
land amounting to 14 million hectares, accounting for nearly half its total area. Rice husk
and straw make up the lion‘s share of the residue, while the rest includes coconut shell and
sugarcane bagasse, for instance. Forest residue, municipal solid wastes and animal manure
from the husbandry industry are also part of the biomass feedstock. An investigation on
resource potential conducted by USAID‘s Climate Change and Clean Energy (CEnergy)
project in 2013 predicted 4,450MW net available capacity for power generation from
different types of biomass feedstock across the country (De Guzman, 2014). The indicative
megawatts were calculated at a 70% capacity, reflecting biomass resources that can be
reasonably collected and used for power generation. The biomass resources considered in
the assessment varied per main island group, i.e Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao, as shown in
Table 3.
In Luzon, the biomass commodities quantified were rice residues, corn residues,
coconut husks, coconut shell, coconut coir and coconut fronds, pig and poultry manure, and
solid waste. Luzon leads on biomass resources with 2,094 MW due to its abundant coconut
(husk, shell and frond) resources followed by rice and livestock manure. Isabela province
alone (the second largest in the Philippines) has the potential to generate about 800 MW
electricity mainly from the by-products of its massive corn production.
Known as the ―sugar bowl of the Philippines‖, Visayas‘ resource base comprises
sugarcane residues, rice residues, corn residues, coconut, poultry and hog animal wastes.
The major sugar mills in the region own and operate their own power-generating boilers.
In Mindanao, the biomass resources quantified include rice residues, corn residues,
sugarcane residues, coconut residues, plantation crops (cassava residues, banana wastes,
pineapple wastes, rubber wastes, empty palm fruit) and emerging energy crops (sweet
sorghum, bamboo, napier grass). Bukidnon has been identified as offering the most
abundant residual rice straw, cornstalk and bagasse that may be utilised for power
production. Coconut has the potential to be the major power generator, particularly in the
province of Davao del Sur, which has 200 MW equivalent (MWe), and Davao City (130
MWe), offering a combined potential 330 MWe. Corn presents a significant source of power
too, especially in Bukidnon, which has a 90 MWe potential. In addition, Bukidnon produces
large amounts of sugarcane residues, offering a potential 43 MWe. Several energy crop
plantations exist in Mindanao, including at least 440 hectares of Napier grass, 200 hectares
of bamboo and sweet sorghum. Almost all plantations are owned and cultivated by biomass
power companies. Some state universities, as well as the Department of Agriculture, grow
sweet sorghum for energy crop research.
The largest biomass power plant is the 21 MW First Farmers Holding Corporation‘s
cogeneration plant, which primarily uses bagasse from its sugar milling operation as
feedstock. Electricity produced is utilized by the sugar mill and refinery while surplus
electricity is sold to the Wholesale Electricity Spot Market.
Rice husks, the by-product of the rice milling process, are used by several rice mills to
fire rice grain dryers and other crops such as corn, coffee, legumes and cassava (Ragudo,
2011).
Similarly, commercial livestock farms generate significant amount of animal wastes.

Biogas recovery to fuel gas engines for power generation is a clean and cost-effective
strategy for managing wastes. The power they generate may be used in farm operations for
lighting or cooling livestock housing, generating power cost savings. Cavite Pig City is a large

hog farm with a population of 100,000 heads, which invested in a 1.1 MW biogas facility to
manage its animal wastes. This generates power used in the farm.
The Biofuels Act of 2006 (Republic Act No. 9367), which entered into force in 2007,
provides the legal mandate for blending bio-liquid fuels, i.e. bioethanol and biodiesel, into
liquid transport fuels. Blending requirements have increased progressively to current levels
of 10% for bioethanol and 2% for biodiesel, up from an initial 5% and 1% respectively. This
reflects the enlargement of production and feedstock capacity. Meanwhile, the promotion of
biofuel use in the transport sector has driven growth in the domestic sugar industry and
cultivation of coconut and other oil-rich plants.
Notwithstanding a range of incentive schemes, including a value added tax

exemption and financing through public institutions, the prices of domestically produced
biofuels have increased. This is especially true for biodiesel, discouraging the adoption of a
5% blending requirement. The government may review its biofuel programmes in the light of
experience to date.

IMPACTS OF BIOFUELS
No fuel source is completely positive or completely negative. We need to weigh the pros and
cons of biofuels to determine whether this resource is an effective alternative to traditional
fuels.
ADVANTAGES
Biofuel advocates frequently point out the advantages of these plant- and animal-based
fuels, such as:
1. Source material
Whereas oil is a limited resource that
comes from specific materials, biofuels
can be manufactured from a wide range of
materials including crop waste, manure,
and other byproducts. This makes it an
efficient step in recycling.
2. Renewability
It takes a very long time for fossil fuels
to be produced, but biofuels are much
more easily renewable as new crops are
grown and waste material is collected.
3. Security
Biofuels can be produced locally, which decreases the nation's dependence upon
foreign energy. By reducing dependence on foreign fuel sources, countries can protect
the integrity of their energy resources and make them safe from outside influences.

4. Economic stimulation
Because biofuels are produced locally, biofuel manufacturing plants can employ
hundreds or thousands of workers, creating new jobs in rural areas. Biofuel production
will also increase the demand for suitable biofuel crops, providing economic stimulation
to the agriculture industry.
5. Lower carbon emissions

When biofuels are burned, they produce significantly less carbon output and fewer
toxins, making them a safer alternative to preserve atmospheric quality and lower air
pollution.
DISADVANTAGES
Despite the many positive characteristics of biofuels, there are also many
disadvantages to these energy sources.
1. Energy output
Biofuels have a lower energy output than traditional fuels and therefore require
greater quantities to be consumed in order to produce the same energy level. This has

led some noted energy analysts to believe that biofuels are not worth the work to convert
them to ethanol rather than electricity.
2. Food shortages
There is concern that using valuable cropland to grow fuel crops could have an
impact on the cost of food and could possibly lead to food shortages.
3. Food prices
As demand for food crops such as corn grows for biofuel production, it raises prices
for necessary staple food crops.
4. Water use
Massive quantities of water are required for proper irrigation of biofuel crops as well
as to manufacture the fuel, which could strain local and regional water resources.

5. Production carbon emissions
Several studies have been
conducted to analyze the carbon
footprint of biofuels, and while they
be cleaner to burn there are strong
indications that the process to
produce the fuel - including the
machinery necessary to cultivate the
crops and the plants to produce the
fuel - has hefty carbon emissions. In
addition, cutting forests to grow crops
for biofuels adds to carbon emissions.
6. High cost
To refine biofuels to more
efficient energy outputs, and to build
the necessary manufacturing plants
to increase biofuel quantities, a high
initial investment is often required,
making its production currently more
expensive than other ways to fuel
cars, even though this could change
in the future.

CATEGORIES OF BIOFUELS
Either virgin or waste biomass can be used as raw material for the production of
biofuels. In general, biofuels can be classified as solid, liquid, and gaseous biofuels. Their
properties, characteristics, and production technologies are presented in the following.
A. Solid Biofuels
Solid biofuels are the most common and ancient type of fuels in human history. The
main solid biofuels used are the following:
Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF)
It is the fraction produced from municipal solid wastes after mechanical and
thermal treatment. It contains mainly paper and plastic residues. The thermal value
of RDF is relatively low, approximately 9200 kJ/kg. RDF is mainly used in industrial
applications (cement works, etc.) as a fuel.

Briquettes
They are produced from virgin biomass through a thermo-mechanical process.
Their form is mainly cylindrical or rectangular. They contain moisture at a level of 5%
(w/w). Their thermal value is approximately 19, 000 kJ/kg. Briquettes are used as a
fuel in industrial combustion applications (such as drying, steam or hot water
production, etc.) and in central heating systems.
Pellets
They are produced with compaction of finely chopped biomass (mainly
forestry or agricultural residues). They contain about 5-10% moisture, and their
heating value ranges from 10 000 to 20 000 kJ/kg. Their main difference from
briquettes is their small size. Pellets and briquettes have the same applications.
Their energy content is high in relation to the biomass, of which they originate. Their
production is based on thermo-mechanical or physicochemical process of
compaction of finely chopped lignocellulosic biomass.

Wood.
This category includes not only the wood that is produced from forests but the
agricultural and forestry residues as well. Its water content ranges from 40 to 70%
(w/w). This value depends upon the biomass harvest timing. Its typical heating value
is approximately 18 600 kJ/kg (on a dry basis) but varies considerably depending
upon the biomass‘ chemical composition (lignin, cellulose, etc.). Wood and woody
residues are mainly used in power generation and co-generation, industrial heating
applications (cement works, etc.), and central heating systems.
Sewage.
It is produced from the municipal or industrial sewage cleaning process. Its
heating value is approximately 19 000 kJ/kg. It is used in power generation
applications.
Industrial Wastes.
They are byproducts of various industrial processes. Typical examples are
residues of wood industry, cotton industry residues (gins), etc. Their properties, such

as content energy, content moisture, etc., vary significantly. They are used mainly in
industrial heating systems and power generation or co-generation applications.
B. Liquid Biofuels
Liquid biofuels can be classified in two categories. Properties and characteristics of
biodiesel and bioethanol (which are the main liquid biofuels) are presented in the following.
Natural biochemical liquefaction biofuels. This class includes biodiesel.

Biodiesel. It is defined as monoalkyl esters of long-chain fatty acids derived
from renewable feedstocks, such as vegetable oils and animal fats, or other
triglyceride-bearing biomass, such as microalgae, for use in compression ignition
engines. Biodiesel can be used in such a machine with or without modifications, in
blends with diesel or as a neat fuel. The higher and lower heating values of biodiesel
are 40 500 and 37 300 kJ/kg, respectively.

Synthetic oxygenated liquid fuels. This class includes bioethanol, biomethanol, and
methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE).
Bioethanol. It is produced through distillation of a liquid product coming from
fermentation of sugars or lignocelluloses containing biomass. Sugar-containing
biomass includes sugar canes, sugar beets, sorghum, molasses, and corn, whereas
lignocellulosic biomass includes straw, cotton stalks, corn stalks, etc. The type of
biomass that is used as raw material affects the yield ratio of each production
process. Bioethanol can be used in internal combustion motors, as a neat fuel or in
blends. It can also be used as a fuel for electric power generation, in fuel cells
(thermo-chemical action) and in power co-generation systems, and as a raw material
in the chemical industry. Its higher and lower heating values (at 20 °C) are 29 800
kJ/kg and 21 090 kJ/L, respectively.
C. Gaseous Biofuels
They are the least used biofuels. Gaseous biofuels are produced through the
biomass gasification process that is a thermal or a microbial degradation of biomass‘
substances. The main technologies used for commercial gasification are the thermal
gasification process (pyrolysis) and the microbial gasification process (digestion). A mixture

that contains one or more of the following gases is produced during the process of
gasification:
Methane (CH4)
Hydrogen (H2)
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
The thermal value of biogas depends upon its composition, which in turn depends
upon the biomass type and the technology used. In general, the thermal value of biogas
varies between 10 000 and 20 000 kJ/kg. Wood, forest, and agricultural residues and
wastes and manure as well are used as raw materials in gasification.
Biogas is produced to be used as:

 A fuel in power and thermal co-generation
 An industrial fuel (e.g., cement works)
 A raw material for ammonia (NH4) production
 A raw material in the chemical industry.

BIOETHANOL ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
Ethanol or ethyl alcohol produced by hydrolysis and then fermentation processes
from biomass is called as bioethanol. Carbohydrates (hemicelluloses and cellulose) in plant
materials can be converted to sugars by hydrolysis process. Fermentation is an anaerobic
biological process in which sugars are converted to alcohol by the action of microorganisms,
usually yeast. Various yeasts are used in the fermentation stage, but the most common is
Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The resulting alcohol from the processes is ethanol. The value of
any particular type of biomass as feedstock for fermentation depends on the ease with
which it can be converted to sugars.
Bioethanol is a fuel derived from renewable sources of feedstock; typically plants
such as wheat, sugar beet, corn, straw, and wood. Bioethanol is a petrol additive/substitute.
It is possible that wood, straw and even household wastes may be economically converted
to bioethanol.
Bioethanol can be produced from a large variety of carbohydrates with a general
formula of (CH2O)n. Fermentation of sucrose is performed using commercial yeast such as
Saccharomyces ceveresiae. Chemical reaction is composed of enzymatic hydrolysis of
sucrose followed by fermentation of simple sugars.
First, invertase enzyme in the yeast catalyzes the hydrolysis of sucrose to convert it
into glucose and fructose.
Second, zymase, another enzyme also present in the yeast, converts the glucose and
the fructose into ethanol.
A major processing step in an ethanol plant is enzymatic saccharification of cellulose

to sugars through treatment by enzymes; this step requires lengthy processing and normally

follows a short term pretreatment step. Fig. 3 shows the flow chart for the production of
bioethanol from cereal grain or straw.
E10, sometimes called gasohol, is a fuel mixture of 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline that
can be used in the internal combustion engines (ICEs) of most modern automobiles.
Gasohol has higher octane, or antiknock, properties than gasoline and burns more
slowly, coolly, and completely, resulting in reduced emissions of some pollutants, but it
also vaporizes more readily, potentially aggravating ozone pollution in warm weather.
Diesohol is a fuel containing alcohol that comprises a blend of diesel fuel (84.5%),
hydrated ethanol (15%) and an emulsifier (0.5%). The emulsifier that allows the ethanol
and the diesel to blend consists of a styrene-butadiene copolymer which is dissolved in
the diesel fuel and a polyethyleneoxide-polystyrene copolymer which is dissolved in the
hydrated alcohol.
Hydrated (or azeotropic) ethanol is ethyl alcohol that contains approximately 5% water.
Hydrated ethanol derived from sugar, or ethanol derived from wheat starch, may be used
for production of diesohol. Hydrated ethanol production is a one-stage refining.
Ethanol is produced by the fermentation of sugar solutions from sugar cane or grain
crops. The action of yeast on the sugar produces a solution containing about 12%
ethanol. The alcohol can be concentrated by distillation to produce up to 96% ethanol.
Removal of the remaining 4% water requires special treatment.

BIODIESEL ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
Biodiesel‘s production includes the transesterification stage that is followed by
separation and evaporation stages. Any material that contains triglycerides can be used as
raw material for this production. The basic chemical reaction for this production is the
following:
Catalyst: can be either a chemical acid or a base

Reaction temperature: must be greater than 60 °C
Mode of Operation: the production occurs in batches
In a standard biodiesel production process, 1 ton of raw material, containing 2.5%

fatty acids and 135 kg of methanol produce 946 kg of methyl esters, 89 kg of glycerine, and
23 kg of fatty acids. Byproducts, such as glycerine and animal feed, are exploitable and can
add to the system‘s significant incomes.

Vegetable oils are chemically triglycerides molecules in which three fatty acids groups
are esters attached to one glycerol molecule. Vegetable oils from renewable oil seeds can
be use when mixed with diesel fuels.
Vegetable oil (m)ethyl esters, commonly referred to as ‗‗biodiesel,‖ are prominent

candidates as alternative diesel fuels. The name biodiesel has been given to transesterified
vegetable oil to describe its use as a diesel fuel. There has been renewed interest in the use
of vegetable oils for making biodiesel due to its less polluting and renewable nature as
against the conventional diesel, which is a fossil fuel leading to a potential exhaustion.
Biodiesel is technically competitive with or offer technical advantages compared to

conventional petroleum diesel fuel. The vegetable oils can be converted to their (m)ethyl
esters via transesterification process in the presence of catalyst. Methyl, ethyl, 2-propyl and
butyl esters were prepared from vegetable oils through transesterification using potassium
and/or sodium alkoxides as catalysts. The purpose of the transesterification process is to
lower the viscosity of the oil. Ideally, transesterification is potentially a less expensive way of

transforming the large, branched molecular structure of the bio-oils into smaller, straight-
chain molecules of the type required in regular diesel combustion engines. The biodiesel
esters were characterized for their physical and fuel properties including density, viscosity,
iodine value, acid value, cloud point, pure point, gross heat of combustion and volatility. The
biodiesel fuels produced slightly lower power and torque, and higher fuel consumption than
No. 2 diesel fuel.
Biodiesel is better than diesel fuel in terms of sulfur content, flash point, aromatic
content and biodegradability. The cost of biodiesels varies depending on the base stock,
geographic area, variability in crop production from season to season, the price of the crude
petroleum and other factors. Biodiesel has over double the price of petroleum diesel. The
high price of biodiesel is in large part due to the high price of the feedstock. However,
biodiesel can be made from other feedstocks, including beef tallow, pork lard, and yellow
grease. Most of the biodiesel that is currently made uses soybean oil, methanol, and an
alkaline catalyst. The high value of soybean oil as a food product makes production of a
cost-effective fuel very challenging. However there are large amounts of low-cost oils and
fats such as restaurant waste and animal fats that could be converted to biodiesel. The
problem with processing these lowcost oils and fats is that they often contain large amounts
of free fatty acids (FFA) that cannot be converted to biodiesel using an alkaline catalyst.
Biodiesel is an environmentally friendly alternative liquid fuel that can be used in any
diesel engine without modification. There has been renewed interest in the use of vegetable
oils for making biodiesel due to its less polluting and renewable nature as against the
conventional petroleum diesel fuel. If the biodiesel valorized efficiently at energy purpose, so
would be benefit for the environment and the local population, job creation, provision of
modern energy carriers to rural communities, avoid urban migration and reduction of CO2
and sulfur levels in the atmosphere.

BIOGAS TECHNOLOGY
Biogas is produced in biogas plants by the
bacterial degradation of biomass under anaerobic
conditions. There are three categories of biomass: (1)
substrate of farm origin such as liquid manure, feed
waste, harvest waste and energy crops; (2) waste from
private households and municipalities such as
separately collected organic waste (in organic waste
containers), market waste, expired food or food waste;
(3) industrial by-products such as glycerine, by-products
of food processing or waste from fat separators. The
organic substance is converted to biogas by bacteria in several steps in airtight digesters.
The bacteria are similar to those found in the prestomachs of ruminants.
As with fossil natural gas, the main component of biogas that determines the energy
content of the gas is flammable methane (CH4). Depending on the substrate digested in the
biogas plant, the methane content of the biogas fluctuates between 50% and 75%. The
second main component of biogas is carbon dioxide (CO2) with a share between 25% and
50%. Other components of biogas are water (H2O), oxygen (O2) and traces of sulfur (S2) and
hydrogen sulfide (H2S). If biogas is upgraded to biomethane with approximately 98%
methane in a biogas treatment plant, the biomethane has the same properties as natural
gas.
After simple desulfurization and drying, biogas can be converted to electricity and
heat in cogeneration units (combined heat and power (CHP)) or the biogas is burnt to
produce heat. After treatment to natural gas grade, the so-called biomethane can be used in
all applications commonly known for natural gas. Thus, biogas and biomethane produced
from biogas are flexible renewable fuels that can be stored. Motor fuel, electricity and heat
can be produced from them, which makes them important functions in the context of
sustainable energy supply. Besides, biogas can also replace carbon compounds in plastic
products.
Experts are not agreed as far as the

importance of biogas for the sustainable
supply of energy is concerned. Basically, a
difference should be made between two
different origins of the substrate on which
biogas plants feed: waste and energy plants.
Whereas the untapped reserve of digestible
organic waste is enormous on a world scale, large unused areas of land on which energy
crops can be cultivated are also available.
BIOGAS PRODUCTION OVERVIEW

Biogas is produced by anaerobic bacteria that degrade organic material to biogas in
four steps: hydrolysis, acidification, production of acetic acid and production of methane.
The product of the digestive process, raw biogas, consists of 50–75% methane, 25–50%
carbon dioxide and 2–8% other gases such as nitrogen, oxygen and trace gases (e.g.
hydrogen sulfide (H2S), ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen). Before the biogas can be converted
into electricity in engines at the place at which it is produced, the raw biogas must be
cleaned in a first process in which the water vapor saturated biogas is desulfurized and
dried by cooling.
Certain basic conditions must be met to enable the bacteria to degrade the substrate
efficiently. These are: (1) absence of air (anaerobic atmosphere); (2) uniform temperature;
(3) optimum nutrient supply; (4) optimum and uniform pH. The equipment of a biogas plant
should be able to meet these basic requirements. Therefore, a biogas plant designer should
know from the beginning what kind of substrate the plant will feed on so that the right
equipment for efficient biogas production can be selected.

The methods of biogas production can be characterized by the number of process
steps, the process temperature, the dry matter content and the way in which the substrate is
fed. Biogas plants feeding on agricultural byproducts such as liquid manure, harvest residue
and energy crops often employ a single-step process in the mesophilic (32–42°C)
temperature range with wet fermentation and quasi-continuous feeding. The method can be
varied depending on the requirements the process must meet in terms of speed, the degree
of digestion and the hygienizing action. For example, hydrolysis as the first step usually
accelerates the process and may also result in a higher degree of degradation. Increasing
the process temperature from the mesophilic (32–42°C) to the thermophilic (45–57°C)
level also speeds up degradation and improves the health status of the substrate (Eder and
Schulz 2006).
If the substrate digested in the biogas plant contains more than 20% dry matter, so-
called dry digestion methods will normally be applied. In these methods, the digester is
charged with stackable substrates. The substrates are not mixed, but a liquid called
percolate runs through them. After a sufficiently long dwell time, the digester is opened and
the digested product removed. In addition to this batch process, several other methods for

digesting solid substrates have been developed that like the batch processes, are now
primarily used for digesting municipal waste.
The purpose of biogas technology is the conversion of organic substances to

methane as fuel and valuable fertilizer from available resources that otherwise would go
unused. This is particularly the case when exclusively by-products and waste are used as
substrates for digestion. But even if energy crops serve as the substrate for biogas
production, the energy balance is positive as Effenberger et al. (2010) were able to
demonstrate with scientific support from the example of ten biogas plants.
BIOGAS FEEDSTOCKS
Biomass is the general term used to describe all biologically produced matter and
therefore includes all kinds of materials and substances derived from living organisms.
Biomass is widely used for energy purposes and supplies today some 50 EJ globally, which
represents about 10% of the global annual primary energy consumption (World Energy
Council, 2010). According to the World Energy Council, there is still significant potential to
expand biomass for energy use, including for biogas production, by tapping the large
volumes of unused residues and wastes. Biomass originating from forestry and agriculture,
along with industrial and municipal residues and wastes, are the biomass types used as
feedstock for energy generation. Biomass resources suitable as biogas feedstocks, usually
named anaerobic digestion (AD) feedstock are represented by a large variety of organic
materials available on a renewable basis, ranging from simple compounds to complex high-
solid matters. They usually have a high content of sugar, starch, proteins or fats, and a
common feature is their ability to be easily decomposed through AD

Historically, AD has been associated with the treatment of animal manure and
slurries and with stabilization treatment of sewage sludge from wastewater plants. The
cultivation of crops such as maize, grasses, cereals, beets, potatoes and sunflowers,
specially dedicated to be used as feedstock for biogas, was developed in the 1990s in
countries like Germany and Austria, although the idea is much older – the methane
potential of various crops was investigated in the 1930s by Buswell (Murphy et al., 2011).
The biomass resources amenable to biogas production can be grouped into

categories according to various criteria. According to the taxonomic rank (Latin regnum) of
their origin, they can be vegetal (plantae) and animal (animalia). According to the sector
generating them, they can be agricultural (animal manures and slurries, vegetable by-
products and residues, energy crops), industrial (organic wastes, by-products and residues
from agroindustries, food industries, fodder and brewery industries, organic-loaded
wastewaters and sludges from industrial processes, organic by-products from biofuel
production and biorefineries, etc.), municipal (source-separated household waste, sewage
sludge, municipal solid waste and food residues). Across these sectors, wastes, residues
and by-products of different biomass value chains are the most sustainable materials now
used as AD feedstocks (Table 2.1).

Over the last decade, the potential of aquatic biomass as a feedstock for biogas has
received increasing attention and has become the focus of research efforts around the
world in attempts to develop cost sustainable and technically feasible full-scale applications
for the culture, harvesting and utilization of biogas feedstocks (Wellinger, 2009). Although
its utilization as a biogas feedstock is still in the research phase, aquatic biomass is one of
the biomass types with the highest potential for renewable energy production as well as
various industrial applications and a possible future alternative to energy crops.
AGRICULTURAL FEEDSTOCKS
The feedstock substrates used for biogas are primarily derived from the agricultural
sector, which accounts for the largest potential for biogas feedstocks (Steffen et al., 1998).
These feedstocks consist mainly of various residues and by-products, of which the most
important are animal manures and slurries collected from farms (from cattle, pigs, poultry,
etc.). Along with manure and slurry, crop residues, by-products and wastes (e.g. straw,
grasses, leaves, fruits, whole plants) are also used. Over the last decade, new categories of
feedstocks have been tested and are now used in AD plants; this is the case of energy crops
(maize, grasses, beets, sunflowers, etc.), grown specially for biogas production.
Animal Manure and Slurries

Manures and slurries from a variety of
animals can be used as feedstocks for biogas
production (pigs, cattle, poultry, horses, mink
and many others). They are characterized by
differing dry matter contents: solid farmyard
manure (10–30% dry matter) or liquid slurry
(below 10% dry matter). Their composition
also differs according to the species of origin
and the quality of the animal feed. For simplificity, the general term ‗animal manure‘
is often used. Manure is an excellent feed stock substrate for AD; with a carbon to
nitrogen (C:N) ratio of around 25:1 and rich in various nutrients necessary for the
growth of anaerobic microorganisms. It has a high buffer capacity, able to stabilize
the AD process in the case of a significant pH decrease inside the digester, has a
natural content of anaerobic microorganisms, is highly accessible and is cheap.
Solid manure and slurries also have some limitations as a feedstock for AD.
As noted earlier, animal slurries have a low dry matter content (3–5% for pig slurries
and 6–9% for cattle slurries), which gives a low methane yield per unit volume of
digested feedstock, ranging between 10 and 20 cu.m. methane per cubic meter of
digested slurry (Angelidaki, 2002), and biomass transport costs are high. Both
slurries and manures contain various amounts of straw and fiber particles that are
high in ligno-celluloses. The lingocellulosic fractions are known to be recalcitrant to
anaerobic decomposition and usually pass through a biogas reactor undigested,
without any contribution to methane production. As such, although manures have
one of the highest potentials as a feedstock for biogas, their relatively low methane
yield does not provide economic sustainability in the case of monodigestion, so they
are dependent on co-digestion with co-substrates with a high methane yield. A
number of emerging technologies based on chemical, mechanic, thermal or
ultrasound treatments have been tested in attempts to disintegrate the recalcitrant
matter in animal manure (Angelidaki and Ahring, 2000) and make it available for the
anaerobic microorganisms, with the aim of enhancing the methane yield and thus
the economic efficiency of manure mono-digestion.
Crop Residues
The category of plant residues

includes various vegetable agricultural
byproducts and harvest residues, plants
and plant parts, low-quality or spoiled crops,
fruits and vegetables, and spoiled feed
silage. Plant residues are usually digested
as co-substrates with animal manures and
other feedstock types. Most of them need to
be pre-treated before feeding in to a digester.Pre-treatments range from simple
mechanical particle size reduction to more complicated treatments aiming at
breaking the ligno-cellulosic molecul es in order to facilitate the access of anaerobic
microorganisms to these structures. A particle size of 1 cm (Amon and Boxberger,
1999) allows proper handling and mixing with other feedstock types and ensures
good digestion.
Energy Crops
Many varieties of crops, both whole plants and parts of plants, have been
tested and proven to be suitable as biogas feedstock. These include maize, various
grasses, various cereals, beets, potatoes and
sunflowers, as shown in Table 2.2.
Some newly introduced energy crops

Silphium perfoliatum, Sorghum bicolor,
Sorghum Sudanese and Helianthus
tuberosus. Mixed cropping with different plant
species has also been considered. Woody

crops are currently not used for AD, as biomass containing a high percentage of
lignin cannot be effectively decomposed by anaerobic microorganisms. Ongoing
research is currently focusing on delignification pre-treatments and technologies for
efficient utilization of woody biomass as feedstock for biogas production (Al Seadi et
al., 2008).
The use of energy crops as a feedstock for biogas implies some specific
technologic steps prior to digestion: harvesting, pre-processing and storage/ensiling.
Herbaceous energy crops like grass, sunflowers, maize and sugar beet are normally
used fresh or as silage. Maize is the most frequently used energy crop in the majority
of existing biogas plants (Murphy et al., 2011); it can be harvested with ordinary
combine harvesters that simultaneously harvest and chop the whole plant for
subsequent ensiling. Crops for biogas can be immediately fed to the digester or
stored as silage for year-round availability. Grass crops can be harvested 3–5 times
per season (Fig. 2.1). Murphy et al. (2011) have indicated that the composition of
crops and thus their suitability as AD feedstock varies with the stage of maturity. In
general, cellulosic content increases with maturity, negatively affecting the
digestibility and the methane yield of the crop. Less mature crops, however, have a
higher moisture content, making storage difficult.

Sugar beet is harvested in temperate climates later than most crops, usually
in January (Murphy et al., 2011). Beet crops are excellent biogas feedstock, as
proven by trial results obtained in Denmark in 2009, where beet provided 30–40%
higher biomass yields per hectare compared with other annual crops (Table 2.3).
Beet crops also have a good uptake of nutrients until late fall, reducing in this way
the risk of nutrient losses to groundwater.

The cultivation of energy crops requires a high input of fertilizers, pesticides
and energy for harvesting and transport. This reduces considerably the
environmental sustainability of their use for biogas and for renewable energy
production in general. The cultivation of energy crops also implies a paradigm shift
for the role of farmers in society, moving from food and feed producer to energy
producer as well. United Nations statistics estimate that the world population could
reach 10.5 billion by 2050 (Felby, 2011).
INDUSTRIAL BIOGAS FEEDSTOCK
Considerable amounts of by-products, residues and wastes are produced by

industrial activities that process agricultural raw materials. These industries include food
and beverage, fodder, fish processing, milk, starch, sugar, pharmaceuticals, biochemicals
and cosmetics, pulp and paper, as well as slaughterhouses (see Table 2.1). Wastes from
these industries are diverse and have various methane potentials, dry matter contents,
structures and compositions, according to their origin. Common for most of them is that they
are homogeneous, easily digestible and rich in lipids, proteins or sugars. Many industrial
wastes are used as ‗methane boosters‘, due to their extreme high methane potential.
Industrial organic wastes can be treated by AD as additional feedstocks in smaller
decentralized biogas plants, large codigesting plants or at industrial production locations
(e.g. organic-loaded industrial wastewaters). In the case of organic-loaded wastewaters, the
aim is to reduce their organic loading and make them suitable for further disposal and to
use the produced biogas for process energy.
By-products from Biorefineries and the Biofuels Industry
Biofuel production facilities – and, in the future, the biorefineries that are
under development today – are likely to accumulate very large amounts of organic
by-products, almost all suitable for AD. In grain-processing bioethanol plants, all
silage fractions are typically anaerobically degradable. In sugar cane bio-ethanol
plants, the cane juice silage is also a suitable substrate for AD, whereas the bagasse

is mainly incinerated for energy recovery. In biodiesel production, the glycerol as well
as the wastewaters are suitable substrates for AD, while the residual cake after oil
extraction is often used as animal feed. As the biofuels and biorefinery industries
become more prominent, there will be a greater need for integrating industrial AD
processes.
The main limitation for using industrial

organic wastes for biogas production is
related to their potential content of
undesirable matter such as biological,
physical or even chemical pollutants.
Depending on the process of their origin,
industrial wastes can contain physical
impurities, pathogens, heavy metals or
persistent organic compounds in such amounts that they could become sources of
environmental pollution or pose health risks for humans and animals when the
produced digestate is used as crop fertilizer.
Municipal Waste Biogas Feedstock
Municipal Waste refers to the organic

fraction of household waste such as food
waste, garden waste and other similar organic
wastes, separately collected. Increasing
urbanization and consumption patterns makes
adequate waste management mandatory.
Separate collection is a solution that is
capable of providing clean and high-quality
materials for use as AD feedstock, at the same
time reducing the stream of organic materials going to landfills and incineration
(Favoino, 2002; Rutz et al., 2011) in favor of recycling and nutrients reco very.
Separately collected organic household wastes are often co-digested with animal
manure and slurries in manurebased AD plants.
Organic household wastes have a high biodegradability and methane yield.

Their nutrient content is well balanced and favorable for the metabolism of anaerobic
microorganisms (Zhang et al., 2006). As household waste contains various
pathogens, fungi and other biological vectors, sanitation is required for effective
inactivation of the pathogenic matter.
Sewage Sludge
Anaerobic digestion used to treat

primary and secondary sludge resulting from
the aerobic treatment of municipal
wastewater is a standard technology around
the world. The technology is used in
thousands of installations as part of modern
treatment systems of municipal wastewaters.
Sewage sludge has a methane potential
similar to animal slurries (primary sludge has a higher methane potential than waste-
activated sludge). Various pre-treatments can be applied to increase methane yield,
aiming at disintegration of bacterial biomass and releasing organic substances easily
accessible to the subsequent anaerob ic degradation, for example mechanical
disintegration, chemical hydrolyses, thermal hydrolyses and enzymatic degradation
(Rulkens, 2008).
The limiting factor for the use of sewage sludge as biogas feedstock is the
high content of pollutants and the risks related to their subsequent presence in
digestate used as fertilizer. Because of its origin, sewage sludge contains significant
amounts of biologic and chemical pollutants.

Aquatic Biomass
Along with the materials produced by

different sectors of society described so far,
there is growing interest in the utilization of
aquatic biomass from marine and fresh
waters. This is estimated to have high
potential for utilization in food and feed
production and as a raw material for various
other industries, and is also one of most
promising feedstocks for biofuels production,
including biogas (Burton, 2009; Wellinger, 2009; Angelidaki et al., 2011). In the last
few decades, research on aquatic biomass has intensified and, according to
Wellinger (2009), research in this domain will increase even further in the coming
years and will switch from the purely academic towards demonstration projects
supported by power industries interested in finding alternatives to rapidly decreasing
oil reserves and solutions for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and carbon
sequestration. Aquatic biomasses are feasible for wastewater remediation and
generate high biomass yields. Two groups are of interest for the biogas sector. The
first is represented by macroalgae, commonly referred to as seaweeds, which are rich
in natural sugars and other carbohydrates, are known for their high biomass yields
(Table 2.5) and have an important role in supporting aquatic biodiversity.
The second group is microalgae – a heterogeneous group of microscopic

photosynthetic organisms, mostly unicellular, living in marine or fresh waters. Of the
over 30,000 species of microalgae known worldwide, only a few are of actual
commercial interest, including Chlorella, Spirulina, Dunaliella and Haematococcus
(Wellinger, 2009). Green microalgae, known as diatoms, are considered the most
suitable for energy and biogas and other biofuels production, as well as for the
production of high-value materials. Microalgae have high photosynthetic efficiency

and are rich in lipids. One of the limitations of microalgae is their very low dry matter
content. In generating biodiesel for example, water needs to be removed to allow
bioesterification of the lipids. The removal of water is energy intensive, but for biogas
production, generation of a dry matter content of around 8% may be sufficient.
PRODUCTION OF BIOGAS
Bacterial Process and Biogas
Anaerobic processes are quite complex microbial processes that take place in the
absence of oxygen. Bacteria are mainly involved in the process but higher trophic groups
such as protoza and anaerobic fungi may be involved. The microbial population contains
many diverse genera (types) of obligate anaerobic bacteria (strictly anaerobic) and

facultative anaerobic bacteria (i.e. with the ability to function as aerobes in the presence of
oxygen).
The process brings about the conversion of organic raw materials to biogas. This
biogas is dominated by methane (50–70%) and carbon dioxide (30–50%). Considering
methane has a higher heating value (HHV) of ca. 37.8MJ/cu.m. and carbon dioxide has no
energy associated with it (as it is the product of complete combustion), biogas has an energy
content of between 19 and 26 MJ/cu.m. Hydrogen sulphide is also present in the biogas;
the proportion depends on the characteristics of the feedstock. Typically, biogas from animal
slurry has a higher content of H2S than biogas from crops. The bulk of the energy content of
the material undergoing biodegradation is conserved in the methane content, and only a
minor fraction is made available for bacterial growth and reproduction.
Four different trophic groups are currently recognised in anaerobic processes (see
Fig. 5.1). The coordinated activity of these trophic groups as a whole ensures stability.
Acidogenic Bacteria
Known as anaerobic acidogenic bacteria, this group consists of fermentative

and hydrolytic bacteria. The hydrolytic bacteria hydrolyse (i.e. break down polymers to
monomers; make soluble material of particulate material) and the fermentative
bacteria ferment the resultant monomers to a wide range of fermentation end
products. End products of the acidogenic stage include acetic acid, hydrogen and
carbon dioxide. However, the majority of the products are higher carbon number
volatile fatty acids (VFAs) such as propionate, butyrate and alcohols.
Acetogenic Bacteria
The obligate proton-reducing (OPR) acetogenic bacteria are unique as they are
obligate syntrophs (i.e. they must act together with bacteria in a different trophic
group to digest a substrate). They cannot be cultivated in a pure culture; their
existence was not discovered until 1967, by Bryant and coworkers (McCarty, 1981).

Their energy is derived from substrates if the hydrogen partial pressure is maintained
at a very low level. Hydrogen is a product of their own metabolism and is toxic to
them. These acetogenic bacteria require the syntropic action of a H2-utilising
species. The role of the OPR acetogenic bacteria is crucial to the overall anaerobic
process as they convert the fermentative intermediates (VFAs) to methanogenic
substrates, H2, CO2, acetic acids and unicarbon compounds.
Methanogenic Bacteria
This group consists of hydrogenotrophic methanogenic bacteria and

aceticlastic methanogenic bacteria. The hydrogenotrophic bacteria utilise the H2
which the OPR acetogens produce. H2 uptake by the methanogens is very efficient,
having an affinity of parts per million, which ensures very low hydrogen partial

pressure. The relationship between OPR acetogens and hydrogenotrophic
methanogenic bacteria is an excellent example of syntropic mutualism: bacteria in
different trophic groups converting propionate, butyrate and long-chain fatty acids to
methane and water.
Species of only two genera Methanosarcina and Methanothrix can produce

methane from acetic acid and be termed aceticlastic. Approximately 70% of methane
produced comes from acetate and aceticlastic methanogens. It is usual in the
literature to read that methanogens have slow doubling times (reproduction rates),
but this is not entirely true: hydrogenotrophic methanogens are very efficient and
have relatively fast doubling times (Pfeffer, 1979). Aceticlastic methanogens are,
however, relatively inefficient in acetate uptake and as a result have slow doubling
times.
Homoacetogenic Bacteria
Hydrogen-consuming acetogens appear to be outcompeted by methanogens

for hydrogen. The net result, however, is the maintenance of low hydrogen partial
pressures and increased significance of acetate as an immediate methane precursor
(Zeikus, 1979).
Sulphate-reducing Bacteria
Sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB) can utilise multicarbon compounds and

methanogenic substrates: carbon dioxide, hydrogen and acetate. With high additions
of sulphate, the SRB metabolise unicarbon compounds and hydrogen, more
effectively to the detriment of the methanogens. Due to thesyntrophic nature of
anaerobic processes, this affects all trophic groups (Zeikus, 1979).
PRODUCTION OF BIOGAS BY ANAEROBIC DIGESTION

Anaerobic digester systems for the production of biogas have been used for decades
at municipal wastewater facilities, and more recently, have been used to process industrial
and agricultural wastes (Burke, 2001). These systems are designed to optimize the growth
of the methane-forming (methanogenic) bacteria that generate CH4. Typically, using organic
wastes as the major input, the systems produce biogas that contains 55% to 70% CH4 and
30% to 45% CO2. On dairy farms, the overall process includes the following:
Manure Collection and Handling. Key considerations in the system design include the
amount of water and inorganic solids that mix with manure during collection and
handling.
Pretreatment. Collected manure may undergo pretreatment prior to introduction in

an anaerobic digester. Pretreatment—which may include screening, grit removal,
mixing, and/or flow equalization—is used to adjust the manure or slurry water content
to meet process requirements of the selected digestion technology. A concrete or
metal collection/mix tank may be used to accumulate manure, process water and/or
flush water. Proper design of a mix tank prior to the digester can limit the
introduction of sand and rocks into the anaerobic digester itself. If the digestion
processes requires a thick manure slurry, a mix tank serves a control point where
water can be added to dry manure or dry manure can be added to dilute manure. If
the digester is designed to handle manures mixed with flush and process water, the
contents of the collection/mix tank can be pumped directly to a solids separator. A
variety of solids separators, including static and shaking screens are available and
currently used on farms.
Anaerobic Digestion. An anaerobic digester is an engineered containment vessel

designed to exclude air and promote the growth of methane bacteria. The digester
may be a tank, a covered lagoon (Figure 2-1), or a more complex design, such as a
tank provided with internal baffles or with surfaces for attached bacterial growth. It
may be designed to heat or mix the organic material. Manure characteristics and
collection technique determine the type of anaerobic digestion technology used.
Some technologies may include the removal of impurities such as hydrogen sulfide
(H2S), which is highly corrosive.
By-product Recovery and Effluent Use. It is possible to recover digested fiber from
the effluent of some dairy manure digesters. This material can then be used for cattle
bedding or sold as a soil amendment. Most of the ruminant and hog manure solids
that pass through a separator will digest in a covered lagoon, leaving no valuable
recoverable byproduct.
Biogas Recovery. Biogas formed in the anaerobic digester bubbles to the surface and
may accumulate beneath a fixed rigid top, a flexible inflatable top, or a floating cover,
depending on the type of digester. (Digesters can also include integral low-pressure
gas storage capability, as described in Chapter 4.) The collection system, typically
plastic piping, then directs the biogas to gas handling subsystems.
Biogas Handling. Biogas is usually pumped or compressed to the operating pressure

required by specific applications and then metered to the gas use equipment. Prior to
this, biogas may be processed to remove moisture, H2S, and CO2, the main
contaminants in dairy biogas, in which case the biogas becomes biomethane. Partial
removal of contaminants, particularly H2S, will yield an intermediate product that we
refer to in this report as partially upgraded biogas).
Biogas Use. Recovered biogas can be used directly as fuel for heating or it can be
combusted in an engine to generate electricity or flared. If the biogas is upgraded to
biomethane, additional uses may be possible.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
The environmental impacts of on-farm anaerobic digestion depend on the manure
management system that the digester amends or replaces as well as the actual use of the
biogas produced. Typically, the anaerobic digestion of dairy manure followed by flaring of
biogas, combustion of biogas for electricity, or production and use of biomethane as fuel can
provide a number of direct environmental benefits. These include:
 Reduced GHG emissions

 Potential reduction of VOC emissions
 Odor control
 Pathogen and weed seed control
 Improved water quality
One potentially negative environmental impact of anaerobic digesters that combust

the biogas is the creation of nitrogen oxides (NOx), which are regulated air pollutants and an
ozone precursor. Nitrogen oxides are created by combustion of fuel with air. Combustion of
dairy biogas or any other methane containing gas (whether in a flare, reciprocating or gas
turbine engine, or a boiler) will emit NOx. The emission rate varies but is generally lowest for
properly engineered flares and highest for rich burn reciprocating (piston) engines. NOx
emissions are controlled by using lean burn engines, catalytic controls or microturbines. The
latter two methods are fouled by the high sulfur content of biogas, and the H2S must be
scrubbed to prevent the swift corrosion of these devices.
Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions
The use of anaerobic digestion to create biogas

from dairy manure can reduce GHG emissions in two
distinct ways. First, when used in combination with a
manure management system that stores manure under
anaerobic conditions, it can prevent the release of CH4,
a greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere. Second, the
biogas or biomethane generated by the anaerobic
digestion process can r eplace the use of fossil fuels
that generate GHG
Reduced Volatile Organic Compound Emissions
VOCs are an intermediate product generated by methanogenic bacteria during

the transformation of manure into biogas. It is expected that the total volume of VOCs
generated is related to the total volume of CH4 produced, but the more effective the
methanogenic decomposition, the lower the VOCs as a percentage of the biogas.
VOCs are created by enteric fermentation (the digestion process of the cow) and
released primarily through the breath of the cow. They are also by the anaerobic
decomposition of manure. A well designed and managed anaerobic digester may
reduce VOCs by more completely transforming them into CH4. Some fraction of the
remaining VOCs in the biogas should be eliminated through the combustion of the
biogas.
Increased Nitrogen Oxide Emissions
When biogas or any fuel is combusted in an internal combustion engine it

produces NOx, a criteria air pollutant as well as a precursor to ozone and smog.
Control of Unpleasant Odor

Most of the odor problem comes from H2S, VOC, and ammonia (NH3-N)
emissions from dairy manure. While hard to measure objectively, these odors are
perceived as a serious environmental problem by residents in proximity to dairy
farms. Fortunately, anaerobic digestion is a good method for controlling these odors,
particularly if used in conjunction with a system that will scrub the H2S from the
biogas.
Control of Pathogens and Weed Seeds
Digesters that are heated to mesophilic and thermophilic levels are very
effective in denaturing weed seeds and reducing pathogens. Pathogen reduction is
greater than 99% in a 20-day hydraulic retention time, mesophilic digester.
Thermophilic temperatures essentially result in the complete elimination of
pathogens. Covered-lagoon digesters, which operate at ambient temperatures, have
a more modest effect on weed seeds and pathogens.
Improved Water Quality
The anaerobic digestion process is an effective way to reduce high BOD in the
effluent. Biological oxygen demand is a measure of the amount of oxygen used by
microorganisms in the biochemical oxidation of organic matter; BOD concentrations
in dairy wastewater are often 25 to 40 times greater than those in domestic
wastewater. Anaerobic processes can remove 70% to 90% of the BOD in high-
strength wastewater at a lower cost, in terms of both land and energy inputs, than
aerated systems.

REFERENCES
Demirbas, A. (2008). Elsevier: Biofuels sources, biofuel policy, biofuel economy and global
biofuel projections. Energy Conversion and Management pp. 2106–2116
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). (2017). Renewables Readiness
Assessment: THE PHILIPPINES. Retrieved January 24, 2018 from
http://www.ippjournal.com/documents/reports/2017-04-05_file_39.pdf
Petrou, E.C. & Pappis, C.P. (2009). Biofuels: A Survey on Pros and Cons. Energy & Fuels, 23,
pp. 1055–1066
Renewable Energy Policy Network. Renewables 2016: Global Status Report.
Retrieved January 23, 2018 from http://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/
2016/06/GSR_2016_Full_Report_REN21.pdf
Shalaby, E. A. (n.d). Biofuel: Sources, Extraction and Determination. Retrieved January 24,
2018 from http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/39013/InTech-Biofuel_sources_
extraction_and_determination.pdf
Skye, J. (n.d.). Advantages and Disadvantages of Biofuels. Retrieved January 25, 2018 from
http://greenliving.lovetoknow.com/Advantages_and_Disadvantages_of_Biofuels


Biofuels: Che 525 - Che Elective Ii: Renewable Energy Technologies

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Biofuels: Che 525 - Che Elective Ii: Renewable Energy Technologies

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHE 525 - ChE ELECTIVE II: Renewable Energy Technologies

DIONISIO, Charles Amiel P.

REDUBLO, Anne Paulinne P.

Dr. Denvert C. Pangayao

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 2

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 3

Bioenergy production continued to increase in 2015, helping to meet rising energy

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 4

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 5

Similarly, commercial livestock farms generate significant amount of animal wastes.

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 8

Notwithstanding a range of incentive schemes, including a value added tax

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 9

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 10

5. Lower carbon emissions

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 11

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 12

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 13

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 14

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 15

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 16

Natural biochemical liquefaction biofuels. This class includes biodiesel.

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 17

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 18

Biogas is produced to be used as:

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 19

A major processing step in an ethanol plant is enzymatic saccharification of cellulose

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 20

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 21

Catalyst: can be either a chemical acid or a base

In a standard biodiesel production process, 1 ton of raw material, containing 2.5%

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 22

Vegetable oil (m)ethyl esters, commonly referred to as ‗‗biodiesel,‖ are prominent

Biodiesel is technically competitive with or offer technical advantages compared to

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 23

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 24

Experts are not agreed as far as the

BIOGAS PRODUCTION OVERVIEW

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 26

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 27

The purpose of biogas technology is the conversion of organic substances to

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 28

The biomass resources amenable to biogas production can be grouped into

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 29

Animal Manure and Slurries

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 31

The category of plant residues

Some newly introduced energy crops

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 33

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 34

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 35

INDUSTRIAL BIOGAS FEEDSTOCK

Considerable amounts of by-products, residues and wastes are produced by

By-products from Biorefineries and the Biofuels Industry

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 36

The main limitation for using industrial

Municipal Waste Biogas Feedstock

Municipal Waste refers to the organic

Organic household wastes have a high biodegradability and methane yield.

Anaerobic digestion used to treat

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: BIOFUELS 38

Along with the materials produced by