Conflict Resolution

Conflict Resolution in the Philippine Education Context
Asia Pacific Journal of Contemporary Education and Communication Technology

(APJCECT)
ISBN: 978 0 9943656 82; ISSN: 2205-6181
Year: 2017, Volume: 3, Issue: 1
www.apiar.org.au
Asia Pacific Institute of Advanced Research (APIAR)
Page247
CONFLICTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS: BASIS
FOR INNOVATIVE ADMINISTRATIVE PROGRAM
Sherelle Lou Sumera-Icutan a
, Catherine Sumera-Sagaoinit b
aUrdaneta City University, Urdaneta City, Philippines
bLabit West Elementary School, Urdaneta City, Philippines
Corresponding email: she_kyra@yahoo.com
Abstract
The role of a school administrator is highly significant in the success of an educational
institution. Among of the key responsibilities of school managers, some include shaping a
vision
of academic success of students; creating a climate hospitable to education; cultivating
leadership in others; improving instruction; and managing data, people, and processes.
Because
so much is being asked of those in leadership positions, it should be acknowledged that
they also
need support in order to do their jobs more effectively. It is also crucial to study the
challenges
that the administrators face related to their key positions in order to formulate innovative
administrative programs that enhance their professional development.
This study particularly dealt on the conflicts or challenges faced by school administrators
in the
two districts of Urdaneta City Division, Urdaneta City, Philippines. It also sought to
understand
the resolutions that they have undergone to minimize the conflicts they have experienced.
The descriptive method of research was used and the questionnaire checklist was used in
gathering data. The frequency counts, percentages, weighted mean, average point and
ANOVA
(Analysis of Variance) were the statistical tools used in the analysis of data and the
Coded
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient (r) was used.
Based on the results of the study, the findings on the profile of the subjects of the study
include;
95% of the respondents are 35 years old & above, 77.8% are female, 91.9% are married,
68.9%
are finished in their graduate studies, 62.2% have been school managers for 6 or more
years,
91.1% supervise at least 6 teachers, and more than 82.2% have attended relevant trainings
in the
district, division, regional, and national level but none attended in a seminar in the
international
level.
It was also found that these school administrators encountered moderately serious
conflicts
along Work Requirements (WM = 3.08) Relationship with Co-School Manager (WM =
2.91),
Relationship with Higher Authorities (WM = 2.89), Relationship with External
Stakeholders
(WM = 2.99) and Disaster Preparedness Management (WM = 3.03). This finding shows
that the
school managers have least conflicts of Relationship with Higher Authorities. This could
be
attributed to the fact that school manager should deal smoothly with higher authorities
because
they are their superiors. Good relationship with higher authorities heightens morale and
selfconfidence needed in successful accomplishments of goals. However, the school
managers’
greatest problem is along Work Requirements. As expected, school managers have varied
roles
and responsibilities and hence good time management is needed to lessen this problem.
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The resolutions implemented by the school administrators in dealing with the conflicts
they
encountered have an overall weighted mean of 2.63 which can be interpreted as
moderately
implemented. Hence, there is a great need to improve the conflict management practices
of the
said school managers in order to make sure that they can deal properly with the different
conflicts that they face.
It can also be gleaned from the results of the study that there are no significant
relationships
between the degree of seriousness of the conflicts experienced and the level of
implementation
of the resolutions applied. Thus, in this case, the degree of seriousness of the conflicts
experienced by the respondents does not depend on the level of implementation of the
resolutions they apply. This may be due to the fact that the level of implementation of the
school
administrators of the conflict resolutions is not that intensive. Hence, the strategies and
coping
mechanisms of these school managers should be improved, strengthened and intensified
to see
its effect to problem management.
There are also no significant differences in the respondents’ degree of seriousness of the
conflicts experienced when they are grouped according to their profile variables. This
means
that the degree of seriousness of the conflicts experienced by the school administrators
does not
vary based on their profile.
Finally, some strategies were drawn by the researcher to enhance the conflict resolution
of
school administrators along the different areas which include a) Execute in-service
trainings and
seminar-workshops along conflict management with video presentations; b) Encourage,
motivate and inspire school managers to conduct researches along Relationship with Co-
school
Managers to improve interpersonal relationship and organize team building activities to
promote camaraderie among colleagues; c) Conduct regular trainings on current
management
and leadership concerns, specifically discussing the Code of Ethics of Professional
Teachers; d)
Administer open forums on management practices along public relationship with external
stakeholders through community assemblies with Parent-Teacher Association (PTA)
officials,
community people and non-government organizations; and e) Carry on massive
information
dissemination on the strategies to minimize the risks and hazards of disasters among
parents,
teachers and students using interactive gadgets and tools.
Keywords: Conflicts, Resolutions, Administrative Program
1. Background of the Study
The school administrators have a very crucial responsibility in the success of an academic
organization. In terms of leadership and decision making, the decisions that school
leaders
make and how they make them have a direct impact on working conditions. Some
teachers often
complain that decisions affecting them are usually made without their knowledge, hence,
school
leaders need to involve teachers in making decisions such as those involve staff in
departmental
scheduling, student scheduling and duty assignments (Price, 2003).
The school administrator, as the designated leader of the school must be responsible for
encouraging and stimulating activities that will help the teachers improve teaching-
learning
situation. A leader is the driving force behind the organizational development.
Opportunities are
placed within his reach. Leadership is an x factor in good management. It is the elusive
quality
of management that inspires others to perform. It is a quality of a school administrator
which
enables him to influence others to accept his direction freely or willingly.
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School managers have different role and functions in the unending educational process.
They
are strong agents to attain quality education. To merit quality education is to have quality
school
managers. If a quality leader is to be improved, then special attention should also be
focused on
their problems and coping mechanisms. For, to be a school manager “requires
extraordinary
qualities, traits, values, attitudes and behavior to have a strong image.”
It is widely acknowledged that some school managers encountered difficulties and
problems
which need much attention. As they face the challenge of the administrative position,
they make
the necessary adjustments to cope up with the demands of the job. There are challenges
which
require them to make adaptation to the educational environment. There is then a need to
assist
these school managers so they may be able to effectively respond to the demands of their
work
and to the educational institutions.
School managers are the vital leaders of educational institutions. They are the prime
movers in
the school organization in which they lead. They are the person who possesses leadership
skills
to attain the objectives of quality education that is to produce productive individuals and
responsible citizens of the country.
Cognizant of the aforementioned prevailing issues and conditions that school managers
face are
the conflicts they face towards their work requirements, relationship with co-school
managers,
relations with the profession, relationship with higher authorities and relation with
external
stakeholders, there is a need for conflict resolutions to be employed. Thus, this researcher
is led
to believe that there is a need to conduct a research that would be used as a basis for
improvement geared towards the welfare of the school managers as they go through their
administrative and management functions.
This research looked into the conflicts encountered and resolutions by school
administrators’
basis for innovative administrative programs in the Division of Urdaneta City SY 2013-
2014.
Particularly, this study focused on the investigation of the level of problems encountered
and
coping mechanisms of school managers. Problem No. 1 dealt with the profile variables,
in terms
of age, sex, civil status, educational attainment, years of service as school administrator,
number
of teachers supervised and relevant trainings. Problem No. 2 dealt with the conflicts
encountered by the school administrators along the areas of work requirements,
relationship
with co-school administrators, relationship with higher authorities, relationship with
external
stakeholders and disaster preparedness management. Problem No. 3 focused on the level
of
resolutions practiced by school administrators in dealing with their encountered conflicts.
Problem No. 4 determined the significant differences in the level of seriousness of the
conflicts
encountered by the school administrators. Problem No. 5 determined significant
relationship
between the conflicts encountered and the resolutions practiced by the school
administrators.
2. Review of Related Literature and Studies
This chapter presents the literature and studies which had some bearing on this study.
They
consisted of summaries of concepts, theories, principles and empirical data that were used
as
background and basis for the construct, namely: functions of school managers.
Considering the
importance of academic leadership supervision and administration management and the
dearth
of research studies conducted in the Philippines on this particular area is this both
interesting
and intriguing. The available studies were mostly on the management competence
supervisory
responsibilities and handling management problems of school administrators. These
were, of
course, relevant to this study.
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According to Chemers (2004), the making of an effective school or educational system
depends
on an effective management or administration team. The good leadership or management
of a
school head or administrator is critical in building effective schools. The educational
system is
coined as the common denominator for attaining national development and economic
progress,
hence, a bulk of the responsibility is laid down to school managers in order to achieve
these
goals.
Some forms of adaptive coping include proactive coping, social coping and meaning-
focused
coping. Proactive coping involves anticipating what the stress will be like and preparing
for it
(Brannon, 2009). Social coping involves seeking the support of others. 1) Esteem
support,
whereby other people increase one’s own self esteem; 2) Informational support, whereby
other
people are available to offer advice; 3) Social companionship which involves support
through
activities;4) Instrumental support which involves physical help. Coping comes with a
search for
meaning. Finding meaning amidst a stressful situation involves a search to understand the
implications of the experience.
Ogden (2004) has also categorized coping into forms: (1) appraisal focused coping (2)
problemfocused coping and (3) emotion-focused coping. Appraisal focused coping
entails attempts to
redefining the way we think by for instance, avoidance or denial or looking at the
situation in a
positive way. Problem-focused coping involves confronting the cause of the problem. For
instance, seeking information and support about a physical illness is a type of problem-
focused
coping. Emotion-focused coping is associated with efforts to maintain hope, vent feelings
of
despair or anger and accept the situation.
The related literature discussed the presence of problems in the work environment, the
factors
contributing to it and the coping strategies employed to manage it. Meanwhile individual
sources of problems include traits, personality type and susceptibility or resistance to
problems.
Likewise, coping may be classified as organizational and individual which could be used
in
dealing with problems.
The study of Paterno (2006) and the present study are similar because they both deal with
problems of school heads. However, the present study focused on the personal
relationship,
professional and work requirements of teachers while the latter study made-use of
personnel
relationship only, and used newly appointed school heads as respondents. In addition, the
study
of Ibarra (2004), mentioned that there are common problems in all fields of endeavor,
specifically in changes and innovations problems exist in the work place, while the
present study
deals on school managers problems of the public schools. The present study is similar to
the
study of Catubay (2013), Herrera (2012), Cabarteja (2012) they focus on conflicts
encountered
by the school administrators in the implementation of programs, innovations and projects.
3.Theoretical Framework
It is widely accepted that the school administrators are leaders who provide teachers with
continuing guidance and support on various instructional and managerial aspects of the
learning environment. They give advice to teachers in all dimensions of professional
concerns,
as well as other areas that help enhance and enrich the qualities of educational services.
The
school administrators occupy a position of pervasive influence that affect the way they
act, work
and perform may significantly affect school performance. As some people say, where the
school
head goes, so goes the school.
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According to the Theory of Transformational Leadership, people will follow a person
who
inspires them. A person with vision and passion can achieve great things. The way to get
things
done is by injecting enthusiasm and energy. Working for a transformational leader can be
a
wonderful and uplifting experience. They put energy into everything. They care about
you and
want you to succeed.
4. Research Methodology
The descriptive correlation method of research was used in this study. It is the most
appropriate
method to use in order to answer the specific problems raised in this study. Weirsma
2000 cited
that descriptive research involves description, recording, analysis and interpretation of the
nature of the processes. This study delved into the profile of the school administrators,
conflicts
encountered, and the conflict resolutions implemented. The correlation dimension of the
study
involved the description and analysis of the difference between the respondents profile
variables
and their level of seriousness of problems encountered.
The respondents of the study were all public elementary school administrators of the two
districts of Urdaneta City Division SY 2013-2014. To validate the instrument, it was tried
on ten
(10) public school administrators of Pangasinan II Division who will not be included as
respondents. The objective of the validation was to ascertain that every question was
clearly
understood and within their actual experience of the respondents. This is to ensure that
the
respondents would not find difficulty in answering the questionnaire and the data to be
gathered
would be valid and reliable. After the pooled judgment of the adviser and all the
evaluators final
copies will be reproduced for distribution to the respondents. A cover letter was prepared
to
invite the attention of the respondents on the purpose of the questionnaire and an
assurance
that their responses will be treated confidential.
Before administering, the research instrument permission was secured from the School’s
Division Superintendent and Public Schools District Supervisors. The researcher
personally
distributed the questionnaire to the respondents who are selected. Likewise, the
researcher
retrieves the questionnaire. The data collected were kept confidential by the researcher to
ensure the highest degree of objectivity of responses.
The data to be gathered from the questionnaire was subjected to appropriate statistical
tools to
answer the specific problems of the study. To determine the profile of the school
managers of
public elementary schools, frequency counts and percentages were used; to determine the
level
of seriousness of conflicts of the school administrators of the public elementary school
managers
across the different areas of concern, weighted meanwas used. To determine the extent of
use of
the conflict resolutions of school administrators in the different areas of concern,
weighted
mean was also used. To answer problem number four on the significant differences in the
level
of seriousness of the conflicts encountered by the school administrators the Analysis of
Variance
(ANOVA) and t -test were used. Finally, in determining the relationship between the
conflicts
and resolutions, the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient (r) was used.
5. Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data
More specifically, it presents the profile of school managers, problems encountered,
coping
mechanisms and differences in the respondents’ level of problems encountered and their
profile
and the relationship between the problems encountered and coping mechanisms.
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The presentation of the respondents’ profile is to provide and describe the background
information about them as participants of this study. These variables are age, sex, civil
status,
educational attainment, years of service as school manager, number of teachers
supervised and
relevant trainings.
Table 1: Distribution of the Respondents’ Profile (n = 45)
Profile Variable Categories Frequency Percentage
Age 30 – 34
35 and above
1
44
2.2
97.8
Sex Male
Female
10
35
22.2
77.8
Civil Status Single
Married
Widowed/Widower
3
41
1
6.7
91.1
2.2
Highest Educational
Attainment
With M. A. units
Graduate of a
Master’s Degree
With Doctoral Units
Doctor’s Degree
14
9
12
10
31.1
20.0
26.7
22.2
Years of Service as School
Manager
Less than 1 year
1 – 5 years
6 – 10 years
More than 10 years
3
14
10
18
6.7
31.1
22.2
40.0
Number of Teachers
Supervised
5 and below
6 – 10
11 – 15
16 and above
4
18
12
11
8.9
40.0
26.7
24.4
Relevant Trainings Attended District
Division
Regional
National
37
38
37
39
82.2
84.4
82.2
86.7
Based on table 1, majority of the respondents belong to the age bracket of 35 and above
years,
female, married and mostly with Master of Arts Units, 14 or 31.0 percent of them.
Majority have
1-5 years’ service as school manager, and have 6-10 teachers supervised which is 18 or
40.0
percent. Most of them have attended trainings at various levels.
Table 2: Summary of Conflicts Encountered by the Respondents
Indicators WM DE
A. Along Work Requirements 3.08 Moderately
Serious
B. Along their Relationship with Co-School
Administrators
2.91 Moderately
Serious
C. Along their Relationship with Higher Authorities 2.89 Moderately
Serious
D. Along their Relationship with External Stakeholders 2.99 Moderately
Serious
E. Along their Disaster Preparedness Management 3.03 Moderately
Serious
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Overall Weighted Mean along the Five Areas 2.98 Moderately
Serious
Legend:
Mean Scale Descriptive Equivalent (DE)
4.50 – 5.00 Very Serious (VS)
3.50 – 4.49 Serious (S)
2.50 – 3.49 Moderately Serious (MS)
1.50 – 2.49 Fairly Serious (FS)
1.00 – 1.49 Not Serious (NS)
As shown on the table, the ratings of the school administrators are “moderately serious”.
All the
five areas got a rating of “moderately serious” that is 2.98. Among the five indicators, it
turned
out that relationship with higher authorities has the lowest mean of 2.89 “described as
“moderately serious”. This finding manifest that the school administrators have less
problems
along this area. This could be attributed to the fact that school manager should deal
smoothly
with higher authorities because they are their superiors. Good relationship with higher
authorities heightens morale and self-confidence needed in successful accomplishments
of
goals. The indicator with the highest mean is work requirements with weighted mean of
3.08
described as “moderately serious”. This means the school managers have more problems
in
these areas. As expected, school managers have varied roles and responsibilities. There
are times
overlapping of activities is a big problem. Generally, the school managers are
encountering
problems to a “moderately serious” level. Despite these problems encountered, there are
others
which could be considered as obstacle or barriers in the performance of their job. These
findings
indicate that there is plenty of room for improvement on the part of the school manager
respondents on problems encountered.
The conflict resolutions used by the school administrators were determined and examined
to
better comprehend their ability to deal with problems. These were classified as conflict
resolutions along work requirements, relationship with co-school managers, relationship
with
higher authorities, relationship with external stakeholders and disaster preparedness
management.
Table 3: Conflict Resolutions Practiced by the Respondents
A. Along Work Requirements WM DE
1. Putting by faith in God when bad situation arises. 3.07 Moderately
Practiced
2. Soliciting financial support from civic-spirited people to
come up with technological innovations.
3.27 Moderately
Practiced
3. Managing my time efficiently to cope-up with my tight
schedules.
3.18 Moderately
Practiced
4. Establishing good relationships with personnel having
undesirable behaviors.
3.11 Moderately
Practiced
5. Holding LAC-Sessions to discuss matters on conflicts,
critical decision makings, negative attitudes and
motivations.
2.93 Moderately
Practiced
Overall Weighted Mean 3.11 Moderately
Practiced
B. Along their Relationship with Co-School Administrators WM DE
1. Airing my problems to my co-school administrators. 2.93 Moderately
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Practiced
2. Having a friendly relationship with them. 2.96 Moderately
Practiced
3. Having confidence in my own abilities. 2.82 Moderately
Practiced
4. Proper time scheduling in making and submitting
needed forms.
2.91 Moderately
Practiced
5. Keeping myself relax by having pastimes. 2.87 Moderately
Practiced
Overall Weighted Mean 2.90 Moderately
Practiced
C. Along their Relationship with Higher Authorities WM DE
1. Believing in my own strengths and weaknesses in
supporting school programs.
2.09 Slightly Practiced
2. Referring to higher authorities’ complaints and
grievances.
2.53 Moderately
Practiced
3. Being open with my supervisor about negative things in
my work.
2.53 Moderately
Practiced
4. Dealing my unpleasant experiences about my work in a
diary or journal.
2.73 Moderately
Practiced
5. Establishing sound relationship with my supervisors. 2.16 Slightly Practiced
Overall Weighted Mean 2.41 Slightly Practiced
D. Along their Relationship with External Stakeholders
1. Holding of regular PTA meetings. 2.24 Slightly Practiced
2. Recognizing civic-spirited citizens during school
programs by giving awards.
3. Involving the community people in planning school
activities.
4. Establishing good public relations. 2.11 Slightly Practiced
5. Explore possibilities for connections who could help in
the school improvement.
E. Along their Disaster Preparedness Management
1. Checking major search websites regularly for latest
updates on disaster risks management.
2.53 Moderately
Practiced
2. Attending in-service trainings on disaster management. 2.52 Moderately
Practiced
3. Establishing sound relationship with local officials for
provisions of adequate facilities.
2.51 Moderately
Practiced
4. Exerting more efforts in reading books and journals to
keep myself abreast with current trends.
5. Discussing the “bayanihan spirit” during community
assemblies.
Overall Weighted Mean 2.47 Slightly Practiced
Overall Weighted Mean along the Five Areas 2.63 Moderately
Practiced
Legend:
Mean Scale Descriptive Equivalent (DE)
4.50 – 5.00 Highly Practiced (HP)
3.50 – 4.49 Practiced (P)
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2.50 – 3.49 Moderately Practiced (MP)
1.50 – 2.49 Slightly Practiced (SP)
1.00 – 1.49 Not Practiced (NP)
As shown in the data presented, it revealed that among the five areas of concern, it turned
out
that the area of along work requirement has the highest weighted mean 3.11 “moderately
practiced” while the area of relationship with external stakeholders was the lowest mean
2.24
“slightly practiced”. This finding manifest that the conflict resolutions of the school
administrators along work requirement shows that they are more practicing conflict
resolutions
in this area than using conflict resolutions along relationship with external stakeholders.
Table 4: t-Test and ANOVA Results Showing the Differences in the Conflicts
Encountered by the
Respondents across their Profile Variables
Profile Variables F value or t
value
Sig. Remarks
Age t = .960 .342 Not Significant
Sex t = -.015 .280 Not Significant
Civil Status F = .050 .952 Not Significant
Highest Educational Attainment F = .488 .693 Not Significant
Years of Service as a School Manager F = 1.193 .324 Not Significant
Number of Teachers Supervised F = .717 .547 Not Significant
Relevant Trainings Attended F = .847 .476 Not Significant
Table 4 shows the differences on the extent of school managers’ conflicts encountered
across
their profile variables. It can be discerned from the table that the school administrators
are
comparable in all areas of problems encountered across all of their profile variables.
Therefore,
the null hypothesis that there are no significant differences on the problems encountered
by the
school managers is accepted at a .05 level of significance. In other words, all of the
respondents’
profile variables do not affect the school administrators on problems encountered. These
results
imply that the school managers do not vary or they are comparable on the problems
encountered with regard to all of their profile variables.
This findings of the study is in contrary with the study of Herrera (2012) when she
pointed out
that the human management practices of school administrators was significantly
associated with
sex. She further stressed that civil status could be used as a basis in the kind of behavior a
person may have in doing his work.
The study of Carino (2004) confirms these findings when she mentioned that length of
service
as school principal does not affect their supervisory and administrative skills. She further
stressed that the leadership skills does not depend solely on their length of service, but
rest on
the application of skills and knowledge which geared towards the attainment of their
goals and
objectives in the educational system. In contrast, Catubay (2013) pointed out that school
managers with many trainings attended are experts in their management in K to 12 Basic
Education Program. As such, the more relevant trainings attended by the school
managers, the
more competent and innovative they are, in terms of their performance of their tasks.
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Table 5: Pearson Correlation Results Showing the Relationship between the Problems
Encountered by the Respondents and their Coping Mechanisms
Correlated Variables N Pearson
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) Remarks
Coping Mechanism
Versus Problems
Encountered
45 -.285 .057 Not Significant
This study further determined the relationship between the conflicts encountered by the
respondents and their conflict resolutions implemented. Table 5 shows the data on such
correlation. It can be observed from the table that no significant relationships exist. This
means
that conflict resolutions implemented by the school managers and their conflicts
encountered do
not have any relationships. Another way of putting it is that, school administrators’
encountered
conflicts along work requirements, relationship with co-school managers, relationship
with
higher authorities, relationship with external stakeholders and disaster preparedness
management are not at all dependent on the coping mechanisms that they have used.
Therefore,
the null hypothesis that there are no significant relationship between the resolutions and
conflicts encountered is accepted.
To maintain the quality of education, talents, abilities and skills in resolving conflicts and
problems of school administrators must be fully developed. The researcher determined
the level
of conflicts encountered and resolutions applied in dealing with these. In order to
appropriately
respond to the needs and demands of effective management, school administrators have
to
operate and perform their functions and roles based on pre-determined standards. The
school
administrator is expected to undertake self-evaluation, formulate their own improvement
plans
and strategies to improve the operation of the school system he is managing.
Finally, in terms of the proposed innovative administrative program, some strategies were
drawn by the researcher to enhance the conflict resolution of school administrators along
the
different areas. These include a) Execute in-service trainings and seminar-workshops
along
conflict management with video presentations; b) Encourage, motivate and inspire school
managers to conduct researches along Relationship with Co-school Managers to improve
interpersonal relationship and organize team building activities to promote camaraderie
among
colleagues; c) Conduct regular trainings on current management and leadership concerns,
specifically discussing the Code of Ethics of Professional Teachers; d) Administer open
forums
on management practices along public relationship with external stakeholders through
community assemblies with Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) officials, community
people and
non-government organizations; and e) Carry on massive information dissemination on the
strategies to minimize the risks and hazards of disasters among parents, teachers, and
students
using interactive gadgets and tools.
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Conclusions and Recommendations
The following are the conclusions drawn from the findings of this study:
1. The respondents vary in their profiles. They are educationally qualified, have few years
of
experience as school managers and attended a number of in-service trainings at various
levels.
2. The school administrators experienced “moderately serious” conflicts along the
different
areas of the focus of the study.
3. The respondents’ level of conflict resolutions in dealing with the conflicts encountered
is
“moderately practiced”.
4. The level of conflicts encountered by the school administrators do not significantly
differ
when grouped according to their profile variables.
5. The level of conflict resolution is not significantly related to the problems encountered
by the
school administrators.
Based on the findings and conclusions derived from the study, the following
recommendations
are hereby presented:
1. The school managers who have not finished their master’s and doctorate degrees
should
be encouraged to finish their graduate studies.
2. Training programs should be designed and implemented to lessen conflicts
encountered.
The concerned school administrators who experienced “moderately serious” problems
should upgrade their competencies on solving problems and make it “slightly serious” or
“not serious”.
3. School administrators may use other conflict resolutions in dealing with problems to
make the “moderately practiced” into “highly practiced”.
4. Other studies on conflicts encountered and conflict resolution strategies using other
variables and in a wider scope is strongly recommended.
(APJCECT)
ISBN: 978 0 9943656 82; ISSN: 2205-6181
www.apiar.org.au
Page258
References
i. Avolio, B. J. &Bass, B., 2008. Transforming Leadership Charisma. Emerging
Leadership Vista,
Hunt, J. et al. (ed.), Lexinghan Books.
ii. Brannon, R. A., 2009. Coping Mechanisms Strategy.
iii. Cabarteja, M. C., 2012. School Administrators Involvement in the Implementation of
Environmental
Management Program. Unpublished Dissertation, Urdaneta City University.
iv. Cariño, F. M., 2004. Management of Change Practices. Unpublished Thesis. Centro
Escolar
University, Manila.
v. Catubay, M. R. S., 2013. Management of Stakeholders Inputs to K to 12 Basic
Education Program.
Unpublished Dissertation, Urdaneta City University.
vi. Chemers, M. M., 2004. The Social Organizational and Cultural Context of Effective
Leadership.
New Jersey: New Jersey Prentice Hall.
vii. Herrera, M. M., 2012. Human Resources Management of Secondary Schools.
Unpublished
Dissertation, Urdaneta City University.
viii. Ibarra, L. P., 2004. Crises and Problems along Innovations. Unpublished Thesis,
University of
Western Visayas, Iloilo City.
ix. Ogden, A. I., 2004. Forms of Coping Mechanisms. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
x. Paterno, F. Q., 2006. Job Satisfaction of Newly Appointed School Heads. Unpublished
Thesis,
University of Santo Tomas, Manila.
xi. Price, M. J., 2003. Are you a Moral Booster or Buster in Keeping Good Teachers?
Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development, Alexandria, VA.
xii. Ticly, N. M., 1990. The Transformational Leader. New York: Willey Publishing.
(APJCECT)
ISBN: 978 0 9943656 82; ISSN: 2205-6181
www.apiar.org.au
Page259
Appendix: Questionnaire for Public Elementary School Administrators
Part I: Profile
1. Sex:
2. Age:
3. Civil Status:
4. Highest Educational Attainment:
5. Years of Service as School Manager:
6. Number of Teachers Supervised:
7. Relevant Training’s Attended
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
Part II. Conflicts of Public Elementary School Administrators
The following have been experienced to be potential sources of conflicts at work.
Conflicts are situations
you find difficult to cope with, resulting in your feeling worried and anxious. After
reading carefully each
item, please indicate the degree of seriousness of your conflicts by checking the number
corresponding to
your answer using the rating scales below:
A = Very Serious; B = Serious; C = Moderately Serious; D = Fairly Serious; E = Not
Serious
Indicators A B C D E
A. Along Work Requirements
As a school administrator I find difficulty in…
1. coping with technological innovations due to lack of financial resources.
2. motivating my teachers to pursue graduate studies.
3. eradicating the negative values of the teacher towards commitment, honesty,
punctuality.
4. submitting on time needed and required reports.
5. controlling the undesirable behaviors of school personnel.
6. making decisions on critical issues concerning school matters.
7. avoiding conflict among teachers.
8. encouraging teachers to use high-tech instructional materials.
9. sourcing of funds for school repair and improvements.
10.airing my likes and dislikes about my work to higher authorities.
B. Along their Relationship with Co-School Administrators
1. teaching based on the Teachers Manual and Guides.
2. requiring me to deliver more than 8 hours stay in school related work.
3. conducting Action Researches.
4. having preoccupied and overload with other curriculum activities.
5. having additional work to perform teaching without compensation.
6. requiring me to report to school on Saturdays and Sundays.
7. requiring to make and submit reports on due time.
8. requiring me to attend in-service trainings at my own expense.
9. requiring me to be in school 15 minutes before the official time.
10.evaluating the academic performance of pupils through test.
C. Along their Relationship with Higher Authorities
1. supporting school programs projects and policies and faithfully carries them out.
2. engaging in academic interaction with school authorities during meeting and
conferences.
3. consulting school authorities for solutions of school problems.
(APJCECT)
ISBN: 978 0 9943656 82; ISSN: 2205-6181
www.apiar.org.au
Page260
4. presenting complaints and grievances within acceptable democratic practices without
jeopardizing the honor of the school authorities.
5. referring to higher authorities matters concerning current issues.
6. maintaining good, positive relations with higher authorities.
7. having sense of usefulness and purpose.
8. discussing my feeling with my supervisor about negative things in my work.
9. dealing my negative feeling about my work in diary or journal.
10.asking permission to enroll in graduate studies and attending in-service trainings to
develop my skills and competencies and to widen my horizon.
D. Along their Relationship with External Stakeholders
1. motivating stakeholders to actively participate on school programs and projects.
2. having a sound relationship with politicians.
3. soliciting financial support for extra-curricular activities of the school.
4. discussing my feelings about negative things observed and done in the school.
5. having confidence in dealing with parents of learners with poor study habits.
6. developing friendly relationship with people having undesirable values and behaviors.
7. discussing about the K to 12 basic education program.
8. calling for a PTA meeting.
9. securing protection against vandals and drug addicts.
10.minimizing intruders and gate crushers during vacations.
E. Along their Disaster Preparedness Management
1. inadequate orientation on Disaster Risks Reduction Management among personnel.
2. lack of set guidelines for the suspension of classes.
3. inadequate disaster drills among school personnel.
4. lack of plan in the arrangement of classrooms for avoiding overcrowding of evacuees.
5. inadequate facilities and equipments for evacuees.
6. lack of monitoring mechanisms for avoiding vandalism by evacuees.
7. absence of a contingency plan for disposal of garbage after calamities.
8. lack of “bayanihan” group system for caring the evacuees.
9. absence of a policy requiring evacuees to leave the school premises as soon as calamity
is over.
10.non-operation of community officials to provide school safety during calamities.
https://apiar.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/22_APJCECT_Feb_BRR7123_EDU-
247-260.pdf
Conflict Resolution Education:
Compare Approaches
Are you "shopping" for a conflict resolution program for your schools? First, you
might consider which approach to conflict resolution you will take. In this story, learn
about different approaches used in conflict resolution programs. Find out how each
actually transforms schools. Included: Resources for learning more about approaches
to conflict resolution education.
Conflict resolution is and has been a powerful

curriculum force in schools for years; today, even
more attention is being paid to conflict resolution
education. But just how effective is conflict
resolution education in reaching its goals of
eliminating verbal and physical violence and
increasing the number of win-win outcomes in
schools?
Yes, it is possible for conflict resolution programs

to change a school's environment! "Conflict Resolution Education: A Guide to
Implementing Programs in Schools, Youth-Serving Organizations, and Community and
Juvenile Justice Settings," a joint report from the Office of Juvenile Justice and
Delinquency Prevention and the Office of Elementary and Secondary Education, cites
examples of effective conflict resolution programs. Among those success stories are
these:
 Five of the six New York City high schools participating in Project S.M.A.R.T.
(School Mediator Alternative Resolution Team) had a 45 to 70 percent reduction in
suspensions for fighting during the program's first year of operation.
 The Clark County Social Service School Mediation Program in Nevada, during the
1992-1993 school year, reduced conflict among students in two participating
elementary schools and helped prevent fights among students. After the program, the
number of teachers who spent less than 20 percent of their time on discipline
increased by 18 percent. Similar results were reported for the 1993-1994 school year.
 Evaluations of the impact of the Resolving Conflict Creatively Program (RCCP) in
four multiracial, multiethnic school districts in New York City showed that 84 percent
of teachers who responded to a survey reported positive changes in classroom climate,
71 percent reported moderate or significant decreases in physical violence in the
classroom, and 66 percent observed less name-calling and few verbal insults. More
than 98 percent of respondents said that mediation gave children a significant tool for
handling conflicts.
'CONFLICT RESOLUTION EDUCATION'
According to the "Conflict Resolution Education" report, the purposes of conflict

resolution are to provide an environment in which "each learner can feel physically and
psychologically free from threats and danger and can find opportunities to work and learn
with others for the mutual achievement of all. The diversity of the school's population is
respected and celebrated."
The report offers negotiation, mediation, and consensus of decision making as the three
essential processes of conflict resolution. It goes on to define several basic approaches to
conflict resolution education, including:
 Process Curriculum. This approach is characterized by teaching conflict resolution

as a separate course, a distinct curriculum, or a daily lesson plan.
 Peaceable Classroom. This approach integrates conflict resolution education into the
curriculum and classroom management strategy.
 Peaceable Schools. Built on the peaceable classroom approach, this strategy uses
conflict resolution as a system for managing the school as well as the classroom.
Every member of the school community, including parents, learns conflict resolution
principles and processes.
The approaches often overlap in actual schools or other institutions. Here's a look at how
some of the approaches work.
PROCESS CURRICULM APPROACH
Error! Hyperlink reference not valid. (PEF) provides a grade-level-specific curriculum

for prekindergarten through grade 12 that has a unified sequence of content and skills. To
entrench conflict resolution in schools, PEF programs are purposefully tied to school
improvement.
The content of the PEF curriculum is grouped into five components:
 community building,
 understanding conflict,
 perception (understanding different viewpoints),
 anger management, and
 rules for fighting fair.
PEF's curriculum also includes mediation in grades 4 through 12. It provides instructions
for training peer mediators and overseeing a school-based mediation program.
PEACEABLE CLASSROOM APPROACH
In peaceable classrooms, teachers use the cooperative learning and academic controversy
methods developed by David Johnson and Roger Johnson. Students work in small groups
to achieve shared learning goals. Academic controversy methods are used when two
students disagree. Deliberate discourse -- the discussion of the advantages and
disadvantages of proposed actions -- is how controversies are resolved.
Educators for Social Responsibility (ESR), based in Cambridge, Massachusetts, fosters

children's ethical and social development through its programs in conflict resolution,
violence prevention, intergroup relations, and character education.
ESR defines the term peaceable as meaning a "safe, caring, respectful, and productive
learning environment." A major premise of ESR is that teachers learn to model the
behavior they teach through direct instruction, and schools assume the values they seek to
nurture among young people in all facets of their program. As an example of how ESR
operates, it recommends that students and teachers make decisions together about
classroom norms at the beginning of the school year and that teachers give early
instruction in problem solving and decision making so the skills can be used and
reinforced throughout the year.
PEACEABLE SCHOOL APPROACH
The Resolving Conflict Creatively Program (RCCP), an initiative of ESR, involves five
components:
 professional development for teachers and other staff,

 regular classroom instruction based on a K-12 curriculum,
 peer mediation,
 administrator training, and
 parent training.
Teachers who want to implement RCCP in their classrooms take a 25-hour introductory
course, giving them the opportunity to receive feedback on their lessons and see skilled
practitioners give demonstration lessons in the classroom.
Teachers are encouraged to devote 30 to 45 minutes at least once a week for a specific
workshop in conflict resolution prepared from the curriculum guide. Teachers also
include conflict resolution lessons, strategies, and skills into the regular academic
program.
Schools agree to implement the RCCP curriculum for at least a year before beginning
peer mediation, which will reinforce the problem-solving skills already being developed
in classrooms. Other key elements in RCCP are administrator training and parent
training. Parents participate in a 12-hour workshop on the skills and concepts of conflict
resolution and intergroup relations in order to make their homes more peaceful. That
way, parents can help their children become more skilled in the conflict resolution they
are learning in school.
Said a ninth-grade student from Vista, California, "I've seen changes in some of the kids
at school since we started this program. They look at things differently now. They don't
act the same; they try to be more peaceful now. I think we are really changing the gangs
on this campus. There used to be a lot of gangs before, writing in the bathrooms and all
that, but it's sort of stopped. It's more peaceful now."
Article by Sharon Cromwell

Education World®
Copyright © Education World
https://www.educationworld.com/a_curr/curr171.shtml
Conflict Resolution projects in the Philippines
"Bridging the Gap: Engaging a New Generation in the Southern Philippines in

Inter-Ethnic Dialogue and Conflict Resolution". "The Autonomous Region of
Muslim Mindanao and Majority-Minority Relations in the Southern Philippines:
Religion, Education, Community and Political Process."
Bridging the Gap: Engaging a New Generation in the Southern Philippines in Inter-
Ethnic Dialogue and Conflict Resolution.
This is an international youth exchange project on inter-ethnic dialogue and conflict

resolution for Muslim, Christian and indigenous cultures in the southern Philippines.
This project is run by the Center for Southeast Asian Studies (CSEAS) and the
International Training Office (ITO) of Northern Illinois University (NIU). It has been a
three year project so far that has trained over 75 youth and 25 adult activists in Mindanao.
Each spring, the project hosts a four-week institute at NIU for 30 Muslim and non-
Muslim Filipino students and adult leaders from the Autonomous Region of Muslim
Mindanao (ARMM).
The goal of the institute is to transmit knowledge and build strategies among participants
about ways to foster interethnic cooperation and a variety of forms of conflict resolution.
By drawing on the example of civic society and diversity in the United States and by
understanding the larger regional context in which contemporary conflicts in Mindanao
exist, participants acquire new perspectives to support future grassroots efforts to build
closer cooperation and understanding among the different cultural, religious, and political
groups in the southern Philippines.
This project is undertaken in partnership with Capitol University in Cagayan de Oro City
and with the International Visitors Program-Philippines, and builds on the Philippine
expertise of the major project supervisors.
The project is funded by the Youth Exchange Division, Bureau of Educational and
Cultural Affairs, U.S. Department of State. It is directed by Dr. Susan Russell,
Anthropology, and Dr. Lina Davide-Ong, International Training Office. The in-country
project coordinators are Dr. Nagasura Madale, Vice President for Research and
Extension, and Dr. Noemi Medina, Director of the Mindanao Peace Building Institute of
Capital University in Cagayan de Oro City.
The participants each year comprise 25 students, aged 15-17 years, and 5 adult leaders
who are selected from all geographic parts of the ARMM and nearby areas in an open,
merit-based, recruitment strategy.
The institute focuses on four key teaching modules:

1) volunteerism and civil society, emphasizing particularly the institutions and
organizations that mediate between the national government and individuals;
2) contemporary American institutions in state and civil society that support ethnic
diversity, affirmative action, and religious pluralism;
3) the underlying premises and practices of conflict resolution; and
4) the ethnic, ritual, historical, and moral dimensions of similarity and difference that
underlie majority/minority ethnic and political ties in Southeast Asia.
Through a variety of academic experiences and cultural visits to important historical

landmarks and civic organizations in the Midwest, participants meet, learn, and exchange
views with key individuals about ways to support a peaceful but ethnically and
religiously plural society.
********************************
The Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao and Majority-Minority Relations in the

Southern Philippines: Religion, Education, Community and Political Process.
A capacity building institute and study tour for government, NGO, religious and women
leaders from the Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao, funded by U.S. Department
of State.
NOTES on the ARMM Program
Goals and Objectives:
The major goals of this project are to

(a) build the capacities of local leaders in the ARMM (Autonomous Region of Muslim
Mindanao) to face new challenges and opportunities for strengthening the foundation of
peace and development in Mindanao; and (b) promote a better understanding of the
United States--its people, culture, values, and civic institutions.
The specific objectives are to:

1) sharpen the participants’ skills in conflict resolution and management, peace
leadership, respect for diversity, and community activism;
2) provide core skills for forging partnerships among local government units, peace and
development organizations, and national government agencies;
3) develop in the participants an appreciation of the cultural and ethnic diversity of the
ARMM through a comparative understanding of majority and minority cultures in the
U.S.;
4) provide opportunity for participants to engage in dialogue with their U.S. counterparts
on civic participation, human rights and justice, tolerance, participatory development and
grassroots empowerment;
5) set up vertical and horizontal partnerships with private voluntary organizations (PVOs)
and NGOs in the U.S. and in the Philippines to share lessons learned and to leverage
resources and knowledge;
6) sharpen the participants’ skills in designing concrete cooperation and action plans on
religion, communities, education and political processes.
The U.S.-based Professsional Development Program (PDP) -- May 31 – June 22, 2006
The PDP will provide a rich and varied, but at the same time coherent and carefully
structured agenda to provide the participants
(1) substantial knowledge and enhanced understanding of how religion, education,
community, and political leaders interact in the U.S.,
(2) an enriched appreciation for cultural and religious diversity, understanding and
cooperation, and
(3) core skills and tools in peace leadership, community activism, human rights and
justice, civic participation, and building linkages.
The program will have two major types of activities:

(a) academic sessions such as workshops, lectures and facilitated discussions, and
(b) study tour/visits to Salt Lake City (Utah), Chicago and Springfield (Illinois) to
interact and dialogue with government officials, community, interethnic and inter-
religious leaders.
It will provide them with a clear understanding of American institutions of tolerance,

diversity, and expose them to the culturally and religiously plural social life of rural and
urban America.
The proposed curriculum for the PDP is as follows:

· The Politics of Race, Ethnicity, and Inequality (the role of race and ethnicity in
American politics and public policy)
· Understanding the Cultural, Ethnic and Religious Components of Conflict
· The Role of Religion and Education in Shaping Community and Political Life in the
U.S.
· Linking Community Activists and Policy Makers: The Bottom-Up Peace Process
· Community Empowerment and Grassroots Development (Building Community,
Building Peace)
· Strategic Management for NGOs/Enhancing the Peacemaking Capacities of
Organizations
· Promoting Human Rights and Justice
· Conflict Resolution and Management, Mediation, and Negotiation
· Women Waging Peace on Gender and Conflict
· Media and the Arts as Tools for Peace
· Good Government Principles and Funds Management
Associated links
 http://www.niu.edu/cseas/outreach/PhilAccess/accessfs.htm
 http://www.niu.edu/cseas/armm/armm.htm
 http://www.researchsea.com/html/article.php/aid/880/cid/6/research/people/northe
rn_illinois_university/conflict_resolution_projects_in_the_philippines.html
Understanding conflict: education for peace in Mindanao

115SHARES00
CONJUGATIONS - Lila Ramos Shahani (Philstar.com) - October 18, 2015 - 10:00am
In late January of this year, sixty-seven Filipinos died in Mamasapano, Mindanao—
following a botched operation dubbed: Exodus. The public outcry was raw and visceral,
awakening both a renewed sense of pride for our police force,on the one hand, and
exposing the weaknesses in our understanding of peace in Mindanao, on the other.
Facebook and Twitter became the site of heated, middle-class opinions. Bigotry’s ugly
head began to rear, demonstrating that--whatever tolerance reasonable Filipinos had for
their Muslim brethren--it was little match for vocal online ignorance. Mindanao was,
once again, misunderstood.
The confusion came in part from the long-ignored history of injustice that Filipinos in
Mindanao have had to endure—almost in silence. Years of neglect and the lack of
effective reconciliatory processes have allowed histories of massacre and broken
promises to fester into growing suspicion—among the Mindanao tri-peoples (Christians,
Muslims and lumad), and between rebel groups and the state. Indeed, recent events have
underlined the need for greater inclusivity among agents of peace in a process that has
been ongoing for years.
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Previously, there has been a heavy reliance on representation by influential figureheads to
move these processes forward. But current events have demonstrated the urgent need for
a multiplicity of voices. Today, civil society and non-government organizations (NGOs)
based in Mindanao continue to highlight the polyphony of tri-peoples in the region.
With the formulation of the Bangsamoro Basic Law—considered a legislative landmark

by this administration—public debate was inevitable. Suddenly, legislators were forced to
brush up on their history—and those who proved less astute were tried harshly under the
glare of public media. More importantly, new light was cast upon Mindanao, and the
challenge—more than ever before—was to develop greater understanding of the region.
The conflict in Mindanao is complex indeed. A common error has been to attribute
problems to religious differences. The tendency for one to blame the “Other” on the basis
of their faith obscures the historical injustices and great disparities in material living
conditions between Christian and Muslim populations. Religion often becomes the lens--
or in some cases, the excuse--for these problems. Post-9/11, seeing Islam in terms of
fundamentalism and jihad—holy war—has been the global trend. Muslim groups have
had to continually explain that the practice of Islam does not necessarily propagate terror.
The activities of groups like Abu Sayyaf have led to a sharp bias against Muslims in
general, with stereotypes about their being terrorists, kidnappers and thieves. The wearing
of the hijab—deemed oppressive towards women—and the growing of beards among
Muslim males has further deepened these stereotypes.
Post-Mamasapano, cyberspace has been abuzz with confusion. For a brief moment, it
seemed as if there was little hope of convincing people that religion was not the root of
all conflict in Mindanao.
But it also became apparent that technology gave seldom-heard voices from the South a
powerful forum. Suddenly, following a solon’s ill-informed remarks, young Muslims
posted long editorials on Facebook that were shared across the Internet and responded to
by others.
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inRead invented by Teads
Indeed, communications technology takes center stage in the work of one of the more
proactive and creative NGOs advocating peace education in the country. “PeaceTech”—
targeting schools in regions that experience conflict—uses video conferencing and social
media to bridge groups across large distances. To date, they have partnered with
corporations like PLDT, TELUS, and development agencies such as Hope International,
Australian AID, and the US Embassy.
image: http://media.philstar.com/images/the-philippine-star/opinion/20151019/lila-
shahani-education-peace-mindanao-peacetech.jpg
PeaceTech founder, Robyn Pettyfer with students from Cotabato City National High
School. PeaceTech File Photo
Trusting the classroom as a safe space in which to let ideas, questions, and knowledge
flourish, the group sets up virtual interaction sessions between classes in Manila and
select areas in Mindanao, like Cotabato and Zamboanga. The idea is simple: use a
relatively inexpensive tool like Skype (provided there is internet access) to bridge
students who are unlikely to be able to speak with one another, were it not for this
technology.
For around an hour—roughly the time it takes to cover a subject in school—students are
allowed to interact with their peers through the facilitation of trained teachers. PeaceTech
aims to foster greater understanding among students, especially those who practice
different religions.
It banks on the dynamism and curiosity of young people to bridge generations. “Aha!”
classroom moments, for instance,may send some students home to their parents with a
message expressing hope that perhaps these people who practice other religions—
normally seen as “Other”—are actually no different from the rest of us.
image: http://media.philstar.com/images/the-philippine-star/opinion/20151019/lila-
shahani-education-peace-mindanao-global-classroom.jpg
Global Classroom Program in Ramon Magsaysay National High School connected via
Skype to North Cotabato National High School. HDPRC File Photo
The NGO has been in the country since 2006. It has two flagship programs:the first, the
“Global Classroom Program,”is aimed at high school students spread across Metro
Manila, Visayas, and Mindanao.It integrates videoconferencing into the Social Studies
and Values Education curriculum of the Department of Education (DepEd) to improve
learning and build tolerance between different religious and ethnic communities.
The second program, dubbed: “Reducing Conflict,” is for young adults from regions
divided by conflict. Using Information Communication Technology and social media, the
program aims to foster improved relationships between communities presently
characterized by mutual distrust. Conflict-management and peace-building training is
also conducted through these video conferences.
But PeaceTech’s program also raises some fundamental questions about how we teach
peace in the Philippine context. Recalling the days of Mamasapano, technology did make
public opinion—no matter how well- or ill-informed—ultimately shareable. The end
result was a society awash with emotion.
Current events in the legislature do show a growing lassitude surrounding the passage of
the Bangsamoro Basic Law. This seems to suggest that, while technology has enabled us
to express ourselves better, it’s unclear if it has achieved much in terms of actually
reducing conflict. Do we fight less online and build more bridges? Or do we merely
“yell” at each other from hi-tech pulpits, enabled by “likes” and peer-encouragement?
In PeaceTech’s case, similar questions surface: can we properly define complex conflict
if it is only seen through the narrow lens of religion? How can we counter religious
prejudices if we do not also account for the history of conflict, and work towards
providing the material and political basis for alleviating chronic poverty? Building
tolerance through values formation is a laudable goal, but what of the question of
historical justice, which is often all-too-fraught?
One thing we learn online is that no one generally disagrees with motherhood statements.
Sane Filipinos seldom disagree with the need for lasting and sustainable peace in
Mindanao, in the same way that values like kindness, tolerance, and peace itself, are
generally “liked.” But these are abstract terms. How does one teach these values without
a context? Should we not instead be teaching a more inclusive history that reflects a
multiplicity of cultural voices? This is where the limitation of peace education programs
like PeaceTech’s come in: for as long as the curriculum is tied to that of DepEd’s—one
that has a predominantly Catholic and Manila perspective—discussion of historical
events and contexts will retain that bias. Peace education cannot be done sans historical
context,precisely because values are a reflection of our lived experiences and the lessons
we choose to learn from them.
Other questions remain: is spending on videoconferencing materials and technology

(P200,000 a year per school) the best way to educate students about our shared history?
In noted hotspots around ARMM where the main face of government is the military and
where basic services have yet to arrive, how does one teach peace, let alone get a
computer to work without electricity? Should the basic conditions that allow human
security to flourish not first be met?
But the fact of the matter is that PeaceTech has now successfully reached almost 40,000
young Filipinos—no small achievement, by any standard—fostering deeper
understanding by highlighting shared interests and commonalities among students from
different cultures. In the coming years—following deals between the government and
other stakeholders—PeaceTech is set to receive funding from DepEd. This is a welcome
step forward because more young people are sure to find the use of technology liberating.
There is no doubt that using communications technology in schools can be a critical tool
in undoing deeply-rooted prejudices and misunderstandings between the Muslim
minority and the Christian majority, not to mention those pertaining to the lumad. It
remains to be seen, however, how the content of such communications will encourage not
just tolerance, but a real understanding of the roots of such conflicts and the search for
actual justice. To this end, PeaceTech’s pioneering efforts seem to be a valuable and
necessary first step.
Read more at https://www.philstar.com/opinion/2015/10/18/1512133/understanding-

conflict-education-peace-mindanao#8He10bCuir7qk8jp.99
International Journal of Citizenship and Teacher Education

Vol 1, No. 2, December 2005
http://www.citized.info ©2005 citizED
Teacher Development for Conflict
Participation: Facilitating Learning for
‘Difficult Citizenship’ Education
KATHY BICKMORE, OISE, University of Toronto
ABSTRACT A key to citizenship for socially just democracy is the development of
capacity to nonviolently and equitably manage conflict. How are teachers educated
and supported for this responsibility? This paper is drawn from a larger on-going
study that compares implicit and explicit curricula, policies and programming for
‘peacekeeping’ (security), ‘peacemaking’ (dialogue and conflict resolution), and
‘peacebuilding’ (difficult citizenship — redressing social fractures and injustices
that underlie destructive conflicts) in three urban Canadian school districts serving
racially and culturally diverse populations. In particular, this paper examines the
professional development-related opportunities available to teachers to support their
facilitation and teaching for peacebuilding citizenship. The few teacher learning
opportunities offered seem unlikely to enhance teachers' capacity to foster diverse
students' development of agency for difficult citizenship. Much of the explicit
professional development available in the schools examined emphasizes teachers'
control of students and containment of disruption (peacekeeping), instead of their
facilitation of diverse students’ participation in constructive conflict management
(peacemaking and peacebuilding). Professional learning opportunities are often
relegated to short, fragmented occasions, primarily during teachers’ volunteer time
after school: this severely limits their potential to foster critical dialogic learning on
the difficult issues of citizenship education practice.
Introduction
“Democratic education at its best,” as Amy Gutmann argues, “is a product of
many public deliberations reiterated over time” (2004 p.89). Democratic
disagreements — in classrooms as well as about classrooms— can be constructive
opportunities to rebuild community, to remedy injustices, and to build citizenship
capacity in policies and practices. Democratic processes and social institutions are
mechanisms for making decisions in the context of social and political conflict.
Even constructive conflict behavior —nonviolent confrontation of basic
disagreement, opposition, or injustice— provokes uncertainty and discomfort (Curle,
Freire, & Galtung, 1974; Galtung, 1996). To really engage in dialogic decision
making, across substantial human differences, is ‘difficult citizenship.’ Difficult
citizenship is critical, engaged citizen participation for social change toward justice,
not merely passive membership. How might teacher learning opportunities make it
more likely that diverse students would gain experience in constructively handling
such conflict, as preparation for difficult citizenship?
Teacher Development for Conflict Participation 3
Teacher expertise and confidence is crucial, to effectively encourage and guide
student participation in conflict education. Significant global and local citizenship
subject matter is complex, often ill-defined, and sometimes controversial (Kelly &
Brandes, 2001; Parker, 2004). Intersecting identities and justice issues —for
example in relation to gender, ethno-cultural/racial diversity, international
disparities, heterosexism, and inter-religious biases— influence the interpretation,
ramifications, and options for handling each conflict. Much of this social, political,
and moral subject matter was not taught to teachers when they were students (Ayers,
Hunt, & Quinn, 1998; Boler & Zembylas, 2003; Freire, 1998; Van Galen, 2004).
Further, today’s populations of students are increasingly diverse, with unequal social
status and incommensurate prior knowledge bases (e.g. Banks & Banks, 1995;
Bickmore, 1999; Cochran-Smith, 1995; Harris, 1996). Twenty-first century students
evidently impact, and are more clearly impacted upon by, a much wider world than
students of past generations (e.g. Elkind, 1995; Kirkwood-Tucker, 2004; Thornton,
2005; Torres, 1998). Thus to teach for democratization, in the context of student
diversity and globalization, requires more substantive knowledge, more skills, and
more comfort with openness and uncertainty than to teach for unquestioned
dominant ‘common sense.’ This can feel overwhelming, especially for novice
teachers. Such complexity is not easy to handle, especially in the context of
educational systems’ social pressures and sanctions (Bigelow et al., 2002;
LadsonBillings, 2004).
Teachers’ knowledge and comfort zones are shaped by the formal and informal
learning experiences they have had access to, by the discourses shaping thought, and
by actual participation (practice) and the feedback it elicits. This paper considers
how teachers may develop capacity and confidence to teach complex, conflictual,
globally-relevant subject matter —thus to facilitate students’ capacity development
for difficult citizenship— in equitable, inclusive, and dialogic ways. Later, I
juxtapose these insights from the research literature with an in-depth investigation in
one large urban school district (supplemented by more cursory study in two other
districts), of the actual resources and infrastructure available to support such teacher
learning for difficult citizenship education.
Contexts for difficult citizenship learning: culture, politics and conflict in
schools
Citizens’ (students’ and teachers’) ways of thinking, being and behaving are not
completely autonomous. Rather, individual and collective agency is shaped and
constrained by the currents of power surrounding cultural patterns, social locations,
and education. Prevailing discourse shapes learning by encoding and reinforcing
relations of power through its presumptions, for example in the ways it recognizes,
denies, normalizes or constructs as ‘other’ certain identities and patterns of behavior
(e.g. Butler, 1999; Ellsworth, 1997). Identities each person ‘performs’, language
used, and mass public media shape what each of us comes to believe is natural and
possible (also Epstein & Johnson, 1998). Young citizens can learn to be relatively
critical, self-reflexive participants in cultural rituals and popular media —
consciously questioning and influencing, though inevitably also influenced by, the
discourses around them (Applebaum, 2004; Cary, 2001).
There seem to be escalating patterns of social fracture, and disengagement
from formal democratic governance, in many parts of the world (e.g. Mátrai, 2002;
Print, 1998; Salomon & Nevo, 2002; Tawil & Harley, 2004; Torney-Purta, 1999).
The word ‘politics’ often refers, in prevalent discourse, to destructive conflict —
4 Bickmore, K
intra-organizational tensions, corrupt leadership, scheming. To try to reverse this
incentive toward cynicism and disengagement, citizenship education often idealizes
the politics of governance and inter-group interaction, preaching tolerance and the
power of the democratic process. Such avoidance or palliative care is insufficient to
handle social ills and build social harmony, and even counter-productive, where
school knowledge thereby appears naïve and irrelevant to students steeped in public
media images of dirty dealing and social tensions. Any teaching (even or especially
that which ignores/assumes power relations) is inevitably political — it has
ramifications for the distribution of power. Thus clearly some kind of practice with
recognizing and handling social/ political conflict in constructive ways is essential to
education for difficult citizenship.
A powerful aspect of citizenship education is the modeling and practice
embedded in the implicit and informal curriculum of school social relationships,
including the climate of competition or equity, the sanctioning of violence, dissent
and (dis)obedience, and the opportunities for democratic engagement by students,
faculty and staff (Bickmore, 2004a). Schooling is by no means always a benign
force for democratic justice. It can promote violence, for example in dehumanizing
and inequitable punishment, condoning sexual and homophobic abuse, or
indoctrination into militarism, violent masculinities, or hatred of the ‘other’ (Bush &
Saltarelli, 2000; Callender & Wright, 2000; Davies, 2004; Harber, 2004; McCadden,
1998). Through explicit and implicit expectations and reward structures, school and
classroom climates can exacerbate (or alleviate) the status competition and prejudice
that underlie most harassment and social exclusion (Aronson, 2000; Bickmore,
2002; Gordon, Holland, & Lahelma, 2000). Educators shape and limit (in)equitable
opportunities for diverse students to transcend their traditional roles and practice
making a difference, for example in student governance, or peer leadership for
conflict resolution, anti-bias, or social and environmental change (Bickmore, 2001,
2003; Close & Lechmann, 1997). School social justice education initiatives will not
be successful unless they also help to redress inequities in students’ opportunities for
educational success (Ghosh, 2004; Maynes & Sarbit, 2000). In an international
study, Akiba and colleagues (2003) found that (independent of violence rates outside
schools) school systems that reduced the variance between most-successful and
least-successful students (for example, because they de-emphasized tracking and/or
offered remedial help) also had lower rates of overt physical violence than more
competitive systems. Thus citizenship education for social justice includes
educators’ roles in shaping the school and school system’s human rights climate, as
well as classroom curriculum (Opffer, 1997; Osler & Starkey, 1998; Smith, 2004).
The remainder of this paper investigates how public school teachers might be
prepared and supported to build such citizenship capacities. In light of this
framework, I then examine the context for teacher professional learning in one large
Canadian school district.
A core component of critical citizenship teacher education is to develop
teachers’ capacity to facilitate students’ practice with democratic processes and
skills. These include dialogue, conflict analysis and resolution, constructive
discussion of controversial issues, deliberation and decision-making. Social justice
citizenship education applies such processes to various shapes and sizes of
interpersonal, political, global, historical and current social questions and problems.
Democratic processes are not generic, simple, or technical: questions of unequal
power, cultural norms and values, identity and difference, equitable access and voice
are inseparable from the processes people use to communicate and make decisions
together (e.g. Bickford, 1996; Freire, 1970; Ross, 1993; Young, 1998). Such
individual and procedural capacities are (by themselves) not sufficient to equip
students/ citizens for social justice building, but they are certainly a necessary
condition. Democracy and social change require conflict management. It seems
obvious that students/citizens are likely to gain capacity in democratic processes
when they have opportunities to practice these processes, with guidance and
feedback, in the classroom. Matters of conflict and fairness are intrinsically
interesting (as well as all around us in society), so school knowledge is also more
engaging and credible when students have opportunities to practice handling
conflicting perspectives. In this postmodern era, alternative (including critical and
subaltern) perspectives and knowledges are technically more accessible than ever
before. Yet it requires not only pedagogical skill, but also sophisticated subjectmatter
understanding, for teachers (and teacher educators) to be able handle such
complex information in an open (constructively-conflictual) and accessible manner
(Kymlicka, 1998, 2003; Parker, 2004; Thornton, 2005).
Any transformation in curriculum depends heavily on teachers’ academic
and professional preparation. Especially in resource-poor communities, textbooks
(although these typically rely on uncritical master narratives and
fragmented/overloaded information) often form the main basis for the implemented
curriculum (e.g. Milligan, 2003; Tupper, 2005). Official curriculum materials and
textbooks (that very often guide teachers’ as well as students’ knowledge
development) too often gloss over or censor critical or troubling information — for
example, Laura Finley (2003) asks, “how can I teach peace when the book only
covers war?” Other such sources are downright inaccurate. For example, Karen
Riley and Samuel Totten (2002) critique several U.S. state-endorsed human rights
and Holocaust curricula, pointing to shallow analysis, inattention to multiple factors
shaping contexts and events, and historical inaccuracy. Paulette Patterson Dilworth
(2004) finds similar kinds of problems, along with a few shining alternatives, in the
multicultural content of social studies curricula implemented in selected U.S.
classrooms. Robert Nash (2005) cites U.S. Supreme Court decisions ensuring
schools’ right and responsibility to teach about multiple world religions in a
balanced fashion, yet laments that such topics are typically avoided or presented in
woefully misleading ways. Even relatively-available resources that could
supplement or replace textbooks (such as material found on the internet, in
newspapers, and distributed by business-oriented development initiatives)
themselves can be shallow, decontextualized, and uncritical of social injustices.
What makes dominant discourse hegemonic is the way it builds an
understanding of the status quo as ‘natural’ or common sense, masking or closing
down openings for re-thinking, so that teachers (and students/ citizens) don’t even
realize what they don’t know. Teachers’ capacity to discern that some information,
topics, or questions are missing or misleading, their knowing where (and why) to
find alternatives, are a necessary precondition for students’ critical citizenship
learning. This is not merely a matter of adding information to the basic master
narrative: knowledge transformation that would open the way for social justice
would significantly change both which knowledge is developed and how it is
interpreted and juxtaposed with other information (Bickmore, 2004b; Pang & Valle,
2004; Woyshner, 2002). Education for difficult citizenship challenges the partial
nature of curriculum resources as well as students’ prior knowledge. This requires
raising questions about the stories underlying geographic, political, and historical
phenomena, and thereby “disrupting the repetition of comforting knowledges”
(Kumashiro, 2004 p.47). This disruption, in turn, provokes the desire and the need
for further knowledge building. Such discomforting moral and political questioning
6 Bickmore, K
is at least as important in teacher education as it is in elementary and secondary
classrooms.
Teachers’ capacity development for critical citizenship education
The initiatives that show the most promise in meeting teachers’ need for deeper,
experientially grounded professional development for social justice citizenship
education do not involve simple knowledge dissemination. Quantity of knowledge
cannot substitute for quality of knowledge, nor for a sense of efficacy (agency) in
interpreting and applying that knowledge. The teacher development opportunities
that seem to offer this quality tend to be relatively horizontal —built around
extended experiences of dialogue, critical reflection on practice, and dissent among
peers— rather than the typical vertical, short, administratively convenient
dissemination materials or workshops (Little, 1993; McLaughlin, Pfeifer,
SwansonOwens, & Yee, 1986; Solomon, 1995; Wallace & Louden, 1994). This kind of
dialogic teacher learning opportunity is by no means the norm in North American
public schools.
Despite recognition of its importance, the professional development
currently available to teachers is woefully inadequate … inservice
seminars and other forms of professional development are fragmented,
intellectually superficial, and do not take into account what we know
about how teachers learn. … Teachers generally welcome the
opportunity to discuss ideas and materials related to their work …
yet, discussions that support critical examination of teaching are
relatively rare (Borko, 2004 p.3 & 7).
Research shows that teachers need opportunities to bring artefacts of classroom
practice (e.g. lesson plans, videotapes of teaching, student work samples) into
discussion-based professional development settings (Borko, 2004; DarlingHammond,
Hammerness, Grossman, Rust, & Shulman, 2005).
A culture of joint educative dialogue among school staff members could be
created through schoolwide inquiry and acknowledgement that the curriculum
inevitably has moral ramifications that are not (and should not be) neutral:
“controversy is inevitable when people talk about things that matter to them”
(Simon, 2001 p.219). Facilitation and supportive contexts for such dialogue can
arise from inside or outside the school. For example, interactive teacher education
pedagogies grounded in carefully-chosen internet-based and United Nations
information seem to help build critical, gender-equitable international perspectives
and capacities (Crocco & Cramer, 2005; Kirkwood-Tucker, 2004). A series of
collaborative dialogues among social studies and English educators from a
university and local secondary schools yielded insights about alternate ways to
implement a concern for social justice in the classroom (Brandes & Kelly, 2000). In
another interesting case, teachers from schools with underachieving AfricanAmerican
students observed master teachers teaching their ‘own’ students in an
after-school program (Foster, Lewis, & Onafowora, 2005). Each of these initiatives
provoked both dissonance (in the latter case, watching their students doing things the
teachers hadn’t known they could do) and dialogue (questioning and problemsolving
debriefing among the teachers) to build teachers’ understanding.
Culturally relevant teacher development for difficult citizenship education
requires both a critical knowledge base about power and domination (based on
histories of marginalization and oppression) and collective participation in culturally
meaningful learning activities (Hesch, 1999 p.380). Many teachers already feel a
“deep-seated sense of ambiguity” toward prevailing curricula that reflect fragmented
information and a “mythic structure of modernism” amid “postmodern realities”
(Richardson, 2002 p.135). Richardson facilitated a collaborative teacher action
research effort to find legitimate spaces for teaching pluralist and dynamic
citizenship within the existing Alberta curriculum, facilitating learning by surfacing
the participants’ deeply conflicting interpretations of national identity. Instead of
shying away from such controversy, it is worth seeking out as the motivation and
frame for teacher development.
Unfortunately, even the best professional development initiatives that currently
exist primarily involve only the unusually motivated individuals who choose to seek
out learning opportunities, often donating their own time (Borko, 2004 p.5). The
scarcest resource to support such learning, for the broad majority of North American
public school teachers, is time during the school day.
Collaborative time for teachers to undertake and then sustain school
improvement may be more important than equipment or facilitities or
even [explicit] staff development. … Unless the ‘extra energy
requirements’ [for school change] are met by the provision of the time,
the change is not likely to succeed (Raywid, 1993, p.30, citing research
by Fullan and Miles, Louis, and Rosenholtz).
Furthermore, Raywid adds, it is unrealistic to expect teachers to add on
thoughtful critical and creative work meetings at the exhausted end of a regular
school day. ‘Creating’ that extended, quality professional development time (under
conditions of scarcity that prevent adding much staff) requires political will and
creativity to redesign existing timetables, add time to school days or school years,
and/or change staffing patterns by creating some larger or combined classes to free
up other time.
Open, equitable, well-facilitated classroom discussion of important political and
moral issues is a necessary, although by itself insufficient, condition for students’
development of social justice citizenship capabilities and motivations. To give such
pedagogies life and meaning for democratization requires broadening educators’
international, pluralistic, critical knowledge bases, as these apply to their classroom
practice. To facilitate such teacher learning, there is no substitute for ensuring that
new and continuing teachers have ample opportunity and support to engage in
challenging, dialogic, time-intensive problem-solving learning about specific
instances of practice with professional colleagues. Teachers’ participation in
discussion-rich learning about crucial issues, incidents, viewpoints and options can
facilitate their capacity to engage diverse students, equitably and effectively, in
dialogic learning for social justice citizenship.
Professional development for peacebuilding citizenship education in Canada
today
I investigated the realities of implementing the above principles, as part of a
larger, multi-year study of ‘safe and inclusive schools’ programming and policy
infrastructure in a few urban Canadian school districts (for more information about
the study, please see Bickmore, 2004a, 2005 forthcoming). By virtue of economies
of scale (because they are large school districts with hundreds of schools), such large
8 Bickmore, K
urban boards would be more likely than others in their regions to have diversified
staff allocated to a variety of programme initiatives and professional developmentrelated
activities. Prevailing discourse about teachers’ knowledge (which influences
the spaces available for learning in these school districts) is reflected in what
professional development opportunities are offered and how professional learning is
discussed.
For this part of the study, my student team and I examined the teacher resource
materials and staff/ services available during 2004-05 in three city school districts in
different provinces (including resources from ministry of education, teachers’
federation, and other organizations). Further, we interviewed over 40 educators (in
eight schools, focusing primarily on two high schools and three elementary schools
serving low-income populations, plus centrally-assigned staff) in one of those
districts. The focus schools were identified by centrally-assigned safe schools staff
on the basis that they all had low-income, high-needs student populations, but had
different patterns of student conflict and conflict management (as reflected primarily
in suspension rates). The other schools and centrally-assigned staff were identified
through ‘snowball’ sampling, focusing on key informants about programming and
services especially relevant to peacekeeping (safety and security intervention and
discipline), peacemaking (conflict resolution intervention and practice of dialogue),
and/or peacebuilding (long range prevention of harm through inclusivity,
overcoming inequities, and social justice education).
Each school board (directly and through allied organizations or government
programs) did offer a range of teacher development workshops, the vast majority of
these in short one-time meetings after school at central locations (see Table 1).
What is striking in the lists of workshops and related resources for school staffs
(reinforced by interview data) is the emphasis on short-term control for security
purposes, such as crisis intervention, threat assessment, discipline, anti-bullying,
internet safety. Even many of the workshops potentially related to peacemaking
(such as problem-solving, gentle teaching, managing conflict, fixing broken teams)
and peacebuilding (such as cross-cultural competency, youth homelessness, teaching
in cultural mosaic classrooms), especially given their short duration, seemed more
oriented toward quick-fix management of disruption than toward development of
diverse students’ citizenship capacities.
With varying degrees of severity in different school boards, staffing and funding
for formal professional development, as well as for any joint teacher thinking/
planning time, is extremely scarce. Teachers and school principals report that
curriculum changes, coupled with staff cuts, have intensified staff workloads such
that there is less time than ever (during their career memories), and fewer resource
people to facilitate, opportunities for teachers to talk, work and learn together.
In theory, the board through our division has great programs to offer,
and can come out and work with kids, but they’re not that accessible.
We really haven’t had much contact. For example in safe schools,
there seem to be only a couple of people for this whole family of
schools, and they seem to be run off their feet. Basically I find
resources on my own (HS2 T, May 4).
Relatively experienced staff, when asked about the sources of their initiatives,
often mentioned an experience they had had at a previous school workplace, rather
than any recent formal or informal professional development. Some print resource
materials (such as sample lesson plans and teaching kits) relevant to social justice
citizenship are available in board resource centres and on-line. The increasinglyaccessible
internet does allow some teachers to find resources produced by educators
elsewhere (although in some schools there was little paper to print them on). It also
facilitates school board leadership staffs’ capacity to disseminate materials and
information. Yet most teachers reported that they were unable to find the time
(above and beyond their existing workloads) to even find and read these materials,
never mind to meet with colleagues for even a few minutes to discuss, assess,
implement or adapt them for use in their own classrooms.
No, the [printed teaching resource materials] aren’t useful: it’s time. …
Just trying to manage the needs that the students present on a day-today basis … there
just isn’t time to make use of those kinds of
resources (Elem5 P June 29).
Some staff (especially novice teachers with high needs and motivation) made
clear that they didn’t know how to access even these basic, generic, non-dialogic
resources at all. The sparse curriculum leadership staff surely did reach some
individuals, and the people in those leadership positions believed that
if teachers wish to be connected, they can be” (bd. curric. leader, July
6; bd. equity leader, June 15)
However, some teachers, especially those with the fewest years of experience,
told a different story:
I realized, students need a forum. They need a place to talk about [bias,
equity and peacebuilding issues], without somebody shaking their
finger at them and saying ‘that’s wrong.’ So I talked to the principal
… There was a [teacher] equity committee, but it wasn’t doing
anything. … So, in January, four of us [restarted the school equity
committee] … Black history month was fast approaching; that seemed
like the first opportunity to do something. … We had kept thinking
there must be some kind of information, some kind of Bible for Black
history month. There must be teachers doing this all over the city! …
It didn’t seem like we should have to be creating all these things from
scratch. … At the same time I was doing my ESL [Additional
Qualifications course at the university], and by chance [one of the
school board’s few remaining equity studies staff] came in as a guest
speaker. She had some good ideas and resources. … If it hadn’t been
for the ESL AQ course I happened to be enrolled in, and that guest
speaker, I wouldn’t have known [those resources] existed (HS1 T5,
June 3).
Existing formal professional development workshop and curriculum planning
opportunities were few, short, fragmented, and nearly always offered only after
school hours to teachers who volunteered their time. Labour conflicts that had
motivated various bargaining units to work-to-rule during most of the school year
caused other staff meetings and seminars to be cancelled or postponed. Some
administrative or centrally-assigned staff were able to go off site for an occasional
short conference or workshop, but those opportunities were rarer for classroom
teachers. Teachers at one high school and one elementary/ middle school did report
10 Bickmore, K
having been galvanized into action by one late-April after-school video and
workshop on bullying among girls (HS2 T1 May 4, Elem1 T1 May 10). Another
teacher reported having attended one slightly-meaningful workshop in recent years:
I can’t think of any professional development. Actually that’s not true,
we had one session that was for mentors and new teachers, about the
degrees of inclusivity, multicultural education. … But otherwise, I’ve
not seen a lot of that. … and even some of that is just token, like having
books with different pictures in them (HS1 T2 May 5).
In some schools, some teachers complained that even basic information was not
disseminated, even when they made inquiries (e.g. HS1 T2 May 5). This
information vacuum could have direct ramifications for teachers’ interpretation of
school rules (patterns of implicit citizenship socialization):
we’re not a zero tolerance board any more, we’re a progressive
discipline school, but I don’t think most teachers know about that. We
have had no p.d. or information about that at all (Elem1 T2, May 10).
Redesigned (increasingly centralized and cost-saving) leadership infrastructure,
especially pertaining to high schools, exacerbated the challenge. For example, when
the board replaced department headships (which had been subject-specific and
included some release time) with restructured headships (responsible for multiple
subject areas, often without release time), the capacity to offer professional
development support plummeted (curric. leader July 6; HS1 T4 May 13). Even
finding a common lunch period for teachers to work together on committees (that
would contribute to teacher learning as well as peacebuilding citizenship education
opportunities in the school) was a challenge, especially in the high schools (e.g. HS1
T5 June 3; HS2 support staff1 May 11). As one of the school board staff put it,
we don’t have thinking time (safe schls. leader2 July 7).
The most serious problem, according to educators in all eight schools as well as
centrally-assigned board personnel, was teacher time to talk and work together (with
or without a formal professional development facilitator). A provincial government
hostile to public education, in power for about ten years until voted out recently, had
caused teachers’ ‘work’ to be defined very narrowly as classroom teaching time,
while also cutting resources for support infrastructure such as curriculum
development leaders, conflict resolution advisors, and student services. An
elementary principal explained that, as one consequence of this shift, many of her
staff had no access to formal learning time with their colleagues.
At my previous school, we were able to entice people to [attend training
in a popular cooperative learning, social skills, and anti-bias
program] during the day. Now … we’ve kind of limited what we’re
offering staff, because we don’t have the money in the board any more
[to release teachers for professional development by covering their
classrooms]. So trainings are after school. We’ve lost some teachers,
who have young children [at home] for example, who can’t do it after
school. I can’t afford to pay for supply [substitute] teachers …
Professional development time makes a big difference to staff. Also
…Years ago we used to have a number of [non-teaching] days. Now
we have a number of [non-teaching] days for [parent-teacher]
interviews, one for the union so we can’t do anything in that one, so
there’s not much (elem3 P April 19).
Furthermore, like many such commercially-produced teacher resource packages,
professional developers were only allowed to use the particular material this
principal refers to if they had been certified in an expensive training for trainers.
Resources to hire one of these trainers, or to get an existing staff member trained,
were scarce. It was essentially luck that this school’s new vice principal had taken
initiative earlier to earn that training certificate, so that she could lead her own
staff’s inservice workshop series.
However, some innovative principals, supported by area administrators, were
able to create exactly the kinds of opportunities for teachers to talk and work
together that Borko, Raywid and others recommend. Even though they had no more
resources per student or staff member, and if anything fewer explicit peacebuilding
citizenship-related programs than any of the other schools in the study, these
principals had assigned teachers’ work differently in order to make time for dialogue
and joint work on an on-going basis. One elementary school principal routinely
assigned teachers to work collaboratively with combined grades or integrated
divisions (elem2 P & others May 2, May 18, June 30). One high school principal
had recently initiated a problem-solving process with all staff, in which every staff
member identified issues of concern, and then committees were formed to work on
each category of concern. Regular staff meeting time was given over so that these
small committees could meet, and the principal had tentative approval to change the
students’ schedule for the coming year so that these teacher committees could meet
every Wednesday morning (HS2 P & others April 26, May 4, May 11). Data
analysis is on-going, but it seemed that the staff morale and climates for teacher
learning were somewhat more positive in those environments.
Thus there are important exceptions that point toward possibilities for
improvement, but the overwhelming finding of this research is that teacher learning
for critical democratic citizenship education is profoundly under-supported. The
interviews with educators in one district suggest that the vast majority of the scarcest
resources (the time of educational leaders who could directly or indirectly support
teacher learning) seem to be allocated to intervention after violence has erupted and
to short-term control. The discourse of teacher learning primarily describes quickfix
packages and coping with disruption. Most of the currently-available
professional development resources in this school district do not even pay lip service
to the kinds of teacher knowledge-building pedagogy and collective discussion that
we know facilitate inclusive democratic citizenship education. It is not clear that
many opportunities for dialogic examination of important difficult issues are
provided for most students: It is crystal clear that such opportunities are hardly ever
provided for most of their teachers.
Conclusion
The discourse and resources for teacher professional learning evident in these
school districts bear no resemblance to what the research suggests is needed to
support effective teaching for ‘difficult’ democratic citizenship. Research literature
reviewed indicates that the kinds of pedagogy and curriculum content that could
prepare diverse students for constructive engagement in conflictual postmodern
12 Bickmore, K
contexts are quite rare in North American classrooms. It shows that teachers’
content knowledge, especially about social justice concepts and alternative
information sources, is important —along with open, inclusive pedagogies
emphasizing dialogue about conflictual perspectives— to students’ development of
interest and capacity for citizen engagement. Further, research in teachers’
professional development shows that, to develop such capacity, teachers want and
need sustained, dialogic learning opportunities that attend to practical problems and
issues (analogous to what their students need for citizenship learning). Teacher
education for peacebuilding citizenship, in particular, cannot be reduced to technical
recipes that could be learned in the occasional hour after school. The study of one
large public school district shows that these kinds of critical dialogic learning
opportunities are very rarely provided or supported for teachers in their in-service
workplace environment. If teachers are not enabled to discuss, try out, critique, and
re-discuss their citizenship education work, then they are unlikely to offer quality
education for democracy to their students.
TABLE 1: Safe & Inclusive Schools-Related Teacher Professional Development
Resources Toronto District School Board (300000 students) PeaceBUILDING-related
Tchg in cultural mosaic classrm
Equity dept. wksps (array, limited staff to deliver)
(e.g. racism, body image, class bias, homophobia,
gender equity, Holocaust ed, linking isms, etc)
Equity dept print resources (array)
Print & video resources include African & Asian
heritage activities, anti-racism, challenging
homophobia, Aboriginal studies, disability
Fedn print resources include equity school, First
Nations activities, community role models
Online courses include gender equity, Native studies
PeaceMAKING-related
Tribes (2+)
Cognitive coaching (expensive)
Fixing broken teams
Listening, handling tough situations (staff & Ts)
Critical thinking in organizations (staff & Ts)
Emotional intelligence (staff & Ts)
(Communication & CR for admin staff only)
Print resources include environmental ed, dealing w/
controversial issues, media studies, civics, world
politics, social studies g.1-3, healthy active living
Teachers federation print resources include critical
media Gr.7-8, environmental studies
PeaceKEEPING-related
Creating safe schools (admin, elem & sec Ts)
Internet safety (2)
Print resources include Stop Bullying, internet safety
for PHE, rules & responsibilities (Gr.1)
Bullying/violence (federation conference)
Safe/healthy schools (federation conference)
Online courses include internet safety
Federation wksps include CALM crisis preventn
Halifax Regional School Board (57000
students)
PeaceBUILDING-related
RCH=Race,X-cultural,HumanRts
(admin/ldrsp)
Diversity management
Building inclusive schls (5+, conf. grant& Oct
PD)
Racial equity interdiscip. (conf. grant& Oct
PD)
Queer eye for straight &not T Oct PD day
Youth justice (2) Oct PD day
Gender diffs in learning Oct PD day
Youth homelessness/preventive Oct PD day
Schooling & social justice (conf)
PeaceMAKING-related
Managing conflict (admin/leadership staff)
Tribes (2, conference grants)
Managing conflict/strong schl culture (conf.
grant)
Caring education (St FX U conference)
Roots of Empathy Oct PD day
Student leadership teams Oct PD day
World village Oct PD day
Fair trade/global economy Oct PD day
Wars have limits Oct PD day
Facing fear: terrorism Oct PD day
NV crisis intervention (5, admin & some Ts)
S behaviour & discipline (admin/ldrsp)
Threat assessment (3, w/safe schls consultant)
Bullying/ peaceful schools Oct PD day
Law, conflict mgt, justice, young offenders
(conf.)
Winnipeg School Division 1 (34000 students)
PeaceBUILDING-related
Aboriginal/First Nations education
Worldviews/awareness (8, some for admin)
X-cultural competency
Body image/weight preoccupation
Diversity (Assn School Superintendents conf)
Cross-cultural understanding (Ctr for the
Performing Arts workshop)
PeaceMAKING-related
Comprehensive Assessment Pgm workshops
include Social-Emotional learning
(other CAP - health, English Language Arts)
Problem solving (N-Gr2, Gr4-5)
Lions Quest
Talking tools
Gentle teaching
Child Guidance Ctr wksps including leadership,
peer mentoring, teacher advisory
Education & democracy (U of MB conf)
NV crisis intervention
Talking about touching
Restitution (1 & 2)
Behaviour support
Positive classroom management & discipline
Crisis negotiation (administrators?)
Bullyproofing
Harassment/intimidation
Protecting children/youth on internet
Safe Schools Forum (provincial Dept of Ed)
Child Guidance Ctr wksps including gangs info,
defiant children
Violence in multicultural world –U of MB
14 Bickmore, K
Correspondence: KATHY BICKMORE, OISE, University of Toronto, 252 Bloor
St. West - CTL Toronto, Ontario, M5S 1V6, CANADA
kbickmore@oise.utoronto.ca
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The Value of Peace Education in Local Communities (Philippines)

May 21, 2018 News & Highlights 0
(Photo: Teach Peace Build Peace Movement)
(Reposted from: Teach Peace Build Peace Movement. May 16, 2018)
By Fort Phil
“Fallen soldier’s kid marches with dad’s commander on graduation day”, came the
headline of a Rappler story about a soldier of an Army engineer unit, involved in the
construction of a peace center in the village of Tukanalipao, Mamasapano, Maguindanao,
who was shot in cold blood on Tuesday morning, April 4, allegedly by a member of a
radical armed group. Reading the news report evoked much harrowing emotion
considering that the casualty was part of a community project dedicated to promoting
peace and development in the area. Sad, but reality on the ground is painfully tragic.
Without question, the consequences of war are brutally devastating particularly to

civilians and non-combatants by displacing them from within their own communities,
depriving them of their security, and preventing them from achieving full self-realization.
The resulting insecurity and instability that follows from these circumstances – lack of
basic social services, harsh surroundings and oppressive governments – forces many to
turn to the worst imaginable kind of violence in defense of their right to survive. But
through these tragic circumstances, attention has also been drawn to the need of
comprehensively understanding conflict and preventing any and all conditions leading to
violence.
Lives are undeniably lost each day, properties are destroyed, opportunities are wasted and
these cannot go on. Just yesterday, April 10, there was a deadly clash between
government forces and Abu Sayyaf extremists in Basilan. Ways of doing things must
definitely change for the better and this requires a more proactive stance from all
stakeholders. A new way of thinking is necessary and must be constructively pushed; but
in our earnest desire for a paradigm shift, we must not disregard cultural sensitivity. It is
everyone’s duty to closely examine the underlying causes that force people to resort to
violence.
The threat to peace stems from a multitude of causes including poverty, environmental
deterioration and social injustice. There are a variety of factors including economic,
political, social, cultural and environmental grounds from which these causes are
founded. Sadly, the technological progress that has brought our world closer together has
not been fittingly matched by mutual respect and understanding of other cultures and
beliefs. The absence of certainty and security makes it difficult to promote peace, and
local peace workers are confronted daily with these variables in the field.
A Culture of Peace in Communities Leads to Peace and Development
The roots of conflict originate from a wide number of cases in different areas. While its
nature is complicated, it is universally accepted that violence can be prevented and
reduced through the practice of dialogue and negotiations – skills which can be taught
through an active program of peace education and consistent promotion of social ethics
for peace. Notably, to complement government efforts, many non-government
organizations (NGOs) and private individuals have quietly, but effectively, worked in
promoting the culture of peace and similar programs. In the Philippines, local NGOs,
such as Teach Peace Build Peace Movement, and different well-meaning people’s
organizations (POs) contribute significantly to the overall peace effort of the national
government.
The impact of violence is boundless. It affects everyone especially the marginalized

members of society and its effect is a serious concern particularly to small and isolated
communities. Decades of local conflicts have resulted to nothing but misery particularly
to those directly affected by violence. Given this backdrop, it becomes imperative that
change must come. An apt and revolutionary shift of mindset on how to resolve conflict
must evolve if we are to positively move forward as a nation.
History have long proven that war has been a threat, and a scourge, to mankind since the
dawn of civilization. This threat ranges from everyday violence of small-scale conflicts,
to regional wars and to the vast devastation caused by two world wars. As President
Duterte puts it, “No matter the spoils, war is never worth it.”
A violent deed cannot be remedied by another brutal action regardless of whether the act
of violence and war is justified by religious, political, economic, social and cultural
disputes, it is time to adopt a renewed mindset that promotes peace. The usual method
protagonists employ to deal with conflict is through oppressive and martial measures but
control and extreme actions are not enough, they merely delay future unimaginable
violence. A preventive and pragmatic approach becomes imperative – through peace
education and sustainable promotion of a culture for peace and non-violence.
Why peace education program?
Given that violence and war is a product of culture, through the modification of basic
cultural mindsets, everyone can work towards creating a culture of peace. We must
therefore strive to build a culture which consists of values, attitudes and behaviors that
reject violence, one that attempts to prevent conflict by rightfully addressing its root
causes with a new view of solving problems through dialogue and negotiations.
Remarkably, President Duterte even emphasized “principled position that disputes should
be settled in a peaceful manner” in his speech last Sunday, April 9, during the Araw ng
Kagitingan commemoration in Bataan. Unjustified violence against any person, or group,
has no place in a civilized society.
This writer is a witness to the power of peace education programs, and similar activities,
in transforming communities. Building public school classrooms and peace hubs through
Bayanihan is one example of a “collective” peace education activity that immensely help
local communities a step towards attainment of meaningful peace and development.
Peace through the promotion of quality public education encompasses economic,
political, social, cultural, moral and ethical issues thereby making it vital in transforming
people’s attitudes towards dealing with conflicts. This approach may appear to be
complicated to some, or may also be simplistic to a few, but it has worked well in local
communities particularly in geographically-remote public schools.
Establishing a culture of peace requires the involvement of all sectors that together shape
the country’s culture – institutions such as the government, public officials, NGOs,
CSOs, media and especially parents and teachers. Although peace education program is
often based in schools and other learning institutions, it should involve the entire
community as peace education is not only a necessity in areas where there are conflicts
but in all societies. Parents’ role is crucial in teaching and promoting strong family values
that foster a culture of peace. After all, it is in the homes that peace is first learned,
practiced and nurtured.
Further, the promotion of social ethics in peace education program in schools is an apt
strategy in firmly establishing a culture of peace in local communities. Ethics is an
important attribute like the basic skills of reading, writing and arithmetic; and it should
become a core part of every peace program. Remarkably, the Department of education
(DepEd) has established Peace Education Bureau in 2006 to help support the full
integration of peace education in all of the curriculum, as well as the activities of all
primary and secondary institutions.
Why is Bayanihan the right vehicle for peace education in local communities?
Essentially, the practice of Bayanihan in constructing public school buildings and peace
centers is a peace curriculum in itself. The whole exercise is basically a practical
application of all the principles in attaining peace and harmony through shared
experience and in having a common goal – to collectively build a quality school building
for the students. What is more significant than putting into action the philosophy of peace
education?
A teacher of a beneficiary-public school in Cordillera has this to say of their bayanihan

experience, “Through this Bayanihan project, the people of Butbut tribe have proven that
they are united as one and that they are ready to help each other in times of need and to
share each one’s success and happiness. This project has been an inspiration to them
because they have served their community with glad hearts and open hands. It has been a
valuable learning to the youth and students who joined because they learned to be
generous and caring towards other people. They also learned the value of volunteerism,
cooperation and the spirit of bayanihan.”
Likewise, is there a more valuable affirmation a peace worker can gain than from the
statement of appreciation from stakeholders, beneficiary and volunteers involved in the
project itself? As Nanay Clarita, a parent-volunteer in one Bayanihan project in Central
Luzon, would put it, “Kahit matanda na ako, feeling ko lumalakas ako sa paggawa kapag
nakikita ko ang aming mga kasamahan at mga sundalo na nakangiti habang nagtatrabaho
sa ilalim ng sikat ng araw. Taga-bomba ako sa mga nag-iigib at minsan ay cook nila sa
hapon. Pagod pero enjoy.”
Multi-stakeholder partnership (MSP), especially in building local public schools through

volunteerism among parents, teachers, LGUs, civil society organizations (CSOs) and
other well-meaning individuals, is a practical approach that has proven to be an effective
catalyst in local peace and development. It is a program that has helped quite a number of
communities nationwide to further strengthen communal bond and resiliency. By moving
as one in constructing new school buildings for the youth, local stakeholders realized that
peace and harmony is possible among them. The residents have found also new
indigenous ways to boost their chances for socio-economic development. A problem
shared is a problem half-solved, so to speak.
Where do we go from here?
As peace-loving citizens and advocates, what can we contribute to local peace efforts?
Given the current global security situation, finding peace and stability become a major
challenge for mankind. But in many cases and when properly utilized, the energy
stemming from conflict can be directed towards achieving positive change. Communities
need to be taught of alternatives in resolving conflict other than military or violent means.
Peace education is one way of achieving this end because it directly raises awareness of
the roots and causes of conflict. It also provides people with the necessary skills and
knowledge how to appropriately respond to disputes. Peace projects, such as the one
where the late Army Corporal Tamano Macadatar was involved, should be properly and
vigorously supported, protected and sustained by no less than the direct stakeholders and
the community itself.
Embracing the positive values of openness and equality must be a societal goal. An open
and dynamic society tolerates differing perspectives which helps in coming up with
rational consensus. Government and civil society must remain open to change in order to
adroitly adapt to our increasingly highly-connected and fast-paced world. It is to the good
of everyone to focus on the long-term standpoints; and credible education is one.
Importantly, the promotion of culture of peace should inspire people to work for a better
tomorrow through shared experiences and goals which stimulate familial love and
revitalize communal spirit.
The creation, much more sustainability, of local peace is a long and tedious process that
can take years to achieve, but at least the next generations will have the chance to enjoy
its benefits. Its attainment must become our united goal as peace-loving citizens, as
human beings. Everyone must be politely reminded that anyone who acts with pure
intention and right direction can make a profound difference and can influence events
that are contributory to a more peaceful future, and our best shot is having a sound and
sustainable peace education program both in schools and communities. The government,
in close partnership with different stakeholders, needs to focus on proactive and
constructive measures that encourage the development of a culture of peace. Being in
authority, it is ideal that the government take the lead.
Indeed, winning the peace is never easy and we must not stop from trying. May each one
of us always share the importance of peace education program, and similar activities, in
bringing about a community in which people willingly cooperate for the benefit of all,
acting in altruism and selflessness, recognizing the values of non-violence and respect for
human rights.
https://www.peace-ed-campaign.org/the-value-of-peace-education-in-local-communities-
philippines/
Devpolicy Blog from the Development Policy Centre

Australian aid | PNG and the Pacific | Global development policy
http://devpolicy.org
Enhancing educational outcomes in conflict affected Muslim
Mindanao – what we learned
Author : Ty Morrissey
Date : September 12, 2017
The program
The Basic Education Assistance for Muslim Mindanao – Autonomous Region of Muslim
Mindanao (BEAMARMM) was a significant education and peace initiative jointly
implemented by the Government of the
Philippines through the Department of Education (DepEd) and the Australian
Government through the
Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT). It commenced in September 2012 and
concluded in June
2017.
The program initially comprised four independent yet interrelated components in
partnership with UNICEF,
GIZ, BRAC and Cardno. Following an independent review in 2014, BEAM-ARMM
shifted towards a
programmatic approach with shared outcomes and outputs. The strategic shift to shared
end outcomes
triggered more effective implementation and management with DFAT, DepEd-ARMM
and implementing
partners agreeing on four end outcomes:
improve access by increasing completion rates;
improve quality of education and learning environment;
improve employability of Out of School Youth (OSY) completers, and
improve education governance to support Early Childhood Education, basic education
and OSY.
The context
The operating context within Mindanao significantly influenced the program. The
ARMM region is a fragile,
conflict environment, which lags the rest of the country in terms of educational access
and overall learning
outcomes. Additionally, the installation of a new national and regional government
heightened tensions in the
final year of program implementation.
The evaluation
End of program reviews for DFAT programs are usually conducted by independent
external evaluators.
Given the complexity of BEAM-ARMM, the challenging environment and broad scope
of work, DFAT agreed
to a quasi-independent approach with the program partners self-evaluating, under the
guidance of the
international M&E Adviser (who is the author of this post). We employed a mixed-
method methodology
utilising a range of approaches to demonstrate progress towards end of program outcomes
and practices of
interest and uptake. The evaluation considered three major questions:
To what extent has the program achieved stated end of program outcomes?
How appropriate were BEAM-ARMM’s institutional and governance approaches with
DepEd-ARMM
and other partners?
To what extent has the program demonstrated relevance, efficiency and effectiveness
through a
unified approach to implementation and management? What lessons can be learned?
All evaluations have limitations and BEAM-ARMM was no different. Major limitations
were the large number
of interventions and scopes of work implemented by partners across the five provinces of
ARMM. There was
insufficient time to cover all aspects of the program and some partners had limited
resources for evaluation.
It was also difficult to attribute all changes to interventions implemented by BEAM-
ARMM. Finally there were
issues with access to and overall quality and availability of data.
1/4
Findings
In relation to access and participation, the BEAM–ARMM target for increasing the
elementary school
completion rate was 13%. The elementary completion rate increased throughout ARMM
by an absolute
15.3%, from 24.6% in the 2012–2013 school year to 39.9% in 2015–2016. However,
completion rates remain
very low with eight of nine divisions being below 55%.
Overall Gross Enrolment Rates increased from 66.8% in 2012–2013 to 88.9% in 2015–
2016 and the Net
Enrolment Rate increased from 55.5% to 69.6% during the same period, double the
anticipated target of 7%.
A significant strategy to enhance learning outcomes was to focus on teacher training and
capacity
development. BEAM-ARMM trained 12,250 teachers over a three year period. The target
for the program
was to increase the National Achievement Test scores of year 3 students by 5%. BEAM-
ARMM was able to
achieve a 22.83% increase in science scores, 6.85% increase in maths scores and 3.8%
increase in English
scores, for an overall average improvement of 10.5% as illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1: End-of-Program Evaluation Results – NAT Grade 3 students
Our findings indicated that the longer students are taught by trained teachers, the better
they performed
overall. There was also evidence of improvements in female students’ scores as a result
of supporting better
trained teachers.
BEAM-ARMM also worked to improve outcomes for Out of School Youth (OSY)
through providing technical
and vocational education and training. The target was to train 11,000 OSY and achieve a
50% employment
rate amongst the cohorts. Tracer studies demonstrated that 11,044 students were trained
with an overall
employment rate of 56%. Importantly there were significant improvements in income for
both young men and
women (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Changes in income for Out of School Youth (OSY)
2/4
In terms of educational governance, the program struggled to establish adequate baselines
given the broad
nature of governance and the differing interventions being implemented. Nonetheless
BEAM-ARMM did
manage to implement a number of interventions that strengthened governance and
institutional
arrangements. Case studies and discussion papers were used as a means to document
information-rich
approaches that have led to DepEd-ARMM taking up a number of new initiatives.
To assist the program to work in a cohesive and shared manner, a unified approach was
applied to M&E,
gender and social inclusion, communications, governance and overall planning and
reporting. A unified
approach is theoretically important but problematic in practice. Partnerships require high
degrees of
understanding, trust and commitment to shared outcomes to operate effectively. Whilst
headway was made
in key implementation and management models, the program tended to operate as
separate components
functioning under a broad programmatic banner.
From a governance perspective, the unified approach enabled partners to come together
to share progress,
experiences and lessons and to participate in key implementation and management
decisions. The project
coordination committee meetings were integral for decision-making and promoting a
sense of shared
understanding and approach. The project coordination committee process was supported
by project
management committees which met and confirmed component progress and discussed
management
concerns prior to meeting at the broader forum.
Key lessons
Overall, our evaluation found that BEAM–ARMM has made a direct contribution
towards the achievement of
its defined outcomes, and was able to achieve most of its intended deliverables despite
the difficult operating
environment and complicated program management structure. BEAM–ARMM has
played a significant role in
the development and contribution of a range of initiatives in partnership with DepEd–
ARMM and other key
stakeholders within ARMM. The key lesson learned revolved around the extended time
required to
implement various development models given the complex operating context in ARMM.
The evaluation also
highlighted the need for closer coordination, cooperation and consultation with key
government stakeholders
and non-state actors within ARMM.
Ty Morrissey was the international M&E Adviser on the BEAM-ARMM program from
2013–2017.
3/4
Ty recently presented, along with the BEAM-ARMM Deputy Team Leader Ina Aquino,
at the Australian Aid
Evaluation Forum held at Crawford School of Public Policy, ANU in August 2017. View
their presentation
here, or listen to an audio recording of the session here. The full End of Program Review
can be accessed
here.
Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)
4/4
https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/enhancing-educational-outcomes-
conflict-affected-muslim-mindanao-learned-20170911.pdf
Philippines: Conflict profile
The Philippines has experienced internal conflict for over four decades. This includes
violence related to two main causes: a communist-inspired insurgency and a separatist
struggle in the southern Bangsamoro region.
Discontent arising from the repression of dissent and foreign interference in the
Philippines led to the formation of the Communist Party of the Philippines after World
War II. It aimed to overthrow the government, and remains active; peace talks between it
and the government have so far been unsuccessful.
The second conflict has primarily taken place in the southern Philippines.The failure of
campaigns in the 1960s to recognise local people’s rights led to the development of
nationalist movements, and various armed groups have since fought the government for
greater autonomy.
In March 2014 a peace deal was signed between the government and the largest of these
groups, the Moro Islamic Liberation Front. However, not all of the rebel groups in
Mindanao and Sulu archipelago have signed the deal, and clashes in early 2015 highlight
the challenges associated with this long and protracted conflict.
It is difficult to know the total number of people who have been affected by the conflicts
in the Philippines, but it is often estimated at 150,000. Natural disasters have contributed
to the displacement of many more.
Last updated: June 2015
https://www.peaceinsight.org/conflicts/philippines/
4'10 ZEP
13
Loreta Navarro-Castro
Towards a Holistic Approach to Peace Education:
a Philippine Perspective
Abstract:
Th e article asserts that educating people towards becoming peace
agents is central to the task of peacebuilding. Peace education is
viewed as both a signifi cant peacebuilding strategy in the case of
post-confl ict situations and an eff ective way of preventing violent
confl ict. Th e article seeks to provide a holistic view of what the
fi eld is about and to explain a schema that has been developed
through many years of practice. It ends with ideas on the peace
educator’s role as well as the need for a whole school approach
and for a vision for the future.
Zusammenfassung:
Der Artikel stellt heraus, dass die Erziehung von Menschen zu
Friedensakteuren eine zentrale Bedeutung für Friedensprozesse
hat. Friedenp.dagogik ist in diesem Kontext sowohl eine bedeutsame
Strategie zur Friedenssicherung in Postkonfl iktsituationen
als auch eine eff ektive Art der Pr.vention vor dem Ausbruch
gewaltvoller Konfl ikte. Dabei wird ein ganzheitlicher Ansatz der
Friedensp.dagogik vertreten und ein diesbezügliches Schema
vorgestellt, das über viele Jahre friedensp.dagogischer Praxis entwickelt
wurde. Der Beitrag schlie.t mit Anregungen zur Rolle
von Friedensp.dagogen mit der Begründung für einen friedensp.dagogischen
Ansatz, der die ganze Schule in allen ihren
Facetten einschlie.t und mit einer Vision für die Zukunft.
Preliminary remarks
Educating for a culture of peace is a huge challenge, but it is
also a cause that is very important and one that needs to be
pursued with commitment. Th is writer is convinced that peace
education is a crucial key towards opening up possibilities for
a positively transformed future, for both humanity and our
planet.
Th e greatest resource for building a culture of peace are
the people themselves, for it is through them that peaceful relationships
and structures are created. Hence, educating people
toward becoming peace agents is central to the task of peacebuilding.
Peacebuilding refers generally to the long-term project
of building peaceful communities. One can readily see how
peace education is therefore both a signifi cant peacebuilding
strategy (as in the case of a post-confl ict situation) and an effective
way of preventing violent confl ict.
In a peacebuilding framework developed in the Philippines,
peace constituency-building is indicated as an important
element (cf. Ferrer 2005, p. 15). Th e latter includes education
aimed at promoting a peace culture and agenda.
What Is Peace Education?
Peace education is essentially transformative. It cultivates the
knowledge base, skills, attitudes and values that seek to transform
people’ s mindsets, attitudes and behaviors that, in the fi rst place,
have either created or exacerbated violent confl icts. It seeks this
transformation by building awareness and understanding, developing
concern and challenging personal and social action that
will enable people to create conditions and systems that actualize
nonviolence, justice, environmental care and other peace values.
Sadly, social injustice, war and other forms of violence
have long been features of our human condition. Th ey have
caused death, destruction and horrifi c suff ering but humanity has
not yet been able to wage a successful collective eff ort to transform
this condition. With universal peace education there is some
hope that we may be able to move toward having a critical mass
that will demand and work for the needed changes. As Cora
Weiss, president and initiator of the Hague Appeal for Peace, has
aptly said:
Th ere are many campaigns that are working on a variety
of issues which must be addressed if this new century is not to
carry forward the legacy of the twentieth century, the most violent
and war-fi lled in history. All these campaigns are needed if we are
to sow seeds for peace and the abolition of war, but none can
succeed without education… Th e Hague Appeal for Peace has
decided that to sustain a long-term change in the thought and
action of future generations… our best contribution would be to
work on peace education (cf. Weiss, in Cabezudo and Reardon
2002, p. 4).
In the Philippines, the Center for Peace Education in Miriam
College and other groups have expressed that educating for
peace is both a practical alternative and an ethical imperative.
Peace Education as Practical Alternative
Educating for peace will give us in the long run the practical
benefi ts that we seek. As stated earlier it is expected to build a
critical mass of people who will demand for and address the
needed personal and structural changes that will transform the
many problems that relate to peace into nonviolent, humane
and ecological alternatives and solutions.
To illustrate, we know that war has been a core institution
of the global security system then and now. It has adversely
aff ected countless generations, considering its human costs
as well as its material and environmental costs. It has also led
to the rationalization of violence in so many aspects of life. It
has given birth to horrendous phenomena such as war-time
rape and sex-slavery, ethnic cleansing and genocide. And yet,
there is widespread belief that war is inevitable.
War is accepted as a legitimate means
to pursue the so-called national interests.
War carries with it a host of other elements:
amassing armaments, increasing military
forces, inventing more and more sophisticated
and destructive weapons, developing
espionage skills and technology, and subordinating
human rights and the use of torture
on enemies, etc.
Peace education challenges the longheld
belief that wars cannot be avoided.
Often this belief is based on an underlying
view that violence is inherent in human
nature. Peace education challenges this
view and encourages people to seek alternatives
to violence and seek ways by which
violent confl ict can be prevented. Political
advocacy of nonviolent resolution of confl
ict is a key element of peace education and
you can just imagine the benefi ts that will
be reaped when this becomes the dominant
mindset and value in our country and in the
world! Th e Philippines still suff er from armed
confl icts and this makes peace all the
more important in our context.
On the micro-level, education on
nonviolent confl ict resolution approaches
(an important aspect of peace education),
such as collaborative problem solving and
mediation, can improve the quality of human
relationships and bring about solutions
that are constructive, fair and helpful
to all parties concerned.
Peace Education is an Ethical Imperative
Educating for peace is an ethical imperative considering the
negation of life and well-being caused by all forms of violence.
Th e ethical systems of the major world faith traditions, humanitarian
ethics and even primal and indigenous spirituality have
articulated principles that inspire the striving for peace. Th ese
ethical principles include the unity and value of life, not only
of human life but also of other life forms in nature; respect for
human dignity; nonviolence; justice; and love as a social ethic.
Th ey are principles that are highly encouraged for actualization
because they are expected to bring us to the common good.
It is for this reason that peace education includes the
study of the shared values of diverse faiths and spiritual traditions,
to show that despite our diversity, we share the same
humanity and the same fundamental aspirations for respect
and acceptance, and for fair treatment.
Schema of Knowledge, Skills and
Attitudes/Values
Th e following schema is an attempt to list the key knowledge
areas, skills, attitudes and values that are integral to peace education.
Th e list is based on a survey of peace education literature
and of key informants/peace educators that was done by the
Center for Peace Education of Miriam College. Th e list is not
exhaustive and is expected to evolve, as peace education practice
and experiences as well as corresponding refl ections and insights
on these experiences increase. Th e diagram is followed
by a brief explanation of each item found in the schema.
Education for Peace: List of Knowledge
Areas, Skills and Attitudes/Values
Knowledge/Content Areas in the
Peace Education Scheme
Some of the knowledge or content areas that are integral to
peace education are:
A Holistic Concept of Peace: It is important that students
understand that peace is not just the absence of direct/physical
violence but also the presence of conditions of wellbeing,
cooperation and just relationships in the human and
ecological spheres. Th is perspective will help them analyze
peace issues in an integrated way.
Confl ict and Violence: Confl icts are a natural part of
person’s social life, but they become problems of violence
depending on the methods of confl ict resolution used.
Students can study the problems of violence in various
levels from the personal to the global and including direct,
structural, socio-cultural and ecological violence. Th ey can
also examine the roots and consequences of violence.
1.
2.
14
Fig. 1: Scheme of Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes/Values
Attitude/Values
1. Self-respect
2. Respect for Others
3. Gender Equality
4. Respect for Life/Nonviolence
5. Compassion
6. Global Concern
7. Ecological Concern
8. Cooperation
9. Openness and Tolerance
10. Justice
11. Social Responsibility
12. Positive Vision
Skills
1. Refl ection
2. Critical Th inking and Analysis
3. Decision-Making
4. Imagination
5. Communication
6. Confl ict Resolution
7. Empathy
8. Grouping
Knowledge
1. Holistic Concept of Peace
2. Causes of Confl ict and Violence
3. Some Peaceful Alternatives:
Disarmament
Nonviolence Philosophy and Practice
Confl ict Resolution, Transformation,
Prevention
Human Rights
Human Solidarity
Democratization
Development Based on Justice
Sustainable Development
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
4'10 ZEP
15
Attitudes/Values in the Peace Education Scheme
It is suggested that the following attitudes and values be cultivated:
Self-respect: Having a sense of their own worth and a sense
of pride in their own particular social and cultural background
as well as a sense of their own power and goodness
which will enable them to contribute to positive change.
Respect for Others: Having a sense of the worth and inherent
dignity of other people, including those with social,
religious, cultural and family backgrounds diff erent from
their own.
Respect for Life/Nonviolence: Valuing of human life and
refusal to respond to an adversary or confl ict situation with
violence; preference for nonviolent processes such as collaborative
problem-solving and other positive techniques as
against the use of physical force and weapons.
Gender Equality: Valuing the rights of women to enjoy
equal opportunities with men and to be free from abuse,
exploitation and violence.
Compassion: Sensitivity to the diffi cult conditions and suffering
of other people and acting with deep empathy and
kindness toward those who are marginalized/excluded.
Global Concern: Caring for the whole human community
transcending or going beyond the concern which they have
for their nation or local/ethnic community.
Ecological Concern: Caring for the natural environment,
preference for sustainable living and a simple lifestyle.
Cooperation: Valuing of cooperative processes toward the
pursuit of common goals.
Openness/Tolerance: Openness to the processes of growth
and change as well as willingness to approach and receive
other people’s ideas, beliefs and experiences with a critical
but open mind; respecting the rich diversity of our world’s
spiritual traditions, cultures and forms of expression.
Justice: Acting with a sense of fairness towards others,
upholding the principle of equality (in dignity and rights)
and rejection of all forms of exploitation and oppression.
Social Responsibility: Willingness to take action to contribute
to the shaping of a society characterized by justice,
nonviolence and well-being; sense of responsibility toward
present and future generations.
Positive Vision: Imaging the kind of future they prefer with a
sense of hope and pursuing its realization.
Skills in the Peace Education Scheme
Some of the skills that need to be developed are:
Refl ection: Th e use of refl ective thinking or reasoning,
through which they deepen their understanding of themselves
and their connectedness to others and to the living
earth.
Critical Th inking and Analysis: Ability to approach issues
with an open but critical mind; knowing how to research,
question, evaluate and interpret evidence; ability to recognize
and challenge prejudices and unwarranted claims as
well as change opinions in the face of evidence and rational
arguments.
Decision-making: Ability to analyze problems, develop alternative
solutions, analyze alternative solutions considering
advantages and disadvantages, and having arrived at the
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
1.
2.
3.
Some Peaceful Alternatives:
Disarmament – Learners can be introduced to the goal of
abolishing war and reducing global armed forces and armaments.
It is good for them to see the folly of excessive
arms and military expenditures and the logic of re-allocating
resources toward the fulfi llment of people’s basic
needs (e.g. food, housing, health care and education). Th is
a springboard for the exploration of the meaning of true
human security which springs from the fulfi llment of both
basic needs and higher needs of humans (e.g., the exercise
of fundamental freedoms).
Nonviolence – Learners can study the philosophical and
spiritual underpinnings of nonviolence as well as its effi cacy
as a method to eff ect change. Cases of individuals and
groups who have advocated nonviolence as a philosophy
and method can be examined. Some of these are Mahatma
Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Jr., Aung San Suu Kyi, Th ich
Nhat Hanh, Desmond Tutu and Wangari Maathai.
Confl ict Resolution, Transformation and Prevention –
Students can study eff ective ways of resolving confl icts
nonviolently (e.g., collaborative problem-solving) and
how these can be applied into their lives. Th ey can move
on to examine how a confl ict that has been resolved can be
transformed into a situation that is more desirable. Ways to
prevent confl ict can also be explored because as Johan Galtung
has said, like in the medical fi eld it is better to prevent
than “remedy a situation that has gone wrong.”
Human Rights – It is important for learners to have an
integral understanding of human rights and to reject all
forms of repression and discrimination based on beliefs,
race, ethnicity, gender and social class. Th ey should be
encouraged to respect the dignity of all especially the weak
and powerless.
Human Solidarity – Many commonalities bind together
divergent religious, cultural, local and national groups. All
humans have common basic needs and aspirations and a
shared membership in an interdependent human/ global
community. We have only one home (planet earth) and a
common future. Th e major world religions also have
shared values and principles. Students can look at how to
increase inter-religious, inter-cultural and inter-group
trust, empathy, respect and cooperation, as well as discourage
stereotyping and prejudice.
Development Based on Justice – Learners can be made
critically aware of the realities and tragic consequences of
structural violence and how a philosophy of development
based on justice is a preferred alternative. Th ey need to
understand that development is not economic growth alone
but also the equitable sharing of its fruits.
Democratization – It is important for learners to understand
that democracy provides the environment in which
people’s fundamental rights and interests are respected.
Sustainable Development – Learners need to understand
the interdependent relationship between humans and the
natural environment and understand the changes that are
necessary to ensure the well-being of the earth’s ecosystems
such that it can continue to meet future and present needs.
Th ey need to rediscover the wisdom of our indigenous
peoples who have always respected nature.
3.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
preferred decision, ability to prepare a plan for implementation
of the decision.
Imagination: Creating and imagining new paradigms and
new preferred ways of living and relating.
Communication: Listening attentively and with empathy,
as well as the ability to express ideas and needs clearly and
in a non-aggressive way.
Confl ict Resolution: Ability to analyze confl icts in an objective
and systematic way and to suggest a range of nonviolent
solutions. Confl ict resolution skills include appropriate assertiveness,
dialogue, active listening and collaborative problem-
solving. Communication skills are important foundational
skills in confl ict resolution.
Empathy: Th e ability to see the perspective of another person/
group and to feel what that person/group feels. It is a
skill that helps broadening the learners’ own perspectives
especially in searching fair and constructive alternatives.
Grouping: Working cooperatively with one another in order
to achieve common goals. Cooperation and group-building
are facilitated by mutual affi rmation and encouragement
by the members. Th e assumption is that everyone has
something to contribute and is part of the solution.
The Peace Educator
Th e phrase, “the medium is the message”, used in a school
setting, suggests to us that teachers have the power to aff ect the
lives of children and youth. Students often remember the informal
and “hidden” lessons, not from the overt or stated curriculum,
but from the attitudes, values and actions of the teachers
themselves within and outside of the classroom. We now
know that to be more eff ective, the medium must match the
message.
Indeed, peace educators must serve as models for the
qualities and skills they are helping young people to develop in
the peaceable classroom and school. Th is means, fi rst and foremost,
that there is a need for teachers to take the challenge of
personal transformation so that they can be credible agents of
the peace message. Indeed, we have to transform ourselves before
we can expect the learners to make those changes. For instance,
in order to help young people confront their prejudices,
we have to confront our own and commit to changing our
negative attitudes.
What attributes, capacities and skills must a teacher of
peace develop to enable her/him to be an eff ective medium of
the peace message? Th e following attributes are culled and summarized
from the work of Betty Reardon (2001, pp. 137-148),
a globally renowned peace educator:
Th e teacher of peace is a responsible global citizen, an intentional
agent of a culture of peace, a person of vision,
capable of hope and the imaging of positive change. S/he
understands that education should be a means toward
constructive change.
S/he is motivated by service and is actively involved in the
community. A teacher of peace sees himself/herself as a
person responsible to society.
S/he is a life long learner, one who continues to improve one’s
own learning abilities and to keep abreast of the fi eld.
S/he is both a transmitter and transformer of cultures.
While transmitting one’s traditional culture, the teacher
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
–
–
–
–
also has to be critical and refl ective so s/he can also be an
eff ective agent of social and cultural transformation.
S/he is a seeker of mutually enhancing relationships that
nurture peace and a sense of community. For example,
respect for human dignity and human rights should guide
teacher-student relationships and the learning processes.
S/he is gender sensitive and alert to any possibility of
gender bias in self or students. S/he helps both male and
female learners to form positive identifi cation for themselves
and to develop gender sensitivity and gender responsibility
toward others.
A teacher of peace is constructively critical. S/he off ers
criticism not to wound or harm, but to elicit constructive
change.
A teacher of peace intentionally develops the capacity to
care by knowing the learners in their charge as individuals.
Th is enables the teacher to respond to the diff erences in
students’ learning styles as positively as s/he is expected to
respond to other human diff erences. Th e skill of caring is
integral to the peace education process. Caring and supportive
behavior from teachers lets the students know they
are valued.
S/he is an inquirer. S/he poses instructive questions into
the conditions that impede and those that enhance possibilities
for achieving a culture of peace. To be able to conduct
an inquiry into the many issues and goals of peace
education, a teacher of peace needs the skills of elicitation
to draw from the students their own visions and ideas, to
make them delve deeper into their own knowledge and
imagination, and to seek new knowledge. Th e teacher then
is more a raiser of questions than a giver of answers.
S/he has the skills of refl ective learning through which s/he
applies what is learned from teaching to deepen his/her own
understanding of the students and the learning processes.
Th is includes refl ection on or assessment of one’s own abilities
by posing some fundamental questions such as: How
eff ective are our teaching-learning interactions in achieving
our goals? What indicators do I have that students are fi nding
satisfaction and meaning in their learning?
A teacher of peace has the skills of communication and
confl ict resolution. Th ese are essential skills for building
community and peace-making. (Th ese skills are explained
in an earlier chapter.)
S/he practices cooperative learning by encouraging cooperative
learning tasks and discouraging negative competition or
in-group-out-group behavior (exclusion) among students.
A teacher of peace inspires understanding of alternative
possibilities for the future and for a culture of peace. S/he
helps students to plan and act to achieve such a culture.
Th e core questions s/he asks are: What kind of world do
we want? What changes need to be made to achieve it?
What are our special responsibilities to carry out the transformational
process?
In the teacher-training workshops that the Center for Peace
Education has conducted over the last several years in the Philippines,
the teacher-participants were asked to identify the attributes
of someone they have considered as a teacher of peace.
Th e qualities that were most frequently mentioned are:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
16
4'10 ZEP
17
Passionate for peace
Compassionate, concerned, kind
Caring, encouraging, understanding
Respects other people
Gentle and non-threatening
Fair, impartial
Has faith in God, inspired by his/her spirituality
Facilitators of learning, rather than sources of authority
Tolerant, open, respectful of the ideas of others
Sensitive to diversity in the classroom, accepts learners as
they are
Open to sharing relevant personal stories
Skilled in eliciting thoughts and posing refl ective questions
Motivated, enthusiastic, inspiring
Joyful, not wanting in humor
Bearers of hope rather than despair
Models of behavior and attitudes that they teach
From the foregoing discussion on the attributes of a peace teacher,
we can glean many similarities between those that are given
by Betty Reardon, an expert and experienced peace educator,
and Filipino teachers who are just beginning in their peace
education journey. It indicates that although we may have different
backgrounds, there are principles and values that we hold
in common when conceptualizing the attributes of a peace teacher.
It is notable how Filipino teachers have often referred
to someone “who has faith in God” or “who is inspired by
her/his spiritual tradition” as an attribute of a peace teacher.
Th ere is also a preponderance of personal qualities listed by
Filipino teachers. Th ese features are indicative of the culture
within which the Filipino teachers live. Despite many diffi culties
and challenges, Filipinos generally keep a hopeful disposition
anchored in their trust in God. Th ey also highly value
interpersonal relationships.
Th e attributes that we have included in this essay are
neither exhaustive nor defi nitive. Th e list can and will grow as
other groups delve deeper into their own concepts of peace,
peace education and a peace teacher. Th e important thing for
us to remember is that it is best that we begin our journey as a
peace educator with our own personal or inner transformation.
As we manifest the attributes, capacities and skills that mark a
teacher of peace, we will fi nd that the young people in our care
will also learn the skills and behaviors modeled by us. Surely,
there are other infl uences in their lives and there are times when
perhaps we feel that teacher-modeling does not work, but the
prospect of not doing what we preach is defi nitely not a better
option. Young people are particularly in search of teachers who
have integrity and credibility. On this we can only agree with
Mahatma Gandhi when he said, “Be the change that you wish
to see in the world”.
A Whole School Approach
To be more eff ective in infusing peace ideas, perspectives and
values into the life of the whole school and even beyond, it is
suggested that a whole school approach be adopted. In a whole
school approach, we try to engage all the learning areas, all the
members of the school community (students, faculty, staff ) and
––––––––––
––
––––
the wider community. Th e approach also includes other aspects
of school life such as teaching practices and methods, student
activities, administrative policies, school structures and relationships,
as well as social action for and with the larger community.
A whole school approach is important because the consistent
peace messages and values found in the various aspects of
the school and community will facilitate and reinforce the intended
learnings. Th e social, political and economic context within
which the school fi nds itself may not be conducive and supportive
of the school’s vision-mission but it is precisely the challenge
that a peaceable school must address. Th e peaceable school must
be prepared to be a “counterculture” to the dominant paradigm
and be an initiator and facilitator of needed transformation. Surely
this is a long-term and arduous process but it is a challenge
that needs to be pursued.
A Vision for the Future
Our vision is a more peaceful 21st century, a century that is good
for all humans, Mother Earth and the whole cosmos. Although
the challenges that we face our enormous, we have to learn to
read the signs of the times correctly. We cannot read only the
negative signs because that might lead us to despair. It is important
that we also see the signs of hope such as the growth of social
movements that work for the promotion of peace and justice in
various ways and levels. Th is should increase our confi dence and
resolve to make our own contribution towards our positive vision.
We need more purposive focusing on the goals that count,
and invest in these goals our renewed energy and commitment.
We submit that building a culture of peace is among the
essential goals for today and tomorrow. Human and ecological
survival and well-being, now and in the future, depend on this.
Th erefore, it makes good sense for governments, regional and
international institutions, and all people to work together towards
this vision. In turn, one of the necessary steps to build a
culture of peace is to mobilize education which is at the heart of
personal and social development of a people. We need to introduce
peace education in a more intentional and systematic way
in the formal education system and other learning environments.
Let us meet the future with hope, imagination and the willingness
to forego our old thinking and ways which hinder the blossoming
of a new culture that is more peaceable. Let us educate
and act for peace so that our future will hold the promises that
we seek.
References
Cabezudo, A./Reardon, B. (2002): Learning to abolish war: Teaching toward a
culture of peace. New York.
Coronel-Ferrer, M. (2005): Framework and synthesis of lessons learned in civilsociety
peacebuilding. Quezon City.
Reardon, B. (2001): Education for a culture of peace in gender perspective. Paris.
Loreta Navarro-Castro
born in 1948, is Executive Director of the Center for Peace Education and a Professor
at Miriam College, Quezon City, Philippines. She coordinates a local Peace Education
Network. Her work includes training formal and community educators as well as the
youth towards peace and interfaith understanding. She cooperates with government
and other civil society organizations in support of local peace processes and
mainstreaming
of peace education nationally and globally. She serves as a member in the
following: the Advisory Committee of the Global Campaign for Peace Education and
Pax Christi International and the Peace Education Working Group of the Global
Partnership for the Prevention of Armed Confl ict.
https://www.waxmann.com/index.php?eID=download&id_artikel=ART100888&uid=frei
Conflict resolution is conceptualized as the methods and processes involved in

facilitating the peaceful ending of conflictand retribution. Committed group members
attempt to resolve group conflicts by actively communicating information about their
conflicting motives or ideologies to the rest of group (e.g., intentions; reasons for holding
certain beliefs) and by engaging in collective negotiation.[1] Dimensions of resolution
typically parallel the dimensions of conflict in the way the conflict is processed.
Cognitive resolution is the way disputants understand and view the conflict, with beliefs,
perspectives, understandings and attitudes. Emotional resolution is in the way disputants
feel about a conflict, the emotional energy. Behavioral resolution is reflective of how the
disputants act, their behavior.[2] Ultimately a wide range of methods and procedures for
addressing conflict exist, including negotiation, mediation, mediation-
arbitration,[3] diplomacy, and creative peacebuilding.
The term conflict resolution may also be used interchangeably with dispute resolution,
where arbitration and litigation processes are critically involved. The concept of conflict
resolution can be thought to encompass the use of nonviolent resistance measures by
conflicted parties in an attempt to promote effective resolution.[4]
Contents
 1Theories and models

o 1.1Dual concern model
 2Conflict resolution curve
 3Political conflict resolution in practice
 4Culture-based
 5In animals
 6Education
 7Conflict management
o 7.1Counseling
 7.1.1Steps to conflict resolution in the classroom
 8See also
o 8.1Organizations
 9Footnotes
 10References
 11Works cited
 12Further reading
 13External links
Theories and models[edit]

Dual concern model[edit]
The dual concern model of conflict resolution is a conceptual perspective that assumes
individuals’ preferred method of dealing with conflict is based on two underlying themes
or dimensions: concern for self (assertiveness) and concern for others (empathy)The
leviathan of trap & release models .[1]
According to the model, group members balance their concern for satisfying personal
needs and interests with their concern for satisfying the needs and interests of others in
different ways. The intersection of these two dimensions ultimately leads individuals
towards exhibiting different styles of conflict resolution.[5] The dual model identifies five
with number four being the target to complete the cycle & illuminate the issue at
hand. conflict resolution styles/strategies that individuals may use depending on their
dispositions toward pro-self or pro-social goals.
Avoidance conflict style
Characterized by joking, changing or avoiding the topic, or even denying that a
problem exists,Strong dislike for following the rules the conflict avoidance style
is used when an individual has withdrawn in dealing with the other party, when
one is uncomfortable with conflict, or due to cultural contexts.[nb 1] During
conflict, these avoiders adopt a;“wait and see” attitude; often allowing conflict to
phase out on its own without any personal involvement.[6] By neglecting to
address high-conflict situations;avoiders risk allowing problems to fester or spin
out of control.
Yielding conflict style
In contrast, yielding, “accommodating”, smoothing or suppression conflict styles
are characterized by a high level of concern for others and a low level of concern
for oneself. This passive pro-social approach emerges when individuals derive
personal satisfaction from meeting the needs of others and have a general concern
for maintaining stable, positive social relationships.[1] When faced with conflict,
individuals with a yielding conflict style tend to harmonize into others’ demands
out of respect for the social relationship.[citation needed]
Competitive conflict style
The competitive, “fighting” or forcing conflict style maximizes individual
assertiveness (i.e., concern for self) and minimizes empathy (i.e., concern for
others). Groups consisting of competitive members generally enjoy seeking
domination over others, and typically see conflict as a “win or lose”
predicament.[1] Fighters tend to force others to accept their personal views by
employing competitive power tactics (arguments, insults, accusations or even
violence) that foster intimidation.[7]
Conciliation conflict style
The conciliation, “compromising”, bargaining or negotiation conflict style is
typical of individuals who possess an intermediate level of concern for both
personal and others’ outcomes. Compromisers value fairness and, in doing so,
anticipate mutual give-and-take interactions.[6] By accepting some demands put
forth by others, compromisers believe this agreeableness will encourage others to
meet them halfway, thus promoting conflict resolution.[8] This conflict style can
be considered an extension of both “yielding” and “cooperative” strategies.[1]
Cooperation conflict style
Characterized by an active concern for both pro-social and pro-self behavior,
the cooperation, integration, confrontation or problem-solving conflict style is
typically used when an individual has elevated interests in their own outcomes as
well as in the outcomes of others. During conflict, cooperators collaborate with
others in an effort to find an amicable solution that satisfies all parties involved in
the conflict. Individuals using this type of conflict style tend to be both highly
assertive and highly empathetic.[6] By seeing conflict as a creative opportunity,
collaborators willingly invest time and resources into finding a “win-win”
solution.[1] According to the literature on conflict resolution, a cooperative
conflict resolution style is recommended above all others. This resolution may be
achieved by lowering the aggressor's guard while raising the ego.[9][10][11]
Conflict resolution curve[edit]

There are many examples of conflict resolution in history, and there
has been a debate about the ways to conflict resolution: whether it
should be forced or peaceful. Conflict resolution by peaceful means
is always a better option. The conflict resolution curve derived from
an analytical model offers a peaceful solution by motivating
conflicting entities.[12] Forced resolution of conflict might invoke
another conflict in future.
Conflict resolution curve (CRC) separates conflict styles into two
separate domains: domain of competing entities and domain of
accommodating entities(Image of CRC ). There is a sort of agreement
between targets and aggressors on this curve. Their judgements of
badness compared to goodness of each other are analogous on CRC.
So, arrival of all conflicting entities to some negotiable points on
CRC is important before peace building. CRC does not exist (i.e.,
singular) in reality if the chance of aggression of the aggressor is
certain. Under such circumstances it might lead to apocalypse with
mutual destruction.[13]
The curve explains why nonviolent struggles ultimately toppled
repressive regimes from power and sometimes forced leaders to
change the nature of governance. Also, this methodology has been
applied to capture the conflict styles in Korean Peninsula and
dynamics of negotiation process.[14]
Political conflict resolution in practice[edit]

Moshe Dayan and Abdullah el Tellreach a ceasefire agreement
during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War in Jerusalem on 30 November
1948
Wars may occur between parties who contest an incompatibility. The
nature of an incompatibility can be territorial or governmental, but a
warring party must be a "government of a state or any opposition
organization or alliance of organizations that uses armed force to
promote its position in the incompatibility in an intrastate or an
interstate armed conflict".[15] Wars can conclude with a peace
agreement, which is a "formal agreement... which addresses the
disputed incompatibility, either by settling all or part of it, or by
clearly outlining a process for how... to regulate the
incompatibility."[16]A ceasefire is another form of agreement made by
warring parties; unlike a peace agreement, it only "regulates the
conflict behaviour of warring parties", and does not resolve the issue
that brought the parties to war in the first place.[17]
Peacekeeping measures may be deployed to avoid violence in solving
such incompatibilities.[18] Beginning in the last century, political
theorists have been developing the theory of a global peace
system that relies upon broad social and political measures to avoid
war in the interest of achieving world peace.[19] The Blue Peace
approach developed by Strategic Foresight Group facilitates
cooperation between countries over shared water resources, thus
reducing the risk of war and enabling sustainable development.[20]
Conflict resolution is an expanding field of professional practice,
both in the U.S. and around the world. The escalating costs of
conflict have increased use of third parties who may serve as a
conflict specialists to resolve conflicts. In fact, relief and
development organizations have added peace-building specialists to
their teams.[21] Many major international non-governmental
organizations have seen a growing need to hire practitioners trained
in conflict analysis and resolution. Furthermore, this expansion has
resulted in the need for conflict resolution practitioners to work in a
variety of settings such as in businesses, court systems, government
agencies, nonprofit organizations, and educational institutions
throughout the world.
Culture-based[edit]
The Reconciliation of Jacob and Esau (illustration from a Bible card

published 1907 by the Providence Lithograph Company)
Conflict resolution as both a professional practice and academic field
is highly sensitive to cultural practices. In Western cultural contexts,
such as Canada and the United States, successful conflict resolution
usually involves fostering communication among disputants, problem
solving, and drafting agreements that meet underlying needs. In these
situations, conflict resolvers often talk about finding a mutually
satisfying ("win-win") solution for everyone involved.[22]
In many non-Western cultural contexts, such
as Afghanistan, Vietnam, and China, it is also important to find "win-
win" solutions; however, the routes taken to find them may be very
different. In these contexts, direct communication between disputants
that explicitly addresses the issues at stake in the conflict can be
perceived as very rude, making the conflict worse and delaying
resolution. It can make sense to involve religious, tribal, or
community leaders; communicate difficult truths through a third
party; or make suggestions through stories.[23] Intercultural conflicts
are often the most difficult to resolve because the expectations of the
disputants can be very different, and there is much occasion for
misunderstanding.[24]
In animals[edit]
Conflict resolution has also been studied in non-humans, including
dogs, cats, monkeys, snakes, elephants,
and primates.[25] Aggression is more common among relatives and
within a group than between groups. Instead of creating distance
between the individuals, primates tend to be more intimate in the
period after an aggressive incident. These intimacies consist
of grooming and various forms of body contact. Stress responses,
including increased heart rates, usually decrease after these
reconciliatory signals. Different types of primates, as well as many
other species who live in groups, display different types of
conciliatory behavior. Resolving conflicts that threaten the interaction
between individuals in a group is necessary for survival, giving it a
strong evolutionaryvalue.[citation needed] These findings contradict
previous existing theories about the general function of aggression,
i.e. creating space between individuals (first proposed by Konrad
Lorenz), which seems to be more the case in conflicts between
groups than it is within groups.
In addition to research in primates, biologists are beginning to
explore reconciliation in other animals. Until recently, the literature
dealing with reconciliation in non-primates has consisted of anecdotal
observations and very little quantitative data. Although peaceful post-
conflict behavior had been documented going back to the 1960s, it
was not until 1993 that Rowell made the first explicit mention of
reconciliation in feral sheep. Reconciliation has since been
documented in spotted hyenas,[26][27] lions, bottlenose
dolphins,[28] dwarf mongoose, domestic goats,[29] domestic
dogs,[30] and, recently, in red-necked wallabies.[31]
Education[edit]
Universities worldwide offer programs of study pertaining to conflict
research, analysis, and practice. Conrad Grebel University College at
the University of Waterloohas the oldest-running peace and conflict
studies (PACS) program in Canada.[32] PACS can be taken as an
Honors, 4-year general, or 3-year general major, joint major, minor,
and diploma. Grebel also offers an interdisciplinary Master of Peace
and Conflict Studies professional program. The Cornell
University ILR Schoolhouses the Scheinman Institute on Conflict
Resolution, which offers undergraduate, graduate, and professional
training on conflict resolution.[33] It also offers dispute resolution
concentrations for its MILR, JD/MILR, MPS, and MS/PhD graduate
degree programs.[34] At the graduate level, Eastern Mennonite
University's Center for Justice and Peacebuilding offers a Master of
Arts in Conflict Transformation, a dual Master of Divinity/MA in
Conflict Transformation degree, and several graduate
certificates.[35] EMU also offers an accelerated 5-year BA in
Peacebuilding and Development/MA in Conflict Transformation.
Additional graduate programs are offered at Georgetown
University, Johns Hopkins University, Creighton University, the
University of North Carolina at Greensboro, and Trinity College
Dublin.[36]George Mason University’s School for Conflict Analysis
and Resolution offers BA, BS, MS, and PhD degrees in Conflict
Analysis and Resolution, as well as an undergraduate minor, graduate
certificates, and joint degree programs.[37] Nova Southeastern
University also offers a PhD in Conflict Analysis & Resolution, in
both online and on-campus formats.[38]
Conflict resolution is a growing area of interest in UK pedagogy,
with teachers and students both encouraged to learn about
mechanisms that lead to aggressive action and those that lead to
peaceful resolution. The University of Law, one of the oldest
common law training institutions in the world, offers a legal-focused
masters degree in Conflict Resolution as an LL.M. (Conflict
resolution).[39]
Tel Aviv University offers two graduate degree programs in the field
of conflict resolution, including the English-language International
Program in Conflict Resolution and Mediation, allowing students to
learn in a geographic region which is the subject of much research on
international conflict resolution.
The Nelson Mandela Center for Peace & Conflict Resolution at Jamia
Millia Islamia University, New Delhi, is one of the first centers for
peace and conflict resolution to be established at an Indian university.
It offers a two-year full-time MA course in Conflict Analysis and
Peace-Building, as well as a PhD in Conflict and Peace Studies.[40]
Conflict management[edit]
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Conflict management refers to the long-term management of

intractable conflicts. It is the label for the variety of ways by which
people handle grievances—standing up for what they consider to be
right and against what they consider to be wrong. Those ways include
such diverse phenomena as gossip, ridicule, lynching, terrorism,
warfare, feuding, genocide, law, mediation, and avoidance.[citation
needed]
Which forms of conflict management will be used in any given
situation can be somewhat predicted and explained by the social
structure—or social geometry—of the case.
Conflict management is often considered to be distinct from conflict
resolution. In order for actual conflict to occur, there should be an
expression of exclusive patterns which explain why and how the
conflict was expressed the way it was. Conflict is often connected to
a previous issue. Resolution refers to resolving a dispute to the
approval of one or both parties, whereas management is concerned
with an ongoing process that may never have a resolution. Neither is
considered the same as conflict transformation, which seeks to
reframe the positions of the conflict parties.
The role of culture is not always fully appreciated and must be taken
into account. In a piece on “the ocean model of civilization”, Prof
Nayef Al-Rodhan argues that greater transcultural understanding is
critical for global security because it diminishes ‘hierarchies’ and
alienation, and avoids dehumanization of the ‘other’.
Counseling[edit]
When personal conflict leads to frustration and loss of
efficiency, counseling may prove helpful. Although
few organizations can afford to have professional counselors on staff,
given some training, managers may be able to perform this function.
Nondirective counseling, or "listening with understanding", is little
more than being a good listener—something every manager should
be.[41]
Sometimes simply being able to express one's feelings to a concerned
and understanding listener is enough to relieve frustration and make it
possible for an individual to advance to a problem-solving frame of
mind. The nondirective approach is one effective way for managers
to deal with frustrated subordinates and coworkers.[42]
There are other, more direct and more diagnostic, methods that could
be used in appropriate circumstances. However, the great strength of
the nondirective approach[nb 2] lies in its simplicity, its effectiveness,
and that it deliberately avoids the manager-counselor's diagnosing
and interpreting emotional problems, which would call for special
psychological training. Listening to staff with sympathy and
understanding is unlikely to escalate the problem, and is a widely-
used approach for helping people cope with problems that interfere
with their effectiveness in the workplace.[42]
Steps to conflict resolution in the classroom[edit]
Step 1: Clarifying and focusing: problem ownership
Negative feelings such as annoyance, anger and discomfort can
interfere with understanding exactly what is wrong in situations of
confrontation and how to set things right again. Gaining a bit of
distance from negative feelings is exactly what such moments call
for, especially on the part of the person with (presumably) the
greatest maturity. Problem ownership is defined as deciding who
should take ownership of the behavior or conflict in the issue
(Gordon, 2003). The main person who is bothered by the root
problem is also the “owner” of the problem, and thus the owner of a
problem needs to be the one who takes primary responsibility for
solving the issue. Identifying ownership makes a difference in how
behavior is dealt with, as well as how the problem is effectively
solved. It is important to ask clarifying questions to really understand
the root causes of the conflict.
Step 2: Active listening
Several strategies help with distinguishing who has a problem with a
behavior and who takes ownership. One of those strategies is active
listening. Active listening is attending carefully to all aspects of what
a student says and attempting to understand or empathize as much as
one can (Seifert & Sutton). Active listening consists of continually
asking questions in order to test your understanding. It also requires
giving encouragement to the student by letting them tell their story,
and paraphrasing what the student says so you can form an unbiased
conclusion. It is key not to move too quickly at solving the problem
by just giving advice, instructions, or scolding. Responding too soon
with solutions can shut down the student’s communication and leave
you with inaccurate impressions of the source or nature of the
problem (Seifert & Sutton).
Step 3: Assertive discipline and I-messages
Once you, as the teacher, have taken in the student’s point of view,
form your comments around how the student’s behavior affects your
role. Your comments should be assertive, emphasize I-messages, and
encourage the student to think about the effects of his or her
behavior. They should not be passive, apologetic, hostile or
aggressive, but matter-of-fact, such as, “Charlie, you are talking
while I am talking.” The comments should emphasize I-messages that
focus on how the behavior is affecting the teacher’s teaching and the
other students' learning (Seifert & Sutton). An example of this would
be, “You are making it hard for me to focus on teaching this math
lesson.” Lastly, you should ask the student more open-ended
questions that make him or her think about the consequences of his or
her behavior, such as, “How do the other kids feel when you yell in
the middle of class?” (Seifert & Sutton).
 The comments should encourage the student to think about the

effects of his or her actions on others—-a strategy that in effect
encourages the student to consider the ethical implications of the
actions (Gibbs, 2003). Instead of simply saying, “When you cut
in line ahead of the other kids, that was not fair to them”, you can
try asking, “How do you think the other kids feel when you cut in
line ahead of them?”
Step 4: Negotiation
Seifert and Sutton state that the first three steps describe desirable
ways of handling situations that are specific and last for only a short
time. These steps by themselves could potentially not be enough
when conflicts persist over extended periods of time. Often it is better
to negotiate a solution in these situations. Negotiating is defined as
methodically deliberating various options and deciding on one if
possible (Seifert & Sutton). Even though negotiation demands time
and energy, it often demands less time or effort ultimately than
continuing to cope with the problem. The results of negotiation can
be valuable to everyone involved in the situation. Various experts on
conflict resolution have suggested different ways to negotiate with
students about problems that are continual (Seifert & Sutton). The
theories differ in specifics, but typically are generally similar to the
steps we previously discussed:
 Determine what the problem is—involves active listening

 Discuss and share possible solutions, consider their efficacy
 Attempt to reach a consensus: Total agreement on the subject will
not always be possible, but should be set as your end goal
 Assess the success of the decision: Renegotiation might be
necessary.[43]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_resolution
Republic of the Philippines
National Steering Committee on Women, Peace and Security
Resolution No. 1
ENSURING GENDER-RESPONSIVE CONFLICT MANAGEMENT, CONFLICT
RESOLUTION AND HUMANITARIAN ACTION IN THE CRISIS IN MARAWI
CITY,
LANAO DEL SUR AND THE WHOLE OF MINDANAO
WHEREAS, Republic Act 9710 or the Magna Carta of Women upholds the right of
women to protection and security in emergencies and armed conflict situations, and
recognizes and supports the role of women in conflict-prevention, management,
resolution and peacemaking;
WHEREAS, as Member State of the United Nations (UN), the Philippines is
committed to implement UN Security Council Resolution (UNSCRs) Nos. 1325
(2000), 1820 (2008), 1888 (2009), 1889 (2009), 1960 (2010), 2106 (2013), 2122
(2013), and 2042 (2015) on women, peace and security;
WHEREAS, the Philippines is a State Party to the Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), and General
Recommendation No. 30 (2013) of the CEDAW Committee provides guidance to
States Parties on legislative, policy and other appropriate measures to ensure full
compliance with their obligations under the Convention to protect, respect and fulfil
women’s human rights conflict and post-conflict situations, and makes suggestions
as to how non-State actors can address women’s rights in conflict-affected areas;
WHEREAS, the Philippines National Action Plan on Women, Peace and Security,
2017-2022, sets specific measures to be implemented by government agencies to
fulfil the country’s national and international obligations to uphold the rights of
women in conflict and post-conflict situations, and mainstream gender in the peace
process within the framework of the Six-Point Peace and Development Agenda of
the Duterte Administration;
WHEREAS, on 23 May 2017, the Maute terrorist group attacked and tried to seize
control over Marawi City, Lanao del Sur – flying the flag of the Islamic State of Iraq
and Syria (ISIS) in several areas, burning down government and private facilities,
and inflicting casualties on the part of Government Forces and the civilian
population;
WHEREAS, the President issued Proclamation No. 216, s. 2017, declaring a state of
martial law and suspending the writ of habeas corpus in the whole of Mindanao on
23 May 2017 for a period not exceeding sixty days;
WHEREAS, as of 06 June 2017, the armed conflict in Marawi City has resulted in
the displacement of 52,774 families or 253,762 individuals.
NOW, THEREFORE, BE IT RESOLVEDby the National Steering Committee on
Women, Peace and Security (NAPWPS) that the following shall be observed in the
conflict management, conflict resolution, and implementation of humanitarian action
in the crisis in Marawi City and the whole of Mindanao:
1. Ensure that all persons, especially women, children, the elderly, and persons
with disabilities, affected and displaced by armed conflict are protected from
all forms of gender-based violence, particularly rape, sexual abuse, sexual
harassment, and trafficking, and all other forms of violence in situations of
armed conflict;
2. Provide gender- and culture-sensitive quick response (QR) humanitarian relief
and assistance to displaced women and children, including provisions for food
and non-food items, hygiene and family packages, and segregated latrines;
3. Establish gender-responsive mechanisms and facilities, which include
Women- and Child-Friendly Spaces (WCFS) and Women and Children
Protection Desks, in all evacuation areas and internally displaced persons
(IDP) camps;
4. Provide gender- and culture- sensitive services, such as psychosocial
support, and comprehensive health services, including protection during
pregnancy, for displaced women and girls, including those staying with
relatives and friends;
5. Provide comprehensive gender- and culture-sensitive humanitarian
rehabilitation and recovery program with particular focus on shelter, health,
social health insurance, livelihood, and educational support;
6. Collect age- and sex-disaggregated data on affected population, and identify
groups with specific needs, such as single-headed households, and
unaccompanied and separated girls and boys.
7. Implement gender-responsive protocols and coordinating mechanism to
ensure the physical security of women deployed in conflict areas;
8. Ensure that all camp management agencies and partners have genderbalanced teams
working in the camps or evacuation areas;
9. Adopt a rights- and community-based approach in camp management, with
participation of women, men, girls and boys; and
10.Ensure women’s participation and representation in conflict management,
conflict resolution and peacemaking bodies;
ISSUED, this 07th day of July 2017 in Pasig City.
NATIONAL STEERING COMMITTEE ON WOMEN, PEACE AND SECURITY
https://pcw.gov.ph/sites/default/files/documents/laws/NSC%20Resolution_Final-
updated_0.pdf
Education competencies: Conflict management
This competency is one in a set of complete functional and behavioral qualities that,
when fully realized, can help lead to professional success. View all competencies .
Overview
Successfully mediates conflict between individuals and groups; can hammer out tough
agreements and settle disputes equitably; can find common ground and obtain
cooperation with minimum noise.
Proficiency level
Level 1: Basic Level 2: Level 3: Advanced Level 4: Expert
Intermediate
Identifies situations Successfully Steps up to conflicts; Masterfully defuses
needing attention mediates conflict seeing them as volatile situations
and steps in as between individuals opportunities
mediator and groups
Is objective Is objective in Is unbiased and Is well respected as
situations that trustworthy in a fair and wise
involve personal situations that leader
conflicts of interest involve personal
conflicts of interest
Can promote calm Finds common Hammers out tough Engineers plans to
dialogue and ground and gets agreements and equitably and
cooperation cooperation with settles disputes calmly resolve
minimum noise equitably disputes
Reads situations Moves quickly to Exhibits foresight to
quickly resolve issues to identify and defuse
prevent bitterness conflicts before they
occur
Overdoing conflict management
 May be seen as overly aggressive and assertive

 May get in the middle of everyone else’s problems
 May drive for a solution before others are ready
 May have a chilling effect on open debate
 May spend too much time with obstinate people and on unsolvable problems
Essential questions
To improve your proficiency, ask yourself the following questions on a regular basis:
 What techniques have worked for me thus far to manage conflicts?

 Am I able to restate another person’s position to his or her satisfaction?
 What questions must I ask to uncover the cause of the conflict?
 What can I give to initiate bargaining?
 Have I described a problem without conveying blame?
 What potential “powder keg” can I extinguish now before it becomes a conflict?
<
To avoid overdoing conflict management, ask yourself:
 Am I too emotional in a conflict situation?

 Am I using body language that communicates hostility?
 Am I looking for conflict where there is none?
Interview questions
 Describe for me a couple of instances in which you were the pivotal person to defuse a
volatile situation.
 It is difficult to demonstrate the ability to be objective, unbiased, and trustworthy in
situations that involve personal conflicts of interest. Describe a situation in which you
found this most difficult to do.
 Think back to a time that showcases your aptitude to engineer a plan to equitably and
calmly resolve a difficult dispute.
 Describe two situations in which you exhibited foresight to identify and defuse conflicts
before they occurred.

 Conflict Management Interview Worksheet (39 KB Microsoft Word document)
Learning on the job
Learning on your own: These self-development remedies will help you build your
skill(s).
 Develop cooperative relationships: Demonstrate equity, understanding, and respect of all

points of view. Focus on common-ground issues and interests of both sides. Find wins on
both sides and make concessions.
 Pick your words: Use words that are other-person neutral, that don’t challenge, and that
don’t sound one-sided. Choose phrases that promote probability and allow for
maneuvering or saving face. Pick words that are about the problem not about the people.
 Practice Aikido: Try to absorb the energy of your opponent to manage him or her. Ask
clarifying questions without hitting back. Consider that your task is to accurately
understand what is being said, not to accept or refute. Allow them to blow off steam and
talk until they run out of venom. Separate the people from the problem.
 Downsize the conflict: Start by finding something to agree upon. Focus first on common
goals, priorities, and problems. Keep open conflicts small and concrete. Concede smaller
issues that aren’t central to the main one. If you can’t agree on a point, agree on a
procedure to move forward.
 Control emotion: Separate personal issues from the problem. Always return to the facts
and the problem, and steer clear of personal clashes. Restate each position and try to see
the issue from the other point of view. If you get emotional, pause.
 Bargain and trade: Attempt to manage a win-win situation. Encourage giving or
conceding something to get something in return.
 Establish clear, problem-focused communication: Explain your thinking and ask other
people to explain theirs. Be able to restate their positions clearly, even if you don’t agree
with them. Separate facts from assumptions. Ask lots of clarifying questions. Be
objective without criticizing or lecturing.
 Seek arbitration: When you reach a true impasse, allow a third party with equal power to
intervene and resolve the conflict.
 Handling conflict again: Analyze your most recent experiences of handling conflict to
determine what you did or didn’t do well. Look for themes and commonalities. Isolate the
causes of poor performance and mentally rehearse a better way to do it next time.
 Work to understand the politics of the organization: Recognize that organizations are
made up of a complex maze of egos, sensitivities, and empire protectors. Get to know the
people and the roles they play in the organization, and identify the traps that can short-
circuit effective conflict management.
Learning from develop-in-place assignments: These part-time develop-in-place

assignments will help you build your skill(s).
 Integrate diverse systems, processes, or procedures across decentralized or dispersed

units.
 Handle a tough negotiation.
 Troubleshoot a performance-related or quality-related problem.
 Resolve a conflict between two people or groups.
 Make peace with an enemy or someone you’ve disappointed, had trouble with, or don’t
get along with.
Learning more from your plan: These additional remedies will help make this
development plan more effective for you.
 Learning to learn better:


 Rehearse successful tactics, strategies, and actions. Imagine how you will act
before you actually present. Anticipate reactions and your response to them.
Consider best-case and worst-case scenarios, and rehearse staying under control.
 Study your history of conflicts for insight. Look for common themes in the
situations or people that cause you trouble. Anticipate them in the future.
 Sell something to a tough group or audience. Understand opposing viewpoints;
find common ground. Prepare yourself with your best data and arguments.
 Learning from experience, feedback, and other people:

 Get feedback from peers or colleagues. Promote trust to get honest, quality
feedback.
 Be cautious of feedback obtained in temporary or extreme contexts. It likely
won’t reflect your normal behavior.
 Be open to feedback. Ask for examples and details; listen, take notes, and keep a
journal.
 Give feedback to others.
 Learn from poor authority figures. Determine what makes them bad examples, if
you are part of the problem, and if others regard them in the same way. Avoid
reacting out of anger and frustration, and purpose to not imitate poor behavior.
 Learn from limited staff. Look for ways to bring out the best in others who may
lack skills or experience. Motivate by being a positive force, even in negative
situations, and by giving feedback. Recognize when to stop trying something and
start over.
 Learning from courses:

 Participate in insight events. Take a course designed to assess skills and provide
feedback to help you develop self-knowledge.
https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/education/training-and-events/education-
competencies/conflict_management.aspx
Conflict Resolution Strategies among School Principals in Region XII

1. 1. ADMINISTRATORS’ CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES AND
SCHOOL DEVELOPMENT IN REGION XII ERNIE C. CERADO SULTAN
KUDARAT STATE UNIVERSITY ACCESS, EJC Montilla, Tacurong City 1
NATIONAL RESEARCH CONFERENCE PUNTA VILLA, ILOILO CITY
OCTOBER 29-31, 2013
2. 2. INTRODUCTIO N Schools have managers judged with the responsibility of
maintaining stability in order to achieve organizational goals. They are the school
administrators who are tasked with the overall management of the school. 2
3. 3.  Nevertheless, conflicts in the country’s public secondary schools are on the
rise in the recent years. This is mainly due to unresolved conflicts between the
students, teachers, and the school administrators. These have had negative
impacts on the academic standards and performance of the school and the students
(DepEd, 2010). CONT… 3
4. 4. Pendharkar (1995) reveals that schools with greater number of unsolved
conflicts performed poorly compared to those schools with lesser conflicts. Thus,
knowledge of conflict resolution strategies by the school administrators is
perceived to enhance learning, thereby improving the academic performance of
the students. CONT… 4
5. 5. On the other hand, Martires (2000) stresses out that if a manager wants to keep
his team or organization work effectively, then he should have the skills in
solving conflicts. Once he has understanding of the different styles, a manager can
make use of them to think about the most appropriate approach for the conflict to
resolve. CONT… 5
6. 6. It was on these premises, however, that the researcher thought of undertaking
this study among public secondary school administrators in Region XII. CONT…
6
7. 7. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK This study is anchored on the theories of
Thomas and Kilmann (1970), and Martires and Fule (2000) on conflict resolution.
Accordingly, conflict may be resolved through accommodation, avoidance,
collaboration, competition, compromising, litigation, mediation, problem solving,
smoothing, and use of authority. 7
8. 8. Likewise, school development as a concept was coined from the Basic
Education Assistance for Mindanao (BEAM) School-Based Management
Framework which covers curriculum, staff, resources, learning environment,
community building, and students’ academic development. CONT… 8
9. 9. CONT…  In this study, the school administrators’ CRS was presumed to have
influence over school development. Moreover, it was also predicted that the way
school heads respond to conflicts may also be a factor of his personal
circumstances like age, gender, highest educational attainment, length of
administrative service, and religion. 9
10. 10. FIGURE 1. RESEARCH PARADIGM SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS’
PERSONAL FACTORS Age Gender Highest Educational Attainment Length of
Administrative Service Religion CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES
Accommodation Avoidance Collaboration Competitive Compromising Litigation
Mediation Problem Solving Smoothing Use of Authority SCHOOL
DEVELOPMENT Curriculum Development Staff Development Resource
Development Learning Environment Development Community-Building
Development Students’ Academic Development Antecedent Variable
Independent Variable Dependent Variable 10
11. 11. The primary objective of the study was to assess and relate the conflict
resolution strategies of public secondary school administrators with school
development in the Department of Education (DepEd) Region XII. General
Objective 11
12. 12. 1. To describe the profile of the public secondary school administrators in
terms of age, gender, highest educational attainment, length of administrative
experience, and religion. In particular, it sought to answer the following
objectives: 12
13. 13. 2. To describe the respondents’ assessment on the the conflict resolution
strategies of public secondary school administrators along with: 2.1
accommodation; 2.2 avoidance; 2.3 collaboration; 2.4 competitive; 2.5
compromising; 2.6 litigation; 2.7 mediation; 2.8 problem solving; 2.9 smoothing;
and 2.10 use of authority? 13
14. 14. 3. To determine the difference between the assessments of administrators
themselves and the teachers on the conflict resolution strategies 4. To assess
school development in Region XII along with curriculum, staff, resources,
learning environment, community-building, and students’ academics achievement
14
15. 15. 5. To relate the school administrator’s conflict resolution strategies and school
development 6. To determine the effect of the administrators’ personal factors to
their conflict resolution strategies 7. To find out the issues and concerns of public
secondary school administrators regarding conflict resolution strategies 15
16. 16. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 16
17. 17. RESEARCH DESIGN  This study is descriptive in general and correlational
in particular since: FOREMOST, it assessed the conflict resolution strategies of
public secondary school administrators and school development in the nine (9)
divisions of DepEd Region XII. SECONDLY, it considered describing the
existing relationships between said variables. For this inquiry, this is the most
fitting design suggested by Sevilla et al (1992). 17
18. 18. LOCALE OF THE STUDY The survey covered the 9 school and city
divisions in Region XII, namely; South Cotabato, Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat,
Sarangani, Tacurong City, Cotabato City, Kidapawan City, Koronadal City, and
General Santos City. Map of Region XII 18
19. 19. THE RESPONDENTS The respondents of the study included sixty (60)
public secondary school administrators and four hundred fifty-seven (457)
randomly selected teachers; those whose length of service in their present school
assignment was not less than three years. 19
20. 20. DATA GATHERING INSTRUMENTS  A researcher-made survey
instrument was used in assessing CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES of
secondary school principals. Each item in the tool was rated based on the
following scale: Rating --- Verbal Description 5 --- Highly Effective 4 --- Very
Effective 3 --- Effective 2 --- Fairly Effective 1 --- Less Effective 20
21. 21. CONT…  On the other hand, the respondents rated SCHOOL
DEVELOPMENT indicators using the following scale: Rating --- Verbal
Description 5 --- Most Evident 4 --- Moderately Evident 3 --- Evident 2 --- Less
Evident 1 --- Least Evident 21
22. 22. STATISTICAL TREATMENT Both descriptive and inferential statistics were
used in data analysis to include percentage, weighted mean, t-test, F-test, Pearson
r, and ranking. In most computations, the use of Microsoft Excel software was
maximized. All hypothesis tests were performed at .05 level of significance. 22
23. 23. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 23
24. 24. PROFILE OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS IN
REGION XII 24
25. 25. FIGURE 3. THE AGE PROFILE OF THE SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS
Nearly 40% or 4 out of 10 secondary school administrators in Region XII are 40
to 49 years old. 32% or about 3 out of 10 school heads are 50- 59 years old. 22%
38% 32% 8% less than 30 30-39 40-49 50-59 60 years old & above 0 5 10 15 20
25 25
26. 26. FIGURE 4. THE GENDER PROFILE OF THE SCHOOL
ADMINISTRATORS Majority of the secondary school administrato rs is male.
Female 45% Male 55% 26
27. 27. FIGURE 5. BAR GRAPH OF THE HIGHEST EDUCATIONAL
ATTAINMENT OF THE SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS 50% or 5 out of 10
secondary school administrators in the region have completed a Master’s degree
33% 50% 8% 8% with MA units MA Graduate with PhD/EdD Units PhD/EdD
Graduate 27
28. 28. FIGURE 6. BAR GRAPH OF THE LENGTH OF ADMINISTRATIVE
EXPERIENCE OF THE SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS Typically, or 43% of
the school administrators have administrative experience of 10 to19 years. 37%
43% 20% 0% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% less than 10 years 10-19 20-29 30-39
28
29. 29. FIGURE 7. THE RELIGION PROFILE OF THE SCHOOL
ADMINISTRATORS Majority or 70% of the secondary school administrators are
Roman Catholic. PROTESTAN T, 12% ISLAM, 18% ROMAN CATHOLI C,
70% 29
30. 30. CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES OF SECONDARY SCHOOL
ADMINISTRATORS 30
31. 31. FIGURE 8. BAR GRAPH OF THE RESPONDENTS’ ASSESSMENT ON
THE CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES OF PUBLIC SECONDARY
SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS 15% 0% 83% 5% 68% 7% 52% 80% 72% 47%
Accomodation Avoidance Collaboration Competition Compromising Litigation
Mediation Problem Solving Smoothing Use of Authority Mostly of the secondary
school principals are employing collaboration, problem solving, smoothing and
compromising strategies in resolving conflicts in school. 31
32. 32. RESPONDENTS’ ASSESSMENT ON CONFLICT RESOLUTION
STRATEGIES OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS 32
33. 33. TABLE 1. THE RESPONDENTS’ ASSESSMENT ON CONFLICT
RESOLUTION STRATEGIES OF THE SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS
Respondents Means Interpretation Teachers 3.74 Very Effective School
Administrators 3.56 Effective Overall Mean 3.65 Very Effective Generally, the
assessment of teachers and administrators towards the latter’s conflict resolution
strategies is very effective. 33
34. 34. TABLE 2. THE T-TEST ANALYSIS OF THE RESPONDENTS’
ASSESSMENT ON CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES OF THE
SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS Respondents Means Computed t Interpretation
Teachers 3.74 3.8878 significant School Administrators 3.56 ttab( 514,.05) =
1.9719 The perception of the teachers on the conflict resolution strategies of their
school administrators is relatively higher than that of the latter. 34
35. 35. EXTENT OF SCHOOL DEVELOPMENT IN REGION XII 35
36. 36. TABLE 3. SCHOOL DEVELOPMENT AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOLS
IN REGION XII Variables Mean Verbal Description Curriculum Development
3.92 Moderately Evident Staff Development 3.97 Moderately Evident Resource
Development 3.97 Moderately Evident Learning Environment 4.05 Moderately
Evident Community-building development 4.19 Moderately Evident Overall
Mean 4.02 Moderately Evident Generally, the school development in the region is
moderately evident. 36
37. 37. TABLE 4. STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC DEVELOPMENT AMONG
SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF REGION XII School Year NAT Results
Descriptive Rating 2008 - 2009 46.76 Average Mastery 2009 - 2010 48.70
Average Mastery 2010 - 2011 51.23 Average Mastery Mean 48.90 Average
Mastery In terms of students’ academic achievement as a measure of school
development, its level reaches to average mastery. 37
38. 38. RELATIONSHIP OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES AND
SCHOOL DEVELOPMENT 38
39. 39. TABLE 16. CORRELATIONAL ANALYSIS OF SCHOOL
ADMINISTRATORS’ CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES AND
SCHOOL DEVELOPMENT Conflict Resolution Strategies Curriculu m Dev’t
Staff Dev’t Resourc e Dev’t Learning Envi. Dev’t Communit y-building
Academic Dev’t Accommodation -- -- -- -- -- -- Avoidance -- -- -- -- -- --
Collaboration -- -- -- -- -- -- Competition * * * * * -- Compromising -- -- -- -- -- --
Litigation * * * * * -- Mediation * * * * * -- Problem Solving -- -- -- -- -- --
Smoothing -- -- -- -- -- -- Use of Authority -- -- -- -- -- -- * - significant Only the
strategies of competition, litigation and mediation are significantly associated to
developments in curriculum, staff, resources, learning environment and
community-building. 39
40. 40. ADMINISTRATORS’ PERSONAL FACTORS AND CONFLICT
RESOLUTION STRATEGIES 40
41. 41. TABLE 5. EFFECT OF ADMINISTRATORS’ PERSONAL FACTORS TO
THEIR CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES Variables F-ratio F-critical
(α.= 05) Interpretation Age 0.174211 2.7694 Ns Gender 0.7175* 2.0017* Ns
Educational Attainment 1.2398 2.7694 Ns Administrative Experience 0.7660
3.1589 Ns Religious Affiliation 0.1572 3.1589 Ns * - t-value Ns – not significant
Consistently, all personal factors of school administrators were found to have no
effect on the kind of conflict resolution strategies that they employed. 41
42. 42. COMMON ISSUES AND CONCERNS RELATED TO CONFLICT
RESOLUTION STRATEGIES 42
43. 43. TABLE 6. COMMON ISSUES AND CONCERNS OF PUBLIC
SECONDARY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS ON CONFLICT RESOLUTION
STRATEGIES Issues and Concerns Rank Lack of adequate/sufficient knowledge
on the different conflict resolution strategies 1 Limited knowledge on the conduct
of preliminary investigation 2 Inadequate knowledge on the rules of presentation
of evidence 3 Attitude of teachers and students on resolution of conflicts 4
Imposition of penalties on the party that is found guilty 5 43
44. 44. CONCLUSIONS The school administrators predominantly employed the
following conflict resolution strategies: COLLABORATION, PROBLEM
SOLVING, SMOOTHING, COMPROMISING, AND MEDIATION. 44
45. 45. CONT… The extent of development of public secondary schools in DepEd
XII was substantially observed and sustained for a longer time while the students’
academic development was on “average mastery” level only. 45
46. 46. CONT… Conflict resolution strategies such as COMPETITION,
LITIGATION AND MEDIATION were associated to curriculum, staff,
resources, learning environment and community-building development. 46
47. 47. CONT… Conflict resolution strategies of the secondary school administrators
were not affected by personal factors. The inadequacy of competence on the
different conflict resolution strategies and the limited knowledge on the conduct
of preliminary investigation were the top concerns of school administrators. 47
48. 48. RECOMMENDATIONS  INTENSIVE SEMINARS for school
administrators on the fundamentals, processes, and legal considerations of conflict
resolutions and strategies should be organized in the Division level.  Courses or
subjects in conflict management should be INTEGRATED IN THE GRADUATE
PROGRAM CURRICULUM for Educational Management or Administration to
prepare potential school administrators for conflict management in school. 48
49. 49. 49 Thank you very much for listening!
50. https://www.slideshare.net/ErnieCerado/conflict-resolution-strategies-among-
school-principals-in-region-xii
INTRODUCTION
Sequel to the variability and dynamism of individual cherished values, core objectives
and dire needs which most times do not always go pari - pasu, conflict occurrences in
organizations like schools becomes aggregately inevitable. Thus, the teacher’s onus as
an inloco-parentis in managing such inevitable conflict becomes grossly unavoidable.
However, for the teacher to possess the disposition to manage such conflicts effectively
in schools, a clear understanding and interpretation of conflict issues are requisite. Such
an understanding is direly needed by the teacher so as to be able to address the given
encumbrances which may be spotted out in the interaction among parties.
Conflict management in schools as it relates to teachers pertains to a given condition

whereby teachers acquire programmed and patterned mediums through which they can
twig and deal decisively with conflict as a way of embellishing conditions of conflict in
schools at all times.
There are paradigms for elucidating the causes of those conflict conditions that require
effective management in schools, just as there is cornucopia of avenues available at the
teacher through which conflict within the precinct of schools could be managed. Those
paradigms are what we shall attempt to explore in this paper.
In the classroom and by extension, school precinct, there are certain students-defiant
behaviours that could be tolerated while some are and will remain insufferable, for
example; fighting in the classroom, answering of phone calls in the classroom at the peak
of the lesson, abusing and physically confronting the teacher, stealing, so many to
mention but a few. Although, such conflict causing scenarios could be considered to be
an integral part of every school system, the teacher’s role in preventing or even
ameliorating their occurrences especially the ones that are seen to be internecine remains
pivotal.
Conflict in school is said to occur when one party perceives the action of another party as
encumbering the opportunity for the attainment of a goal. Hence, for conflict to actually
occur in schools, two salient prerequisites must be satisfied, viz; perceived goal
incompatibility and perceived opportunity for interference or blocking Conflict in schools
can be objective or subjective, violent or nonviolent and positive or negative (Schmidt
and Kochan, 1972) in (NUCUP, 2006). But whatever may be the case, the teacher’s
rejoinder to them can either be assertive or cooperative in nature. Also, such school
conflicts may constitute either a prominent debilitating or enchanting effect on the
victims.
The concept of conflict management in schools is perhaps an admission of the reality that
conflict in schools is inevitable, but that not all conflicts can always be resolved;
therefore, what the teacher can do is to manage and regulate them, thus the teacher’s role
as an inloco-parentis. It is also worthy of note to assert that School conflict management
is inclusive of other discrepant variances of conflict management models which are in
most cases at the disposal of the teacher.
In this instance, when we talk about conflict management in school and the role of the
teacher, we simply mean those responses that the teacher makes in order to deal with the
conditions that can encumber the realization of the aggregate objective of the school and
the teacher’s instructional and/or behavioural classroom lesson objective.
The classification of conflict as it pertains to internal school systems can be between;

students and fellow students, Teachers, non-academic staff and teachers, management
and teachers, management, non-academic staff and management, non-academic staff,
students and non-academic staff and students and management. But for the purpose of
this paper, we shall limit our scope or consideration to conflicts between students,
teachers, students and teachers.
In this article, we shall commence with the conceptual and theoretical explication of the
key concepts of the discourse which are; conflict management, conflict, school and the
teacher. We shall also establish the causes of school conflict, state the reason why we
need to manage conflict in schools, express some of the contributory roles the teacher
could make in the school conflict management process, advance some specific
recommendations and finally present our concluding remarks.
CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL EXPLICATION OF KEY CONCEPTS
What is CONFLICT?
Conflict has been variously conceptualized by different scholars at different times

depending on their inclinations, for example; we can see conflict as the pursuit of
incompatible interests and goals by different groups (Francis, 2006). But Conflict could
be defined as a situation in which people, groups or countries are involved in a serious
disagreement or argument (Oxford Advanced Leraners Dictionary, 8th Edition p. 304).
Following this, we can however, assert that Conflict in schools is fundamentally

concerned with the creation and establishment of unjust orders, disorderliness,
pandemonium and chaotic conditions amongst people arising from a disagreement or
ding-dong.
Therefore, for every system like the school to develop, they must deal with conflict
situations decisively and squarely; because conflict enthrones disintegration as it
simultaneously dethrones harmony, trust, love and tranquility. Let also note that conflict
may arise as a result of the inability of two equal or unequal opposing and/or
contradictory ideas or opinions to synergize or harmonize.
From the sociological perspective, we can define conflict as a situation in which we

experience social disharmony and antagonism. In the same light, conflict could be
regarded as a state of social imperfection and instability characterized by strife, bickering,
disagreement, quarrels and violence.
The SCHOOL as a Concept
The School is an institution that collects, organizes and synthesizes human knowledge to
be transmitted from one generation to the other (Okujagu, 1993) in (Morish, 1973). The
school can also be seen as an artificial social institution which is established for the
conscious management of the process of cultural transmission and social integration
(Okujagu, 1993). This therefore implies that the school as a miniature society cannot be
regarded as a natural institution but a “hand work of man” and if it does not engage in
developing the human capital and social structures of the school, it will experience
defiant and anti-social behaviours (Ohaka, 2011).
The school is the aspect of the society that engages in the character moulding of the child,
development of the knowledge of the child and skill training of the child through
conscious guidance and supervision. The school is a corporate environment where
learning and teaching strives.
The school provides a transformational, theoretical and practical learning experiences for
the child by bringing the child out from his personal beliefs to the ideologies and
experiences of the modern day society. The school also creates better opportunities where
the child can become armed with a broader perspective of life and sundry parts of the
environment (Ibidem, 2011).
The school is the modern day of the society and modern society is a product of the
school. Schools are usually created by the society to maintain, allocate roles, socialize,
differentiate and reform society. The school is very sensitive to the dilemmas,
contradictions and contests in the society, economic, political, ideological, religious, etc
conditions of the society (Okujagu, 1993).
It is not just an ordinary place where students and teachers meet, but an educational
institution with definite goals; a social organization established by the society to
perpetuate its cultural heritage. As an institution, it is not just aware of its social
environment, but seeks to include as many elements of the societal cultures as possible in
the programme of activities of the schools (Achuonye et al, 2003).
Explaining the Concept of a TEACHER
The Teacher could be seen as an individual who consciously and meticulously attempts
to cause a much needed transformation in the learning abilities, attitudes and skills of
another individual or group of individuals under his guidance and supervision. A teacher
is one who consciously attempts to mould character, transfer knowledge and develop
desirable skills in another. In fact, the teacher influences expected change in behaviour as
a result of learning experiences.
The teacher guides the students/pupils through planned activities so that they may acquire
richest learning possible from their experiences (Van Dalen & Brittel, 1959). The teacher
also interacts with the students under his/her responsibility in order to bring about the
expected change in the student’s behaviour (Clark in Awotua-Afubuo, 1999).
In the school, the teacher as an inloco-parentis has a pivotal role to play if effective
teaching and learning must take place. He must prepare adequately by arming himself
with the appropriate and available lesson contents, instructional materials and aid in order
to achieve the desirable learning outcome. The teacher must also put himself in the right
temperament suitable for a classroom learning situations.
Usually, the teacher is seeing as an individual who is mostly trained in the arts, science
and theories of teaching. He/she is the one who can guide, motivate and inspire the
learner through a variety of appropriately selected and sequentially arranged learning
experiences towards the achievement of specific goals and objectives of the school for
positive changes in the society. The effectiveness of the educational system relies on his
adequacy, pedigree and devotion to duty (George, 2011). Thus, the effective utilization of
teaching strategies for the sublime academic performance of the students relies on his
professional pedigree and intellectual opulence.
The teacher designs the appropriate learning environment in such a way that the pupils
are restless until they have satisfied their curiosity by interacting with other components
of the instructional system which includes the contents, media, materials, teacher, etc.
The teacher is to help the individual learn how to learn, so that he not only knows the
how and where to obtain needed information, but also develops the habit of enquiry and
be a life-long learner (Achuonye & Ajoku, 2003).
Conflict Management in Schools
Michael Armstrong (2011) the author of “How to be an Even Better Manager” in his
concrete exposition on how to manage conflict situations in organizations like the school,
proposed that there would be clashes of ideas about tasks and projects among individuals.
He went further to express that in the process of managing the conflict, disagreement
should not be suppressed. For him, to manage such a conflicting situation, it has to be
exposed as that could be the only true process to ensure that the issues that caused the
conflicts in the organization are explored and resolved.
One salient and indefatigable idea in school conflict management just as Armstrong
(2011) will put it, is to “smooth out” differences amongst conflicting parties and then,
emphasize the common ground. In school conflict management, the school constituents
are usually wheedled to peacefully and harmoniously co-exist by eschewing strife,
rancor, bickering, violence, pandemonium, acrimony and even violence; there is a free
movement and exchange of ideas, information and messages.
In the school like every other institution in the contemporary society, the
institutionalization of conflict management approaches remains sacrosanct since conflict
is inherently inevitable. Still on conflict management, Armstrong (2011) asserted that;
“new or modified ideas, insights, approaches and solutions can be generated by a joint re-
examination of the different points of view as long as this is based on an objective and
rational exchange of information and ideas”.
Conflict management in school could be explicated as the deployed conscious and

concerted effort by either direct/indirect parties to a conflict or invited parties to take
proactive or reactive measures to prevent and contain conflict occurrences. In consonance
with the proposition of Shedrack (2007) that conflict management could be broadly
categorized as being either proactive or reactive, I would rather perceive conflict
management as that which deals with those positively effective pre-containment and
post-containment approaches towards the handling of conflict between groups or a group.
The term conflict management is sometimes used synonymously with “Conflict
Regulation”. It encompasses conflict limitation, conflict containment and conflict
litigation. It also involves the entire area of addressing conflict positively at different
stages, including those efforts made to prevent conflict, by being proactive. Thus, conflict
management is explained as being the way of ameliorating adverse effects of conflict
through the parties involved in the conflict (Shedrack Gaya Best, 2007).
Managing or controlling conflict in school can involve interaction, or structuring the

forms of interaction or reducing or changing external pressures. By “preventing
interaction” we mean the strategy used when emotions are high and it involves keeping
the conflicting parties apart in the hope that although the differences still exist, the people
involved will have time to cool down and consider more constructive approaches.
Another is by “structuring the forms of interaction” which is a strategy that can be used
when it is not possible to separate the parties. Then the “personal counseling” is that
approach that does not address the conflict itself but focuses on how the two people are
reacting to the situation (Armstrong, 2011).
Causes of School Conflict
Like the other microcosms of the society, there are cornucopias of variables or natural
and artificial tendencies that usually culminate into conflict in schools. But we shall
attempt to streamline our scope to those ones that causes conflict between students,
teachers and teachers and students alike.
It is worthy of note to affirm that what may lead to conflict between parties may not
cause conflict in other miniature societies. This may be relatively linked to the locality,
the individual themselves, the interest they seek to protect personally and the goals they
all pursue at their disparate quotidian endeavours. For instance; in the family what may
cause conflict could be the blatant refusal of the first son to equitably distribute the
legacies bequeathed to them by their demised father. While in the school, the quest to
become a class monitor between two students or the struggle between two teachers over
who becomes the next principal/headmistress/head master/H.O.D can be a conflict
causing factor.
Generally, the intrinsic, egocentric, raucous, vociferous, high-handed and domineering

nature of some members of the school community could always cause conflict in school,
thus, making it increasingly inevitable.
Notwithstanding, the following could be specifically stated as the causes of conflict in

schools especially as it pertains to the teachers themselves, the students themselves and
between students and teachers. They are however, highlighted as follows;
- Relatively unfavourable or favouristic administrative policies.

- Individual indifferences in the co-existent, followership and leadership abilities of the
students and/or teachers.
- Personality traits or Psychological make ups.
- Discontentment in the amount of salaries and wages/Poor remuneration.
- Riots and Violent protests.
- Quest for Power, Dominance and Political struggle.
- Family background and Cultural differences.
- Unfavourable learning environment or conditions
- Oppression, Bullying, Dictatorship and Victimization by the superior staff.
- Inadequate training and re-training on effective conflict and conflict management
strategies.
- Poor classroom management.
- Inability to meet up with personal basic needs.
- Inequitable reward structure and distribution of resources amongst staff.
Why Conflict Management in Schools?
Since it is usually considered to be cumbersome for effective learning and teaching

experiences to take place in an environment of turmoil and bedlam, the utmost need for
conflict management in school becomes highly imperative. When a school becomes
unable to mange conflicting situations, both human and structural development may
elude them. In fact, it may be retrogressive and counter-productive towards the
educational, academic, social, moral development of the students and by necessary
extension, the teacher.
The importance of school conflict management is analogous to the pertinence of eating

which is essential condition precedence for human existence. It is unequivocal to posit
that school conflict management provides a clement environmental condition for
effective learning and teaching to take place.
Where any modicum of anticipated threats of conflict does not abound in the school, the
student tends to learn and move freely without any phobia of anxiety. They freely express
themselves and participate actively in the class.
To state specifically however, we need to mange conflicts in school sequel to the

following salient points;
- It brings about a clement environmental condition for effective learning and teaching to
take place.
- It helps to establish and maintain peaceful and harmonious co-existence between the
human resources of the school.
- It brings about the effective and efficient utilization of the limited/scarce resources of
the school.
- It brings integrity to the school, paints it in a positive image in the larger society and
then rightly positions and re-positions it in the committee of schools.
- It contributes in the improvement of the school’s aggregate productivity.
- It leads to the rise in the demand of the products and services of the school.
- It accentuates the level of peaceful and harmonious co-existence between the
constituents of the school community.
- It helps to restore and maintain peace and tranquility in the school.
- It promotes political stability
- It gives the school the requisite disposition to meet up with her social corporate
responsibility.
SCHOOL CONFLICT MANAGEMENT: The Role of the Teacher
Let me begin by alternatively hypothesizing that, the onus of the teacher in school
conflict containment is critical and at the same time, pivotal. The reasons for my avowal
are not far-fetched but copious as the teacher could be considered to be the centre piece
of conflict management in schools.
The teacher’s responsibility in school as an inloco-parentis goes beyond classroom

teaching into the encouragement and promotion of peaceful and affable attitudes in the
students through instruction and, guidance and motivation. The teacher is to exemplarily
model his life within the school precinct so as to build sustainable harmony and cordiality
between him and fellow teachers.
There are five momentous aspects in the behaviour of the teacher through which the
teacher can influence group dynamics in the school and also effectively and efficiently
discharge his onus of conflict management. Such pertinent areas may include;
- Maintaining good classroom structure which could be either cooperative or competitive;
- The nature of leadership which the teacher chooses to adopt and such leadership pattern
could either be participative, directive or permissive;
- How compatible the goals of the teacher and that of the students are;
- The level of inter-personal relationship which may involve the students-teachers
patterns of communication and attraction within the group and
- The kind of sub-groups within the group size and composition (Yelon and Weinstein,
1977:337 cited in Awotua-Efebo, 1999:293).
When a teacher becomes conscious of these important areas and works assiduously to
institutionalize them in his quotidian school activity, he invariably works against possible
conflict causing occurrences.
In school conflict management situations where the teacher will have to play the role of a
third party, he must avoid the temptation of supporting or appearing to be supporting
either of those in contention. Rather, the teacher should adopt a counseling approach
which involves;
- Active, attentive or effective listening

- Observation as well as listening
- Helping the conflicting parties (students) understand and define the problem by posing
pertinent open-ended questions
- Recognizing their personal feelings and allowing them to express them
- Helping them define the problems for themselves
- Encouraging the students to explore alternative solutions
- Getting them develop their own implementation plans and also provide pieces of advice
and help should they ask (Armstrong, 2011:154).
Deploying the process of “constructive confrontation” which aims at getting parties

involved to understand and explore each other’s perceptions and feelings, the teacher can
also perform his role of managing conflict in the school by systematically and squarely
confronting the issue; but on the basis of a joint analysis of the main issues of the conflict
situation and the real attitudes exhibited by the parties involved. He is to allow them
express feelings which will be analyzed with reference to specific events and behaviours
rather than mere inferences and speculations about motives (Ibidem, 2011).
The teachers by virtue of their position as inloco-parentis and in a bid to contain conflict
should have control in order to create conducive teaching/learning environment devoid of
rancor and disagreements. That is, the teacher should judiciously administer rewards and
punishments in an attempt to manage conflict and maintain the type of environment most
conducive so as to realize the classroom instructional objectives, aims and objectives of
the school and the general goals of education. Every student must be made to twig those
control measures which involves the teacher’s “dos” and don’ts and their consequences
(Awotua-Efobo, 1993:298).
As part of school conflict management strategies for teachers using realistic control
measures, Awotua-Efebo (1999) quoting Perterson (1960) adduced the following key
points on classroom control;
- Be businesslike
- Be prepared
- Keep lesson and presentation interesting
- Know when to overlook
- Know when to assert oneself
- Do not bluff
- Be consistent
- Be fair
- Do not pretend that you know everything
- Get to know your students
- Keep your sense of humour
The personality traits or psychological makeup of the teacher should be perceived as the
single most pertinent variable in school conflict management as the peaceful and affable
quotidian disposition of the teacher in the school environment also affects the student’s
dispositions to conflict. That is, the teacher’s ability to develop an impeccable
personality, exhibit axiomatic and legitimate professional competences, communicate his
thoughts and ideas in a decipherable approach, create a harmonious interpersonal
relationship and meticulously use the available time at his disposal contributes
fundamentally towards the containment and control of chaotic occurrences in the
classroom learning environment and by extension, the school precinct.
Also, the teacher’s ability to perform his role of managing conflict in school should
commence by raising and resolving the fundamental question of how the teachers
themselves perceive the conflict in relation to how the other parties to the conflict also
perceives the conflict. Hence, working in tandem with the opinion of McGregor (1960) as
was alluded to in Weihrich et al, (2010), such viewpoint, must require some relative
thought that are anchored on the perception of human nature.
In view of the insatiability of human wants and since their continuous quest to attend to
these needs at all cost may usually culminate in conflict in schools it behooves on the
teacher to deploy his requisite motivation theories such as that of Abraham Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs theory (1986), Frederick Herzberg’s hygiene theory (two-factor)
(1959), Douglas McGregor’s theory X and Y (1960), Victor H. Vroom’s expectancy
theory (1964), Bandura, et al (1954). Thus, just as Weihrich et al, (2010) will affirm, by
deploying those theories of motivation which he/she (the teacher) hopes will lead to the
satisfaction of those drives and desires, the teacher has invariably induced into the student
the utmost need to eschew those behaviours that could result into conflict thereby,
making the student act in a more acceptable and desirable manner.
Similarly, the teacher in a conscious effort to carry out his/her role of conflict
containment and regulation, must also provide a conducive learning and teaching
atmosphere that will be devoid of disagreements, pandemonium, rancor and even strive
by clearly demonstrating a clear understanding of the concept of motivation and
effectively applying its core principles especially as it pertains to behaviour modification.
Also, another way through which the teacher can manage conflict in the school is through
the use of the equity theory of motivation as propounded by J. Stacy Adams, (1963)
which is referred to as an individual’s subjective judgment about the fairness of the
reward he or she gets, relative to the inputs (which includes factors such as effort,
experience, and education), in comparism with the reward of others (Weihrich,
2011:331). This approach is relatively recommendable for the teacher who is playing the
role of a conflict manager. This is because; it makes for a balance of the outcomes/inputs
relationship for one student in comparison with that of another student and that if the
conflicting students continue to perceive the reward for their classroom performance and
active participation in school activities/projects as been inequitable or not being evenly
distributed, they will tend to be rancorous in behaviour which will in turn, culminate in a
social unrest.
Since in the classroom or school, a breakdown of law and order mostly arises as a result
of ineffective classroom management and poor managerial control measures respectively,
the teacher’s role in this regard is to keep the classroom discussions lively, relatively
motivated and all inclusive – all should be carried along. To also contain conflict, it is
also necessary for the teacher to be acquainted with his/her students in terms of what
Awotuo-Efebo (1999) would regard as their cognitive level (vocabulary understanding
level), open-mindedness (willingness to accept ideas), information and techniques that is
most likely to gain their attention. Hence, taking their minds away from thoughts that
could bring about conflict.
By way of managing conflict in schools, the teacher could also use reinforcement and
punishment. Reinforcement according to Slavin (2000) in Vipene (2005), is any
consequences that strengthens a behaviour” and those ‘reinforcers’ could either be
negative or positive. While punishment according to Akinade (2001) in Vipene (2005) is
an aversive event or stimulus that reduces or checks the continuation of emission or a
preceding response” and they include; timeout, response cost and extinction which must
ameliorate conflict occurrences and reverse unwanted conflict causing behaviours.
Like some other miniature societies, the teacher in an attempt to manage conflict in
school especially as it pertains to him and fellow teachers can also adopt the following
Western Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) strategies. These methods under discuss
and as has been highlighted by Ojiji (2005) may include the following;
- Problem-solving
- Compromising
- Accommodation
Shedrack (2006) also highlighted certain suggestions which could also be added to the
list. They are presented as follows;
- Communication
- Collaboration
- Negotiation
- Conciliation
- Mediation
- Arbitration
- Adjudication
The teacher is meant to be seen applying those conflict resolution strategies in his/her
personal life and also instruct and guide the students as they strive to practice conflict
prevarication at all cost. More so, since in the school, what one student or group of
students perceives as having the potency to create conflict may at the same time, lack the
strength to cause conflict for another, the teacher can also make necessary reference to
some universal cultural norms and values. This is so because, culture which is regarded
as a common good, and as a pertinent indispensable and independent variable can also
ascertain the most preferable conflict handling style for the teacher.
CONCLUSION
Right from the inception of this literary piece, our dire desire has been to discuss conflict
as it pertains to school environment and also explicate those strategies the teacher can
deploy so as to be able to actually handle the conflict. However, from the above
exposition, one could actually assert that relatively that desire has been satisfied.
Al though, the teacher is considered as not being the only individual solely saddled with
the onus of school conflict management, his momentous role remains key. Considering
this onerous task placed on the teacher, he should be supported, encouraged and
complemented by both the school management and all other agents of socialization.
Even though conflict is most times regarded as being positive, its adverse effects still
remains insufferable, excruciating, unbearable and even debilitating. So, the teacher
should also channel his watch light to that flashpoint where conflict may abound.
Both students and teachers must always look in wards in situations of conflict for a
proper understanding and judicious utilization of the appropriate conflict management
strategies.
In all, the teacher as an inloco-parentis has a central role to play as far as school conflict
is concerned and to attain this unprecedented feet, the teacher must seek to understand,
know how to apply the relevant conflict management theories to the school situation and
the rationale behind the various conflict management spectrums especially as it pertains
to the school precinct and classroom learning environments.
FORGOT TO GET THE SOURCE
Conflict Management and School Leadership

Vuyisile Msila
PO Box 392, College of Education, University of South Africa, UNISA 0003 South
Africa
E-mail: msilavt@unisa.ac.za
KEYWORDS Conflict Management. School Management And Leadership. School
Culture. Team Work
ABSTRACT Schools are prone to conflicts and breakdown in communication especially
in an age where all role-players are
aware of their rights. School-based conflict can be ignited by a number of aspects. Yet
school principals as managers, are
expected to be able to creatively address conflicts in their schools. This was a qualitative
study that included eight school
principals from four primary and four secondary schools in two historically black African
areas (townships) in the Gauteng
Province, South Africa. The participants were interviewed and their schools were
observed as well. The study found out that
few principals are prepared adequately for conflict management. They tend to
misunderstand the role of conflict and maintain
that it should be immediately avoided or halted. The discussion closes with
recommendations, and among these is the need to
empower school principals with conflict management training before they assume their
leadership positions.
BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE
The South African Schools’ Act (SASA) of
1996 stipulates that the school principals have
delegated powers to organise and control effective
and learning at their school (Potgieter et al.
1997). However, many school managers have
found themselves occupying challenging positions
and assuming a number of roles. Not only
are they expected to lead curricular changes but
they are also required to be decisive change
managers. As curriculum leaders, school principals
have to provide guidance to teachers as
they deal with constant educational changes. As
leaders in change, the school principals need to
guide their followers as they mini-mise the fear
and resistance to change. Kotter (1999) points
out that among others, leaders need to alleviate
the fear to change. There are a number of authors
who have written about the unpredictable
world that school principals generally find themselves
in. Patterson (1986) wrote of a nonrational
world that school managers operate in, while
Peters (1994) opined of “crazy organisations”
that engulf the 21st century managers. Many
school principals may be daunted by the rapidly
changing or fluid nature of the school as an
organisation. School principals need to learn
from their mistakes, because that can strengthen
the teaching profession by providing an honest
and accurate stance of their position (Grady
2004). All meticulous school principals strive
for effectiveness and effective school managers
also have strong commitment to fellow teachers
in their schools as they build relationships
with the learners (O’Hanlon and Clifton 2004).
In his study of effectiveness in schools Msila
(2011) states that the challenge of school principals
is to identify the problems endemic in
their schools. Furthermore, Msila cites Botha
who contends that the workload of school principals
is becoming unmanageable and as a result
many school principals, especially in secondary
schools, lack the time for and an understanding
of their leadership roles. Currently, in
a period where rapid changes are occurring at a
phenomenal rate, much is needed to empower
and enhance the practice of school principals.
Growing research has been conducted to acquire
a better understanding of the politics of “failing”
historically disadvantaged schools in South
Africa. However, there is a huge gap in school
management research in South Africa in that
the aspect of conflict management has been neglected.
Yet, many schools are plagued with
debilitating challenges and these schools’ performance
is usually hampered by conflicts as
well as protracted breakdown in communication.
Conflicts are caused by a number of aspects
that create tensions between people. Corvette
(2007) contends that conflict exists wherever,
and whenever there is an incompatibility of cognitions
or emotions within individuals or between
individuals. Moreover, this author avers
that conflict arises in personal relationships, in
business and professional relationships in organisations,
between groups and organisations,
and between nations. Many schools have broken
down relationships because of the existence
of this incompatibility. School managers in “conflict
schools” will face mammoth task as they
© Kamla-Raj 2012 J Communication, 3(1): 25-34 (2012)
try to be effective. It is also important to note
that the leader’s philosophy will influence how
they react to conflict; some perceive it as something
to be avoided at all costs while others see
it as an aspect that is necessary to propel change
and foster organisational regeneration. Corvette
(2007: 34) posits:
It is the perception or belief that opposing
needs, wishes, ideas, interests, and goals exist
that create what we commonly call conflict.
Conflict is everywhere, and it is inevitable. It
arises from many sources. In addition to being
the antecedent for negotiation, conflict may also
arise during negotiation.
The subject of conflict is large and complex.
Conflict if misdiagnosed, can lead to a spiral of
antagonistic interaction and aggravated, destructive
behaviour.
This paper explores the anatomy of conflict.
The author first looks at the theory behind conflict
and conflict management before the exploration
of the case studies. More research in understanding
the evolution of dysfunctionality
needs to be conducted as this will shed light on
conflict management skills. This study seeks to
understand some of the complexities linked to
conflict and school leadership. Sometimes
school principals may not be able to identify
conflict when it happens. The study was necessitated
by a huge gap in research. Few studies
have investigated conflict management in
schools. Understanding the dynamics of conflict
will minimize the negative effects of conflict
among educators. It is in light of this that
this study explores the question: What are the
conflict management needs of school principals
in selected Gauteng schools?
Objectives of the Study
In light of the above question the study seeks
to explore the following objectives:
• To investigate pertinent skills that school
principals need to be able to deal with
conflict in their schools.
• Exploring how school principals build
positive strategies to deal with conflict.
• To investigate how school principals can
introduce and sustain an effective school
culture and school climate that enhances
school growth despite conflicts.
• To see whether the idea of building teams
in schools is ideal for dealing with conflicts
effectively.
Literature Review
School managers and leaders need to understand
what is entailed in conflict management
and need high conflict competence to be able to
be effective in their schools. When conflict managers
have determined and defined the nature
of the conflict in a conflict situation, they try
and find ways of resolving it. Various conflict
writers have highlighted various ways of resolving
these conflict situations. Many of these are
relevant in school situation. Effective school
principals will have the qualities highlighted in
conflict literature. Blake and Mouton (1964)
identified five conflict solving strategies;
smoothing, compromising, forcing, withdrawal
and problem solving. Furthermore, Dana (2001)
avers that leaders need to comprehend structure
to be able analyse conflicts well. There are six
parts of conflict structure that people can pay
attention to:
• interdependency – How much do parties
need one another?
• number of interested parties- How many
distinct parties, individuals or groups have
an interest in how the conflict is resolved?
• constituent representation-Do the parties
represent the interests of other people who
are not personally or directly involved in
the process of resolving the conflict?
• negotiator authority- If the parties consist
of more than one individual, say a department
within an organisation, is the person
or team of people who represent the interests
of that department within an organisation,
is the person or team or team of
people who represent the interests of that
department able to make concessions or
reach creative solutions without going back
to their constituents for approval?
• critical urgency-Is it absolutely necessary
that a solution be found in the very near
future to prevent disaster?
• communication channels-Are parties able
to talk to each other face to face in the same
room.
Dana perceives these six dimensions as elements
that are necessary to be able to analyse
conflict well. There are many similar theories
that analyse conflict resolution and management.
Anderson et al. (1996) contend that negotiation
is one of the most common techniques
for creating agreements during conflict situa-
26 VUYISILE MSILA
tions. Furthermore, these authors cite Putnam
who defines negotiation as a type of conflict
management characterised by an exchange of
proposals and counterproposals as a means of
reaching a satisfactory settlement. The Harvard
Business Essentials publication (2003: xi) concur
with the above definitions when they aver:
Negotiation is the means by which people
deal with their differences. Whether those differences
involve the purchase of a new automobile,
a labour contract dispute, the terms of a
sale, a complex alliance between tow companies,
or a peace accord between warring nations,
resolutions are typically sought through
negotiations. To negotiate is to seek mutual
agreement through dialogue. Negotiation is an
ever-present feature of our lives both at home
and at work.
Negotiations also present a form of conflict
management that is more consciously controlled.
Yes although negotiation involves more controlled
communication than other conflict situations,
the overall process is marked by greater
ambiguity because of the stakeholders’ lack of
control over the outcome (Anderson et al. 2003).
Negotiations are sometimes plagued by pitfalls
that might hinder any success in resolving the
conflict situation. Deutsch (1991) highlights
aspects such as cultural factors and how they
have a potential of hindering negotiations.
Deutsch argues that negotiators need to have
an implicit understanding of cultural assumptions
which are likely to determine how negotiators
from different places perceive the world.
“Lacking such knowledge, negotiators from different
cultural backgrounds are likely to misunderstand
one another and apt to engage in
behaviour that is unwittingly, offensive to the
other: circumstances not conducive to constructive
conflict resolution” (Deutsch 1991: 36).
Significance of the Study
As highlighted above, this study is significant
to those who want to understand teacher
commitment, school dysfunctionality and teacher
morale. Many schools are broken down by
conflicts that alienate teachers from their professional
work. Runde and Flanagan (2010)
examine the need for leaders and managers to
develop conflict competence if their organisations
are to prosper. School principals who can
differentiate between functional and dysfunctional
conflicts will know how to act in times of
conflict. When leaders have self-awareness, they
are more likely to have this quality. Ross (1993)
also contends that successful conflict management
should address the underlying sources of
conflict constructively and these are the development
of shared interests among the disputants
as well as the transformation of the disputants’
interpretations of each other’s needs and motives.
Snodgrass and Blunt (2009) assert that
unmanaged conflict can create dysfunctional
schools which deprive learners of their rights
to citizenship through free and equal education.
These authors also point out that constitutional
values embedded in the Constitution of the Republic
of South Africa such as human dignity
and equality cannot be attained in an atmosphere
and contexts where conflict is endemic. This
study will be significant in that it wants to comprehend
the role of school principals as they
work in challenging situations where there are
conflict situations.
RESEARCH DESIGN
This study was conducted through qualitative
research methodology. Qualitative research
methodology was appropriate for this study because
the researcher wanted to hear anecdotal
accounts from the participants. The researcher
also wanted to focus on the school environments
under study because human behaviour does not
occur in an empty space. Struwig and Stead
(2004) point out that contextualism stresses the
various macro and micro contexts of the individual
and how these contexts dynamically interact
with one another. Furthermore, these authors
state that contextualism is closely aligned
to holism which examines social environments
in their totality. The participants were selected
through purposive sampling. Sometimes referred
to as judgemental sampling or theoretical
sampling, this is a type of non-probability
sampling based on the judgement of the researcher
regarding participants (Brink 2000).
For this study, the researcher selected four
schools that were beset with conflicts and four
that had no known conflicts and appeared to be
run well or effectively.
All the selected schools are situated in historically
black African areas (townships) and are
CONFLICT MANAGEMENTAND SCHOOL LEADERSHIP 27
primary and secondary schools. Four of the participants
were female and four were male. Of
these participants, three females were leading
primary schools. The researcher interviewed
each of the participants twice during the course
of the study. The interviews were an hour long;
the first one was conducted in the first week
and the second one in the eight (final) week of
the study. In-between the researcher observed
how the teachers operated in the schools. The
researcher made use of an observation instrument
and among the aspects that were observed
were teacher communication, teacher collaboration
and school climate. The researcher was
not able to observe staff meetings in all the
schools for in two of these schools no meetings
were scheduled during the course of the study.
In these two schools the researcher was only able
to observe subject committee meetings. During
the observations the researcher was a non-participant
observer.
Rich information in the form of words was
gathered by the end of the study. Qualitative
researchers usually begin their data analysis
during the data collection process. They use steps
for coding themes and categories “and making
memos about the context and variations in the
phenomenon under study, verifying the selected
themes through reflection on the data and discussion
with other researchers or experts in the
field” (Brink 2000: 192). In this study the researcher
also initiated coding at the beginning
as he organised data collected in the interviews
and observations. These were all manually developed
as the researcher searched for categories.
During the interviews the researcher made
a thorough review of what was recorded. For
example, some statements about conflict were
classified according to perceptions about conflict,
feelings portrayed, understanding about
conflict resolution, theories about conflict, role
of management and so on. For the characteristics
of the participants see Table 1.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
The participants in the study reflected a number
of aspects in conflict management strategies.
All maintained that conflict was not an
aspect that was needed in schools for it tends to
“stall progress”. They also felt that schools that
experienced conflict will never prosper “because
the energies are usually directed at ending these
conflicts. Only one participant curtly pointed out
Table 1. The participants’ characteristics
Gender Age School Experience Highest quaas
princi- lification
pal
Female 56 Primary 8 years BEd Honours
Female 51 Primary 6 years BA and Higher
Diploma in
Education
Female 47 Secondary 5 years Secondary
Education
Diploma
Female 39 Primary 2 years BA and Primary
Teachers
Diploma
Male 38 Secondary 1 year BAEd
Male 44 Secondary 3 years BSc and Higher
Diploma in
Education
Male 58 Secondary 9 years Secondary
Teachers
Diploma
Male 61 Primary 19 years Advanced
Certificate in
Education
(Environmental
Education)
that conflict was sometimes necessary because
it could help in changing “the internalised cultures
in the school”. However, all the participants
highlighted that conflicts created cliques
in the staffroom, suspicion, breakdown in communication
as well as low teacher morale. Furthermore,
the participants agreed that conflict
impacted badly on teaching and learning in their
schools. All of them also stated that their teacher
training never prepared them for conflict management
in the schools. Yet they have learnt that
conflict becomes a daily occurrence in their
schools from two learners fighting for a pen, to
a staff member shouting the school principal in
her/his office.
All the participants stressed the need for the
holistic preparation of school principals in
school management and leadership. One of the
participants had been a school principal for close
to two decades but he stated that he could have
done better as a school principal had he been
mentored before assuming the position. He
pointed out:
Unfortunately, I was never mentored when I
became principal. The school inspector just accompanied
me to this school. He left me literally
at the door of my office and said good luck.
That first week I experienced much conflict because
the teachers at the school expected the
28 VUYISILE MSILA
deputy to assume the position of principal. I
was devastated, and had to strive under difficult
conditions.
He is supported by another participant who
stated:
When I assumed this position I expected male
teachers to be opposed to my leadership. I was
surprised though, for it was the female who were
very confrontational towards me. It is difficult
building a school when people are against you.
Teachers can make it impossible for you to operate.
To make matters worse as principals we
were not really trained to overcome some of
these obstacles. We learn on the job.
All the participants contended that they had
seen different kinds of conflict when they were
ordinary (post level 1) teachers in their schools.
However, they stated that it happens when one
is at the helm of the school it becomes different.
As one participant asserted, “soon you realise
you are the man to diffuse, the fire. It is daunting!”
it was interesting to hear the participants
talking about mentoring as one of the possible
solutions that can enable school managers to be
generally effective managers and specifically
efficient conflict managers. The participants also
concurred that conflict appears to be ongoing
in many schools and that “successful principals
will be able to avoid it.”
The idea of avoiding conflict was an interesting
aspect. Only one participant out of the
eight stated that conflict sometimes needs to be
encouraged because “it may steer the school towards
necessary change”. Two participants, one
from a secondary school and the other from a
primary school related how their schools are
relatively more successful than other township
schools because of the way in which they are
able to “ward off conflict” when it starts. A participant
from one of these two schools used the
expression; “nipping conflict in the bud” if one
wants to run a successful school. Both participants
use similar tactics to quell conflict and
confrontation in their schools; they make use of
their School Governing Bodies (SGBs) as well
as School Management Teams (SMTs). Furthermore,
one of these two participants stated that a
leader needs to “stamp his foot down or else the
pandemonium linked with conflicts will turn the
school upside down”. According to him, an effective
leader “can smell impending conflict and
will be able to extinguish it”.
The participants illustrated a number of examples
where they felt that conflict could be
totally avoided. There were three kinds of conflict
that seemed to come out from the interviews;
(i) Conflicts that were on a personal levelthese
affected and usually strained personal
relations. Frequently these were between
teachers and teachers or teachers and
learners.
(ii) The second kind of conflict are union
conflicts. All the participants highlighted
how union conflicts could affect the operations
in the schools. The participants gave
various examples of how one union would
strike while another is not supporting the
strike. They said that this can create much
conflict among staff members from various
unions.
(iii) Some conflicts are by staff members against
the school management. The participants
state that this can also due to various reasons,
some reasonable and some not. They
showed how for example, enforcing school
rules can be interpreted negatively by teachers
and lead to bitter conflicts.
The participants gave various examples to
exemplify these in their schools. In one school
the participant found herself in an unenviable
position because she refused to support the suspension
of a teacher who was impeached of
misusing school funds. The participant stated
clearly that the complainants needed to prove
that before any action could be taken. In another
school, teachers were hostile towards their
SMT because they maintained that they were
only supporting grade 12 teachers and did not
care about lower classes. The latter created tensions
in the school. Common to many of these
conflict experiences was the lack of conflict competence
among the school principals. Unmanaged
conflict can be a health hazard the participants
related how conflict situations can lead to
psychological trauma and prolonged stress.
The participants though mentioned an important
aspect that conflict usually hits them
hard because school managers are usually alone
in times of conflict. They were using the terms
“sharing leadership” and “team work” interchangeably;
to signify that it was necessary to
use these if any school was to be able to keep
conflict at bay. The participants maintained that
conflicts where the school principal is not working
closely with the staff members, conflicts are
likely to be protracted and be very hurtful to the
role-players. One participant summed this well
when she stated:
In many of these we easily find ourselves as
principals isolated. Sometimes nobody plans it,
it happens on its own. You find yourself on the
one side with your School Management Team
and teachers on the other. This can be hurtful
and creates deep scars. Many of our schools
need to instil responsibility where every teacher
will see himself as a leader. I think we are to
blame too as principals; we want to be perceived
differently by teachers, as bosses. Teachers do
not want this, they want leaders.
However, in the schools under study, the
school culture did not support team work. In
four of the six meetings attended, the researcher
could easily pick up how past conflicts were
surfacing in the present agenda. In two of these
schools there were agenda items that were ongoing
because of deep divisions among staff
members. In another, there were three clear divisions
among staff members who were opposing
each other openly and in a hostile fashion.
In the other two schools the participants were
trying at all costs to “stop” conflict whenever
they saw it starting. As one explained, “the
meeting is where you need to show the teachers
your control. If you lose it in meetings, your
school will be ruled by these conflicts”. Generally,
it was clear that the participants lacked
conflict competence. In one school the researcher
observed how the school principal
could not “discipline” one teacher who was in
the staffroom whilst his class made noise with
no one to teach. The school principal just opined:
No one tells Mr X anything. He is about to
retire and he likes no one in here. I have fought
with him so many times; he just stays in there
or under that tree smoking his pipe.
In some schools though the climate was appeared
appealing although it hid deep seated
hatred when one heard what the school principal
said or observed the communication among
staff members.
This study reflects varied responses to conflict
management in schools. The data was coded
into themes as to assign meaning to the information
elicited. A code though is never perceived
as separate. Struwig and Stead (2004) point out
that a code could be linked to a word, a phrase,
a sentence, a paragraph or larger sections of
data. In this study too, codes were not perceived
as isolated units of meaning. Some codes were
linked to the development of conflict management.
In turn this had a connection with other
codes such as perceptions, beliefs and school
climate. The data in this study is analysed under
three themes:
• Conflict competence and school management;
• Conflict management and the ‘right’ school
culture;
• School teams and conflict management.
Conflict Competence and School
Management
Conflict resolution is an important area that
calls for professional development among the
participants. The participants showed that they
lacked negotiation and mediation skills when
conflict situations arose. Many school principals
lack the capacity to manage conflicts and
this can be detrimental to organisational growth.
Foley (2001) states that in a time where many
schools support collaboration, conflicts are
bound to happen. Foley (2001:20) argues:
Principals and teachers may experience conflict
due to unclear parameters of their roles in
a collaborative-based system, presence of competing
responsibilities (for example, instruction
of class vs. making time for team planning), and
overload of tasks due to inadequate time, energy
or resources (Cliff et al. 1992). Thus conflict
resolution skills may be a prerequisite skill
for administrators supervising collaborativebased
programming.
Emerging and established research shows
that for leadership excellence to be attained,
leaders need to manage conflict effectively. The
Dynamic Leadership Essential Four (online)
lists skills that effective leaders will have and
these include;
• Management of own emotions;
• Addressing own conflicts;
• Addressing others’ conflicts;
• Assertiveness;
• Negotiation; and
• Mediation.
Johnson (online 2003) also lists guidelines
for becoming an expert conflict manager:
• Beginning each conflict episode with an “I
win you win” intent to resolve conflict;
• Use communicator styles that show a focus
on others, rather than on self;
• Assess the power relationships involved in
the episode;
30 VUYISILE MSILA
• Employ strategies used by expert problem
solvers;
• Spend time reflecting on the relationships
of conflict responses, problem-solving,
communication, and power to each conflict
scenario;
• Analyse the behaviour of expert school
leaders who have become expert conflict
managers;
• Evaluate and reflect the aftermath of one’s
conflict episode for signs of emerging expertise
in conflict management and continue
to work toward expert leadership.
This section looks at Runde and Flanagan’s
(2010, 2008) theory as to what strategies can
ensure that school leaders become effective conflict
managers. The participants reiterated how
they lacked conflict management skills. They
were never trained or prepared for conflicts
linked with their positions.
The participants showed that it was crucial
for them to develop conflict competence to be
able to deal with conflict situations in their
schools. All concurred that schools experience
conflicts from time to time and when school
principals are competent in handling conflicts,
this would help in ensuring that teaching and
learning never stops in their schools. Runde and
Flanagan (2010) define conflict competence as
the ability to develop and use cognitive, emotional,
and behavioural skills that enhance productive
outcomes of conflict while reducing the
likelihood of escalation or harm. Furthermore,
these writers point out that the results of conflict
competence include improved quality of
relationships, creative solutions, and lasting
agreements for addressing challenges and opportunities
in the future.
Runde and Flanagan (2008) assert that conflict
is at the root of many leaders’ best ideas as
well as the core of their worst failures. In this
study the participants highlighted how conflict
has worsened relations, collegiality and teamwork
in their schools. All pointed out that they
were not competent enough to deal with conflict.
They attribute the lack of competency to
the lack of training or induction when they were
appointed school principals. Their schools are
usually in dire straits during times of conflict
because they utilise instincts than expertise to
deal with conflict. Conflict is also compounded
by the fact that few people understand it as
shown in the study. Runde and Flanagan (2008)
contend that most leaders define conflict in negative
terms such as anger, frustration and stress.
Few describe conflict with words such as opportunity,
energizing or resolution. The latter
was also evident in this study when many participants
maintained conflict needs to be avoided
and discouraged.
Self-knowledge is important if one is to be
an effective conflict manager. Understanding
one’s own values in relation to others as well as
different conflict management styles are key.
Managers who will manage conflict well need
to use a phased approach which emphasises
cooling down, slowing down and engaging constructively
(Runde and Flanagan 2008). Below
the focus is on these processes explicating how
these two authors envisage these.
Cooling down – this is a phase that starts
with increasing one’s self-awareness about what
gets one angry. This self-awareness is a crucial
first step in learning to cool down. In a school a
school principal will be irritated by various colleagues
but has to know how to deal with each.
Slowing down – the challenge that leaders
encounter is to stay cool in a conflict situation.
Yet it is important for a person to wait until they
cool down before moving ahead in a conflict
situation. It is also crucial at this stage to step
back and try to get a clear picture of what is
happening. A person needs to be momentarily
distracted from the conflict so as to begin to relax
and be able to reflect well. In the ensuing
paragraph the focus is on how a competent
school principal can create and sustain the
“right” school culture after working on his or
her conflict competence.
Conflict Management and the ‘Right’
School Culture
The “right” school culture is crucial in any
school if it was to deal with conflict effectively.
Effective school principals would set an atmosphere
of collegiality where conflict is managed
to the benefit of all in the organisation. School
principals and their management teams should
foster a culture that would be receptable to
change. Usually it is change initiatives that are
a source of many conflicts in schools. Many
school principals who are attempting to change
the culture in their schools do so by instilling a
culture of collegiality and collaboration. Sergiovanni
(1991) defines collegiality as the respon-
sibility given to teachers to become an integral
part of the management and leadership processes
of the school. There are a number of ways
to achieve this collegiality. Leithwood et al.
(2004) highlight three crucial leadership practices:
• Developing people-enabling teachers to do
their jobs effectively, offering intellectual
support and stimulation to improve the
work and providing models of practice and
support;
• Setting directions for the organisationdeveloping
shared goals, monitoring organisational
performance and promoting
effective communication;
• Redesigning the organisation-creating a
productive school culture, modifying organisational
structures that undermine the
work, and building collaborative processes.
Linked to the above is Martinez’s (2004: 32)
assertion that successful schools can be represented
in a triangle (Fig. 1):
School Collegiality
Administrative
effectiveness
Classroom
competence
Fig. 1. Martinez’s triangle of collegiality
Martinez stresses that for collegiality to be
ingrained in a school’s culture each of the three
aspects in the triangle needs to be addressed well.
These also relate well to Leithwood et al. (2004)
cited above. Both shed light on an effective
organisational culture. The thesis in this study
is that conflict is unavoidable and is necessary.
Therefore, it is crucial to ensure that the school
culture has correct practices. In the study participants
underscored how their schools lacked
a culture of collaboration and collegiality. In
many instances this resulted to conflict leading
to strained relationships and these strained relationships
made running the schools very challenging.
Martinez (2004) contends that in a collegial
school environment teachers are able to:
• Work well with other teachers;
• Work well with administrators;
• Manage conflict with others, including
teachers, administrators, parents and students;
and
• Match their educational strengths and
preferences with an appropriate school.
A number of schools in the study lacked the
above qualities. Yet, collegiality contributes to
ensuring that change does not lead to dysfunctional
conflict. It is very difficult to handle conflict
in the absence of collegial environment.
Collegiality is about relationships forged by professionals.
It hinders aspects that can stunt
organisational growth. The participants portrayed
that their schools lacked collegiality.
DeLima (2001:97-98) postulates:
School may benefit from teacher collegiality
by taking profit from a co-ordination of
teaching work across classrooms, from a better
organisation for tackling pedagogical and
organisational innovations, and from better
preparation to buffer the negative effects of staff
turnover, by providing assistance to newcomers
and socialising them into the values and traditions
of the school (Little 1987). Collaborative
schools may also be better prepared than
others to promote instructional effectiveness
(Smith 1987) and to provide teachers with increased
and enriched opportunities for professional
growth and accomplishment
De Lima also highlights the need to build
professional communities. In communities
people feel more interdependent than when they
act in isolation. In communities people would
want to deal with conflict in positive ways that
would build the organisation.
Teams and Conflict Management
One of the effective ways utilised by many
managers today is to develop teams as many of
them believe that it is much easier to attain the
school’s vision and goals when teachers work
as teams. In the study, six of the participants
stated that they try to work in teams. In the study
the participants highlighted the importance of
teams in their schools. However, many did not
know how to use these teams effectively in times
of conflict. Yet, Somach (2008:360) writes:
In applying teamwork in education one must
recognise that in schools tasks are often structured
for the individual, and teachers are iso-
32 VUYISILE MSILA
lated within their classrooms. The teachers’
main socialisation into the teaching profession
has been characterised by an individualist approach:
professional training, development, and
promotion focus on specialisation, and teachers
are trained to develop their careers independently
of their staff colleagues (Somech and
Drach-Zahavy 2007).
Despite, these challenges in the nature of
teaching and schools, principals need to develop
teams that would be beneficial to their schools
especially in times of conflict. The school principals
who have teams in their schools should
be able to identify the various dynamics at play
when it comes to schools and teamwork. When
trying to see cooperation happening conflict may
happen and school principals need to be able to
deal with this. In the above discussions we have
seen that conflict is not necessarily negative.
Many organisations that use teams cannot and
will never avoid conflicts. Without these conflicts
teams could never grow and perform optimally.
Conflict is about power and participants
in the study have spoken about the way in which
groups from unions clash in their schools. An
empowered school principal would prepare team
members for a number of roles that they need to
play in the organisation, including conflict resolution.
Convey (1994) states that if a team is to
be successful, it is crucial that members know
the basics of conflict resolution, delegation and
consensus building. As highlighted above, the
school principals in this study lacked the capacity
to deal with conflict in their teams. Conflict
literature points out that managers need to
develop strategy of training members to deal
with conflict. Gahr (1995) lists training phases
that may be useful for school principals working
with teams:
• Conflict resolution awareness
• Conflict resolution training
• Mediation training
• Reinforcement training
• Reinforcement workshops
• Institutionalisation of the programme.
However, what is apparent above is that if
school principals are not equipped with skills
of dealing with conflict, they cannot train their
teams. Therefore, group performance in many
schools will be far from best. Behfar et al. (2008)
point out that a number of scholars have contended
that conflict management and conflict
resolution are important predictors of group
performance. Teachers who lack skills of managing
conflict will hardly be satisfied in their
jobs. When teachers learn to solve conflict in
teams, they learn fairness, justice and moral
uprightness.
CONCLUSION
This study has shown that conflict affects
schools and other organisations almost all the
time. Moreover, the participants underscored
their need to be empowered in conflict management
to be able to steer their schools to success.
The participants also identified crucial skills that
would enable them to be effective conflict managers.
These included the ability to work in
teams, and learning more about the theories of
conflict. Conflict competent school principals
are able to deal with conflict situations well.
Moreover, effective conflict managers understand
themselves well and this is crucial in conflict.
Understanding oneself is as important as
understanding the other party and this is the
basis for creating effective school managers.
Effective school managers will also eschew seeing
conflict in negative light. The school’s vision
can be attained after the conflict has been
handled well. In fact, schools that grow are those
that have experienced some kind of conflict.
Successful schools will be those that have effective
conflict managers at the helm. Below, the
paper closes with the study’s recommendations.
RECOMMENDATIONS
After the completion of the study the following
recommendations were drawn:
• The induction of school principals should
be mandatory and conflict management
should be among the important aspects in
this induction;
• Practicing school principals need an ongoing
formal professional development
because education practices constantly
change all the time;
• School principals should not only refine
their own professional development but
should build more teacher leaders in their
schools. This would equip the school with
a team of “expert educators” who will know
what to do during the times of conflict;
• More research needs to be conducted in
schools regarding the instilling of conflict
management among school principals.
Conflict Resolution at School & on the Playground
Children find themselves in precarious situations that often lead to escalated conflict with
their peers. Conflicts arise in the classroom, lunchroom, library, school bus, playground,
while standing in line, and any place where kids gather. During adolescence into the
developing stages of puberty, many children act out their emotions in the form of teasing,
gossip, and physical aggression. If left unchecked, these same behavioral patterns will
transfer over into the teenage years, where stiffer competition exists among peer groups.
The inability to resolve conflict without resorting violence is symptomatic of youth’s
inability to handle confrontation. Teaching youth how to resolve conflict in a peaceful
way can help reduce incidents of violence and criminal mischief. Conflict resolution
education aims to make that a reality.
Conflict resolution education attempts to instill problem-solving skills among the

children in dispute. It involves allowing both parties to express their points of view,
interests, and provide ways to find acceptable solutions. Conflict resolution educational
programs equip educators with the necessary tools to teach kids how to resolve conflict in
nonviolent ways. The most effective programs encompass multiple components to
achieve this outcome, including problem-solving skills, effective communication and
listening skills, critical and creative thinking skills, and other important life skills.
Educators have identified four conflict resolution strategies that can be used in a variety
of school-based settings. These four conflict resolution strategies include peer mediation,
process curriculum, peaceable classrooms, and peaceable schools. All four approaches
provide youth with the necessary tools to help cope with conflict. Educators can work
with their local school district to determine which approach to use for the best results.
Many experts assert that the youth will learn to recognize and resolve problems before
they escalate.Many schools and communities have adopted the peer mediation approach
to teaching conflict resolution. Under this approach, trained mediators work with their
peers to resolve conflict. Mediation programs aim to reduce traditional use of
punishment, such as suspension, detention, and expulsion. Peer mediation programs have
proven effective in most cases involving conflict turned violent. As a result, these
programs have become highly valued among teachers.
Teachers also have the option of devoting a separate course, or curriculum, to the
principles and processes of conflict resolution. The process curriculum approach aims to
teach kids how to solve disputes by helping them envision scenarios that could occur in
the future. This approach introduces ways to solve problems before they arise. The same
applies for the peaceable classroom approach, except that it integrates conflict resolution
into the daily curriculum and overall management of the classroom. The peaceable
classroom approach reinforces cooperative behavior and encourages the acceptance of
diversity. It also teaches caring and effective communication.
Schools that have adopted the peaceable classroom approach typically have the entire
school involved the process. In fact, many schools have adopted the peaceable school
approach, which incorporates the above three approaches. A peaceable school creates an
environment where everyone works together toward conflict resolution, including
students, teachers, and administrators. The peaceable school approach ensures that the
entire school remains watchful of possible conflicts.
The aforementioned conflict resolution programs have helped schools, communities, and
juvenile justice settings improve their overall climate. Many institutions have reported a
reduction in disruptive and violent behavior, chronic school absences, and disciplinary
referrals and suspensions. These conflict resolution programs have also given the young
increased self-esteem, self-confidence, and self-respect. Adults play an important part in
making sure kids exercise their newly found conflict resolution skills. Therefore, it
remains vitally important for school personnel to set an example. All of these programs
aim to keep both children and adults in line without resulting to violence.
http://cncr.rutgers.edu/conflict-resolution-at-school-on-the-playground/
Peace in the schoolyard: conflict resolution in the classroom

BY CAITLIN MCVEAN
By giving young people skill to express and resolve conflicts on their own, educators
build their self-esteem and their sense of responsibility. Each child becomes more aware
of the unique qualities of other children, thus reducing the likelihood of further conflict. I
have been volunteering this year helping elementary school kids learn conflict resolution,
using successful programs from the United States.
CREATING A PEACEFUL CLASSROOM
In her book, Learning the Skills of Peacemaking, Naomi Drew sets out four components
of the peaceful classroom: accepting self and others, communicating effectively,
understanding cultural differences, and resolving conflict. She says that peace begins
with each individual; it manifests itself first in how we feel about ourselves. Drew
suggests a method of "creative visualization." At the beginning of each class, students are
encouraged to imagine what kind of class, school, country or world they want. She asks
such questions as: "How do you want to be treated by your classmates?" "How would our
class be if we all did our best to get along?" "How would the world be different if
everybody were committed to peace and knew how to make it a reality?" Some, she
cautions, may resist this thinking. Many people have given up believing that they can
change anything. But teachers who promote peace need the faith that--no matter what--
we are capable of reaching each child. I have seen teachers give up on especially difficult
children. However, even more than others, those children need acknowledgment for
doing something right. If we ignore their negative behavior, it tends to diminish. Drew
suggests making a list of a particularly difficult child's positive traits and sharing it with
the child.
But if the negative behavior continues, you may need to take further steps by offering the
children a choice. "Jason and Carl, you can either stop arguing or put the game away."
You may also make a personal request. "I'd like to ask you to play quietly now. Are you
willing to stop arguing and continue your game?" If these steps don't work, try a time out.
"It seems to me that you boys need a break from one another. When you both feel ready
to resume playing calmly you can return to the game." The key thing is to avoid judging
or punishing. Drew sometimes uses a reward system to reinforce behaviors--such as
perhaps a star chart. Each child receives a star for good behavior. In the school where I
volunteer there is a practice of rewarding a "Star Student" from each class every week.
These students are further rewarded by serving as the teacher's helper the following week.
Express love. Have fun together. And take care of yourself too, treating yourself lovingly.
These guidelines help create a peaceful classroom.
CONFLICT RESOLUTION
I will be referring here to Conflict Resolution: An Elementary School Curriculum, a
working program based in San Francisco. For a program such as this to work, it is
important to give merit to each student's answer. There is no single right answer. If we
approach conflict with this spirit, respecting others' differences, we'll be on our way to
creating peace. When we think of conflict, we may assume that someone must lose and
someone win.
However, the Community Board Program in San Francisco treats conflict as a positive
part of life in which we develop new responses to problems. It strengthens relationships
and reveals more to us about ourselves and others. These qualities come together in the
"Win-Win assumption." Problem-solvers set out, not to prove that the other is wrong, but
to find out what the other person's concerns are. What this process involves is the search
for the underlying issue in each conflict. The first step is discovering and appreciating
how each person sees the situation. This is where the self-esteem comes into play. A
child who feels good about herself will feel less threatened by other points of view. It is
unrealistic to enter a conflict intending to change the other person's view. Instead, we
need to understand the feelings lying behind the problem. Each person needs to identify
what she is feeling and talk openly about it.
This breaks down a big barrier; no one has to guess or run the risk of misunderstanding.
To convey feelings, the disputants must talk clearly. Too often in a conflict situation we
react by blaming or accusing the other person. This only serves to make the other side
defensive. The Community Board program suggests the use of "I messages" that describe
one's feelings about the other's behavior. This makes both sides aware of the results of
their actions without any judgment being made. A typical scenario would include the
speaker's feelings ("I feel..."), the actions that brought on these feelings ("When you..."),
why the speaker feels this way ("Because...") and what they want ("And I want..."). This
is a simple little guideline for children of all ages. However, we must hold such
conversations in appropriate times and places, and we must be careful how we express
such messages. There is more to a conversation than the words. Only by listening can we
gather necessary information for mutually acceptable solutions. Listening also gives all
the parties to the dispute a chance to calm down and focus on something besides their
own anger. This requires setting aside one's own feelings momentarily, in order to
understand the other. This is one of the most difficult steps in conflict resolution. Both
sides need to know they will get an equal chance to be heard. The Community Board
Program encourages "active listening"--responding to the speaker so as to show how you
understand what the speaker is saying, feeling, and doing. One way is to ask each side to
restate what the other has communicated. The listener must put aside his own reactions to
what is being said and remain open. To seem unwilling to hear the other side of the
argument will provoke defensiveness. Now we can turn to the actual process involved in
resolving conflict, according to The Community Board Program:
1. Both students agree not to interrupt or name call, and to work to solve the conflict.
2. One person tells his or her side of the story, using "I messages."
3. The other person restates what the problem is for the first person. Repeat steps one
and two for the other person.
4. Both people suggest possible solutions through brainstorming.
5. Both sides agree on a resolution. This process can be simplified according to level of
maturity. For example, when working with younger children, instead of having them
restate the other person's position, you may ask them if they understand what the
other has said. The agreement needs to be specific about who will do what, when,
where, and with whom. Without these details it is unlikely that the solution will be
carried out. Also, the agreement needs to be balanced. Both people need to share the
responsibility to make the agreement work. The agreement should also be one that
both sides can carry out, and the problem must be solved effectively. The teacher, as
the main person to whom children turn with problems, has the responsibility for
educating them in positive conflict resolution. One way to aid in this process is by
showcasing conflicts. With the consent of the students, bring their problem up in
front of the class and work it through. Each classroom can have a "Quiet Corner"
where children go to resolve their conflicts. It should be a place removed from the
class, with easy-to-read instructions posted on the wall.
Before taking their problem to the quiet corner, students must ask the teacher's
permission and briefly explain their conflict.
Furthermore, students must state their solution to the teacher before rejoining the class.
This allows the teacher to make sure that the process is carried out and that the solution is
workable.
SCHOOLYARD HELPERS
Another suggestion of the Community Board Program is to use conflict managers in the
schoolyard. Conflict managers are students, trained in the resolution process, who offer
help, which students can either reject or accept. They do not solve the problems but rather
act as a neutral third party. By redirecting the disputants' attention to this neutral party,
anger can more easily be diffused. It is important to give students a big role in conflict
resolution. They will have the most profound impact on their generation; we are just there
to lead them in the right direction. Luckily, I am part of a successful conflict resolution
program. Shelter Bay Public School in Meadowvale is one of a handful of schools in
Ontario with such programs. Under the leadership of Marilyn Rathke, Shelter Bay has
established both a conflict managers program and an in-school conflict resolution
program. In small groups, students are exposed to activities that require co-operation and
effective communication. One of the most important ways to avoid conflict is through
effective social skills. This may be as simple as learning to ask for something nicely or
waiting your turn to speak, but the rewards are endless.
Finding students who experience difficulties in the classroom, teachers reward their
positive behavior by giving them time to share their success with Mrs. Rathke. This
serves to improve self-esteem by giving these children the attention and reinforcing the
messages that they need to learn. The conflict managers are selected from grades four and
five, to ensure the continuation of the program from year to year. They are nominated by
their classmates but retain the option of saying yes or no, since those selected to be
conflict managers should really want to be there.
They receive training in conflict resolution and must pass a test to qualify for the
position. These students have been very effective in aiding conflict resolution among
their peers.
Students are glad they don't have to take their problems to a teacher and that they are
trusted to work their problems out on their own. This new responsibility has given
students a vested interest in the program and has reduced conflicts. It really does work.
PEACE IN THE SCHOOLYARD
It's 10:15 a.m. and the students of Shelter Bay Public School are pouring out onto the
playground. Two figures stand out from the rest. Overtopping their jackets these grade
five students proudly display their uniform; a black and white T-shirt with the words
"Conflict Manager" on the front and back. It is their job to help settle any conflict that
may arise in the schoolyard. Their chance has come. Two students have just begun to
argue and one of them is in tears. The Conflict Managers question both students and
determine that one has hit the other--but also that the child who was hit had called the
other child names. They both express feelings of hurt and anger and demand an apology.
The Conflict Managers' job has been made simple by one fact: both students wish to
solve the problem. By listening to one another describe their feelings of hurt, they are
better able to understand one another and why what they did was wrong. Both students
apologize and agree not to hurt each other in the future. The Conflict Managers move on.
It is not long before another argument breaks out. This time, one student is accusing
another student of stealing Pogs, part of a popular schoolyard game. The grade four
student had dropped his Pogs by accident, and in the process of picking them up had seen
the other child pick some up and put them in his pocket. When he had asked for them
back, the boy denied taking them. The boy did have Pogs in his pocket, but far more than
he had been accused of stealing. The Conflict Managers, in their role of mediator, are
unable to secure an agreement between the two students. In this case the Conflict
Managers feel that it is best to inform a teacher of the situation, and both students agree.
This is a good example of some of the limits placed on Conflict Managers. They are not
in a position to judge other students, nor are they able to force students to solve the
problem.
Just as recess is about to end, one further conflict breaks out on the soccer field. The
soccer game has just been interrupted by one of the students who has been watching the
game; she has taken the ball and refuses to give it back. As the Conflict Managers arrive,
the student is attempting to join in the game. The other students refuse to play. When
asked why she took the ball, she states that she is never picked to play soccer and that all
she wants to do is join in. The other students express that they would have let her play if
she had asked rather than just taken the ball, but now it's too late. She refuses to give the
ball back until she is allowed to play. The Conflict Managers ask the group if they
wouldn't mind letting the girl play at afternoon recess. They agree. In return, the girl
gives the ball back and apologizes to her friends. As the Conflict Managers leave, they
overhear some of the students apologizing for not including the girl. The bell sounds and
the students of Shelter Bay file back into the school. The Conflict Managers have done
their job and return to being ordinary students--until they're needed again.
Conflict is a part of life. By teaching young people how to respond to conflict in a
constructive manner, we are giving them the power and the knowledge to shape the
future. The Conflict Manager program is just one example of how children can make a
difference. Conflict doesn't have to be negative. It offers a chance for us to learn about
others and about ourselves. Embrace it.
CULTIVATING PEACE ON THE PLAYGROUND
As both urban and suburban schools fill to capacity we are forced to assess the quality of
our childrens' experiences both inside and outside of the classroom. Conflict resolution,
through mediation and peer management, has been successful in modifying aggressive
behavior in the classroom, and to some extent, the playground. However, more can be
done. Some schools have already concluded that the environment must play a key role in
conflict resolution. By naturalizing school playgrounds, each child, regardless of his or
her interests, will be able to find a place to belong.
Not every child takes comfort in large group activities such as baseball or tag. In fact, by
giving students no other opportunity to socialize on the playground, we are creating a
situation where bullying and conflict are most likely to thrive. Thearchitects of the
modern playground appear to have given little thought to this situation. More often than
not, there is inadequate space provided for children to sit or get out of the sun. We cannot
assume that the schoolyard experience is positive for everyone, just as we cannot
presume to know what each child wants.
Shelter Bay Public School near Mississauga is showing what communities and schools
can do to correct this problem. The school has embarked on a plan to create a more
natural and healthy environment. The staff, parents, and students planted trees and
flowers and constructed alternative play areas. While this is only a start, the benefits can
already be seen. These areas are being used and they are a source of great pride for
Shelter Bay students. With a little hard work and a vision, we can make a difference.
FOOTNOTES:
(f.1) Naomi Drew. Learning the Skills of Peacemaking. California: Jalmar Press, 1987.
(f.2) Gail Sadalla, Meg Holmberg, and Jim Halligan. Conflict Resolution: An Elementary
School Curriculum. San Francisco: The Community Board Program, Inc., 1990.
Caitlin McVean is a graduate of political science and peace and conflict studies at the
University of Toronto. She is entering teaching college in Ottawa in the fall.
http://peacemagazine.org/archive/v11n4p24.htm
Teaching conflict resolution
Edna C. Olive
We should not have to settle all conflict situations in our groups - only those which fall
through the cracks of our better programming. What can we learn from schools which
implement “better hygiene” principles?
Too many of our young people are caught up in conflicts every day that they do not know
how to manage teasing, jealousy and physical aggression. Juvenile delinquency and
violence are symptoms of youth’s inability to manage conflict in their lives. Teaching
youth how to manage conflict in a productive way can help reduce incidents of violent
behavior. Conflict resolution education is a beneficial component of a comprehensive
violence prevention and intervention program in schools and communities.
Conflict resolution education encompasses problem solving in which the parties in

dispute express their points of view, voice their interests, and find mutually acceptable
solutions. Conflict resolution education programs help the parties recognize that while
conflict happens all the time, people can learn new skills to deal with conflict in
nonviolent ways. The programs that appear to be most effective are comprehensive and
involve multiple components such as the problem-solving processes and principles of
conflict resolution, the basics of effective communication and listening, critical and
creative thinking, and an emphasis on personal responsibility and self-discipline.
Effective conflict resolution education programs can:
Enable children to respond nonviolently to conflict by using the conflict resolution

problem-solving processes of negotiation, mediation, and consensus decision-making.
Enable educators' ability to manage students' behavior without coercion by emphasizing
personal responsibility and self-discipline. Mobilize community involvement in violence
prevention through education programs and services, such as expanding the role of youth
as effective citizens beyond the school into the community.
Four common strategies for approaching conflict resolution

Experts identify four school-based conflict resolution strategies that can be replicated in
other settings. These are commonly referred to as:
1. Peer Mediation,
2. Process Curriculum,
3. Peaceable Classrooms, and
4. Peaceable Schools.
In all four approaches, conflict resolution education is viewed as giving youth nonviolent
tools to deal with daily conflicts that can lead to self-destructive and violent behaviors. It
is up to each local school district to decide how conflict resolution education will be
integrated into its overall educational environment. The expectation is that when youth
learn to recognize and constructively address what takes place before conflict or
differences lead to violence, the incidence and intensity of that situation will diminish.
The program examples provided below empower young people with the processes and
skills of conflict resolution. However, youth need to know that conflict resolution does
not take precedence over adult responsibility to provide the final word in a variety of
circumstances or situations. Conflict resolution has a place in the home, school, and
community, but it can only supplement, not supplant, adult authority.
Peer Mediation approach

Recognizing the importance of directly involving youth in conflict resolution, many
schools and communities are using the Peer Mediation approach. Under this approach,
specially trained student mediators work with their peers to resolve conflicts. Mediation
programs reduce the use of traditional disciplinary actions such as suspension, detention,
and expulsion; encourage effective problem solving; decrease the need for teacher
involvement in student conflicts; and improve school climate.
An example of a Peer Mediation program is We Can Work It Out, developed by the

National Institute for Citizenship Education in the Law and the National Crime
Prevention Council. The program promotes mediation, negotiation, or other non-litigating
methods as strategies to settle unresolved confrontations and fighting.
One Albuquerque elementary school principal reported, “We were having 100 to 150
fights every month on the playground before we started the New Mexico Center for
Dispute Resolution's Mediation in the Schools Program. By the end of the school year,
we were having maybe 10 (fights).” Other elementary schools using the same Peer
Mediation approach to conflict resolution education reported that playground fighting had
been reduced to such an extent that peer mediators found themselves out of a job.
Process Curriculum approach

Teachers who devote a specific time - a separate course, a distinct curriculum, or a daily
lesson - to the principles, foundation abilities, and problem-solving processes of conflict
resolution are implementing the Process Curriculum approach. The Program for Young
Negotiators, based on the Harvard Negotiation Project, is representative of this approach.
Participating students, teachers, and administrators are taught how to use principled
negotiation to achieve goals and resolve disputes. This type of negotiation helps
disputants envision scenarios and generate options for achieving results that satisfy both
sides.
In a North Carolina middle school with more than 700 students, conflict resolution
education was initiated. The school used the Peace Foundation's Fighting
Fair curriculum and a combination of components from various conflict resolution
projects. After a school year, in-school suspensions decreased from 52 to 30 incidents (a
42-percent decrease), and out-of-school suspensions decreased from 40 incidents to 1 (a
97-percent decrease).
Peaceable Classroom approach

The Peaceable Classroom approach integrates conflict resolution into the curriculum and
daily management of the classroom. It uses the instructional methods of cooperative
learning and “academic controversy.” The Educators for Social Responsibility
curriculum, Making Choices About Conflict, Security, and Peacemaking, is a peaceable
classroom approach to conflict resolution. The program shows teachers how to integrate
conflict resolution into the curriculum, classroom management, and discipline practices.
It emphasizes opportunities to practice cooperation, appreciation of diversity, and caring
and effective communication. Generally, peaceable classrooms are initiated on a teacher-
by-teacher basis into the classroom setting and are the building blocks of the peaceable
school.
Studies on the effectiveness of the Teaching Students To Be Peacemakers program, a

Peaceable Classroom approach to conflict resolution, show that discipline problems
requiring teacher management decreased by approximately 80 percent and referrals to the
principal were reduced to zero.
Peaceable School approach

The Peaceable School approach incorporates the above three approaches. This approach
seeks to create schools where conflict resolution has been adopted by every member of
the school community, from the crossing guard to the classroom teacher. A peaceable
school promotes a climate that challenges youth and adults to believe and act on the
understanding that a diverse, nonviolent society is a realistic goal.
In creating the Peaceable School Program of the Illinois Institute for Dispute Resolution,
students are empowered with conflict resolution skills and strategies to regulate and
control their own behavior. Conflict resolution is infused into the way business is
conducted at the school between students, between students and teachers and other
personnel, between teachers and administrators, and between parents and teachers and
administrators.
In an evaluation of the Resolving Conflict Creatively Program in four multiethnic school

districts in New York City, teachers of the Peaceable School approach to conflict
resolution reported a 71-percent decrease in physical violence in the classroom and
observed 66 percent less name calling and fewer verbal insults. Other changes in student
behavior reported by the teachers included greater acceptance of differences, increased
awareness and articulation of feelings, and a spontaneous use of conflict resolution skills
throughout the school day in a variety of academic and nonacademic settings.
The effective conflict resolution education programs highlighted above have helped to
improve the climate in school, community and juvenile justice settings by reducing the
number of disruptive and violent acts in these settings; by decreasing the number of
chronic school absences due to a fear of violence; by reducing the number of disciplinary
referrals and suspensions; by increasing academic instruction during the school day; and
by increasing the self-esteem and self-respect, as well as the personal responsibility and
self-discipline of the young people involved in these programs.
Young people cannot be expected to promote and encourage the peaceful resolution of
conflicts if they do not see conflict resolution principles and strategies being modeled by
adults in all areas of their lives, such as in business, sports, entertainment, and personal
relationships. Adults play a part in making the environment more peaceful by practicing
nonviolent conflict resolution when minor or major disputes arise in their daily lives.
Information for this feature from the U.S. Department of Education.
https://www.cyc-net.org/cyc-online/cycol-0306-conflict.html
Peaceful Playground
These are the 5 principles of Peaceful Playground.
Principle #1
Well-marked game lines and boundaries are a must. They serve as a motivating reminder
to the students that those marks represent a fun activity. No one has to waste time asking
themselves, "What shall we do now?" especially if there is a variety of games marked all
around the playground, both on the blacktop and in the grassy areas. With so many
choices, children have fewer conflicts and are spread more evenly in the playing area. It
means that children wait in line less and play more. When they know they will be getting
their turn quickly, there is less reason to argue over rules. Also the colorful shapes
provide a more appealing, almost amusement park, look to the surroundings. There is the
expense of the paint and labor to consider. In most schools where the Peaceful
Playgrounds Program has been used, community members and parent groups such as
PTA, PTO, high school leadership groups, and Boy/Girl Scout troops have donated paint
and labor. They work together with district maintenance crews to organize "painting
parties" as a community service project. Blueprints for the entire layout are available in
the companion Primary Blueprint. A complete set of rules for each game can be found in
the Activities Guide.
Principle #2
The toughest part of playground supervision is solving disputes between angry
participants. The program philosophy is that a consistent set of rules eliminates the
playground arguments, which can be attributed to rule infractions. The rules aren't
difficult, but they must be introduced by teachers and inter-actively taught to students
through instruction, use, and modeling. Each teacher makes it a point to cover the rules of
each game and enforces them to the letter. There can be no exceptions, e.g. do-overs,"
"freebies," "seconds," "no-takes," etc. The playground supervisors should also take part
in the instruction of the rules and the importance of consistency. Substitute supervisors
should be given an easy-to read copy of the rules. lf Mrs. Smith's students play by the
same set of tetherball rules as Mr. Franco's class, the students shouldn't have any
argument about rules. An in-service at the beginning of school can prepare the staff for
their role in teaching the playground game rules and insure consistency. lIt has to be a
team effort-, and when implemented properly, ultimately everybody wins.
Principle #3
Appropriate social interaction requires that students are taught skills for dealing with
playground problems and disagreements. Ideally, if a problem occurs, a child doesn't
have to go to an adult to resolve it. Teaching students how to solve problems can be
em6edded in many curricular units and part of a school's social skills curriculum. The
Peaceful Playground Program is designed to help youngsters develop negotiating and
communication skills that will serve them in adulthood. Rather than having school yard
supervisors intercede in playground conflicts, pupils learn to handle the matters
themselves' For most situations students know that there are three options to resolve
conflicts, WALK, TALK, PAPER-SCISSORS-ROCK. Walk away from the problem; 2)
Talk together with whom they are having a problem until they reach an agreement; or 3)
Use Paper, Scissors, Rock Game. These options work well with disputes over rule
infractions.
lf the strife is the result of name calling, teasing or hitting, the pupils involved are asked
to leave their play area and reminded that they must "work out" their disagreement before
returning to the activity.
Instruction in conflict resolution should outline three steps:
1. Discussion of who started the conflict.

2. Clarify the incident.
3. End with an apology.
Resolution usually comes quickly because students are eager to get back to their games.
Having children resolve their own problems frees supervisors to do what they do best...
look after the safety of all children on the playground.
Principle #4
Most educators agree that books, paper and pencils are necessary equipment for
successful academic instruction. The playground, too, requires appropriate equipment for
successful game participation. A central check-out system with one person in charge of
equipment check-out and check-in is the most desirable . Distributing equipment from
each classroom is not as effective and results in more loss. A central person can monitor
the check-out and retrieval as well as the inventory and maintenance of equipment.
An air pump should be in the equipment room so balls can be properly inflated and
quickly distributed. A general rule of thumb is that there should be a minimum of one
piece of equipment for every ten students on the playground at any given time. The life
expectancy of a playground ball, if it is used correctly, is one year, and Therefore, should
be budgeted for and replaced accordingly.
Principle #5
It is especially important that the Peaceful Playgrounds Program is implemented school-
wide to insure success. Each staff member should understand and support the principles
outlined. Not only should teachers hold students responsible for playing by a consistent
set of rules, they also need to hold students accountable for handling their playground
problems by choosing from one of the three options. If a staff member starts settling
conflicts for students, soon students believe their role in handling conflicts is limited or
nonexistent, so they fall back into the habit of whining and tattling to the supervisors.
Being able to play cooperatively empowers children and teaches them to work
cooperatively in the classroom. In an age when violence in schools is too often on the
front page of newspapers administrators need to look at new strategies for more peaceful
playgrounds. This program works to head off problems early. It also instills student
responsibility and conflict resolution skills that transcend the playground to the
classroom, the home, and the community.
Rutherford
https://stillwaterschools.org/schools/elementary-schools/rutherford-
elementary/programs/peaceful-playground
CONFLICT RESOLUTION
What is Conflict Resolution?
Conflict Resolution is a problem-solving approach to conflict. A "mediator" walks the

complainants through a discussion of the conflict to help them solve their differences.
There is a standard procedure that is taught when students are not in conflict so when
they end up in one, they know the procedures.
Objectives of the workshop:
1. To introduce teachers to a Conflict Resolution model.
2. To allow teachers to observe it in action.
3. To encourage teachers to "buy into" the proces.
4. To provide time for practice.
5. To see how Conflict Resolution can be used school-wide
Three Basic Models:
There are three basic conflict resolution models which can be used successfully in
isolation, or they can be combined to create a model specific to a school:
1. In-class Model
A self-contained classroom where conflict resolution strategies are used. They are not
used throughout the school because the school has not "bought" into it.
2. School-wide Model
The complete school addresses conflicts via conflict resolution strategies. Teachers in
halls/etc. can approach any student conflict and will be able to interact using conflict
resolution strategies because all students know how the system operates. Parents are often
involved as well.
3. Community-wide Model
Students are taught concepts such as due process, the rights and responsibilities of
individuals, how problems are resolved in courts, etc. Parents are highly involved, as are
other community members.
Which model to use depends upon local needs. If most of the staff is in agreement but the
community is not, then it is wise to start with a school-wide model. If the staff is not
supportive, then start with the in-class model.
Three Basic Conflict Styles:
1. Avoidance
2. Confrontation
3. Problem-solving
Active Listeners:
1. Listen politely
2. Ask questions for clarification
3. Repeat what was said in your own words
4. Summarize
5. Acknowledge speakers point of view, feelings, etc.
Problem-Solving:
1. Choose an appropriate time and place

2. Identify the problem
3. Brainstorm solutions
4. Agree on a solution
5. Avoid compromise or win/lose situations
6. Always try for win/win situations
7. Respect the rights and values of others
8. Check back later to ensure the solution is working
Compromise and win/lose situations almost always produce dissatisfaction in everyone.
Practicing Conflict Resolution Strategies
As with teaching anything, students and teachers must be taught:
 how it works,
 given time for practice in various role-playing situations,
 reinforcement of what was taught, and
 the importance of consistency
CONFLICT RESOLUTION
STEP #1:
Person #1: TELL YOUR SIDE of the story
 Facts
 Describe WHAT happened...NOT WHY it happened
 Use "I" statements
 Be respectful
Person #2: LISTEN ACTIVELY
 Can ask questions to clarify a point

 When the person is finished, repeat what you heard
 Please DO NOT change, or add anything
STEP #2: REPEAT STEP #1 with roles reversed
STEP #3: Mediator CLARIFIES the CONFLICT
 checks with the students
STEP #4: Everyone expresses FEELINGS (take turns)

 What did/do you feel?
 How would you rather feel?
 What are your needs? Hopes?
 Verbal vs. diagrams for different learning styles
STEP #5: How can we SOLVE this problem?
STEP #6: Select a WIN/WIN solution
STEP #7: Agree on FOLLOW-UP
 consequences
 checking back to be sure the solution works
STEP #8: Principal does CLOSURE
Life-Space Interview
{or how to use a crisis as a learning tool}

Conflict
Resolution
Don't find fault, guilt,
What is the humiliate,
STEPS 1&2 instigating or moralize
situation Starting a timeline of
events
|
As the mediator - what
your
Get the perception is, at this
student's time, doesn't
STEPS 1&2
perception of matter
the problem Get sequence of events =
getting
details for the timeline
|
Go back to the timeline
Clarify distortions
for
STEP 3 about what really
clarification
happened
Teaching cause & effect
|
An important step as it
Talk about how
STEP 4 validates
everyone felt
everyone's feelings
|
Plan for progress. Adding to the timeline

STEPS 5&6 What should be = what are we going to
done now do?
Clarify
Reality
IF Next phase of
STEP 7 |__ --- Motivation
UNREALISTIC the timeline
Options
Consequences
Implement
The timeline is
|__ IF REALISTIC --- Follow through
continued
Evaluate
STEP 8 CLOSURE
Benefits of a Life-Space Interview
Combined with a
Conflict Resolution Approach:
 Crisis is seen as a teaching opportunity

 Gets people talking about their perception of the issue
 Clarifies reality
 Attitude towards children is empathic/understanding
 Recognizes & validates childrens' thoughts
 Works at replacing "blaming" with personal responsibility
 Gives the student positive skills in coping, problem-solving, analyzing behaviors
 Teaches cause and effect
 Consequences are reality-based
 Student learns other people are willing to help solve a problem
 Independence, belonging, mastery, and generosity are important components of a
person's life, even in crisis
 Focus is working from, and developing strengths in students
MONITORING BEHAVIOR
Any policy that is implemented needs to be monitored. Monitoring will take many forms:
1. Monitoring student behavior
A sample monitoring form is on the next page. It assumes that many of the strategies will
have been used to both address the problem and to find a positive solution. These notes
are kept by the teacher. If the principal, or parents are involved, they also get copies. This
way everyone involved is aware of what is going on. This type of system is useful
because over time a specific student's file can be pulled and patterns can be looked for. If
patterns are found, then pro-active strategies can be developed to help that student learn
what "triggers" him.
2. Monitoring information going home
Some information does not have to go home, others must. Often this is student and/or
situational dependent.
3. Monitoring the overall success of the policy
In order to see if what is being implemented works, there needs to be a monitoring
component. This is often built into the Action Plans.
4. Monitoring changes in teacher/student/administrator/etc. behaviors
Staff meetings are great places to have a "social" component where problems with the
system are discussed and alterations suggested.
NAME: NAME:
Date: Date:
This student was: This student was:
Signed: Signed:
MEETING: MEETING:
Students(s) Teacher Principal Students(s) Teacher Principal
Parent(s) Other(s): Parent(s) Other(s):
ACTION PLAN ACTION PLAN
What each person involved is: What each person involved is:
GOING TO DO: GOING TO DO:
INDICATORS OF SUCCESS INDICATORS OF SUCCESS
BY WHEN: BY WHEN:
OTHER? OTHER?
CLOSURE: CLOSURE:
Personal Growth
Student: Date:
Student's Signature:
Parent's Signature:
COMMENTS:
Scenarios....
STUDENT - TO - STUDENT:
1. School Bus Incident
In the morning, the bus driver brings in two students (to classroom teacher). Says
they were fighting on the bus. Didn't see what started it. Concerned about the
violent verbal and physical behavior of Sally/Sam.
Denise/Dwayne:
{cocky...mouthy towards Sally/Sam...when S says something, D would respond in a
"smart-ass" way}
Sally/Sam:
{extremely distraught...refuses to let D person talk...obviously mad at what happened...}
S claims:
1. S claims D pulled a knife and jabbed it several times at S.
2. S claims it's a real knife.
3. S threatens to tell mother.
D claims:
1. It's not a real knife, but a toy one {can't produce it as evidence}
2. Doesn't care if S tells the "whole world"
Additional information:
Sally/Sam is usually a student who avoids confrontations. Sally/Sam observed mother

being stabbed with a knife and she had to be rushed to the hospital....
2. Fighting on Playground
Three students, from the same class, get sent to their teacher because they were in a
fist fight on the play ground....
1. ALL three students have a different version of what happened.
2. It's a few minutes before 1:00 and as the teacher, you have to do some xeroxing before
class {you don't have time to do both.}
3. Any other student - to - student scenario????
STUDENT - TO - ADULT:
1. Student wanting to go home before school is out
A student (Shirley age 16) says she has a headache and wants to skip the last two
classes of the day. As you {a teacher or support worker} come into the room, a
teacher, or support worker, is already arguing with Shirley. Shirley says she wants
to go home, the teacher/support worker is saying she can't. There are at the stage of
the arugment where the teacher/support worker is going to send Shirley to the
office. You are 99% certain Shirley does not have a headache and is 'just trying to
skip school.'
1. What is your responsibility/role in this situation?
2. How can the teacher/support worker who is arguing with Shirley "get out of the
situation" they are in?
3. How can a Conflict Resolution strategy help?
4. Solve this conflict in a positive way.....

2. A student tells you to "F... Off!"
A 14 year old student, Tommy, is rough-housing in the hallway. He's pushing

another student around. You ask them to stop, the other boy does but Tommy starts
to get mouthy. You politely, and firmly, go over the school's expectations re: hallway
behavior and point out Tommy's behavior was unacceptable. Tommy begins to
argue with you and tells you to "F...Off."
1. Tommy is not "your student".
2. You're in a hurry to get to your class, which will start in about a minute.
3. You don't want the hassle of dealing with Tommy.
4. What will you do?
3. Other scenarios?????
ADULT - TO - ADULT:
1. Arugment between two adults
A case conference is being held to discuss what should be done with Barry, a 15 year
old student. He is constantly in trouble, skipping classes, not doing homework, being
disruptive in class, and so on. Present at the case conference are: principal, Barry's
teachers, counsellor, and a support staff member who interacts on a regular basis
with Barry. Two of the adults are arguing about what to do with Barry. One person
wants him suspended, the other says suspensions don't work. Their argument is
getting heated.
1. Barry IS disruptive in the class, in the halls, and outside.
2. When Barry is away, the class is much 'quieter'.
3. What has been 'done for Barry' to date includes:
 in-school suspensions;
 a 5-day suspension;
 parents have been in several times, always supportative;
 Barry has been 'talked to' many times by teachers, support staff, principal;
 the principal, and teachers have tried to councel Barry, to no avail;
 Barry says he wants to graduate;
 Barry has refused counselling;
4. The teacher who wants Barry suspended has had enough. He/she feels the school has
done everything for Barry and it's time to focus on the needs of other students. The other
person in the argument disagrees.
5. This is a common argument 'type', between adults, one of philosophical differences.
2. Any other example????

http://www.canteach.ca/elementary/fnations61.html
Classroom Behavior Management: A Dozen Common Mistakes and What to Do

Instead
Contents
Authors: Barbetta, Patricia, Norona, Kathleen Leong, Bicard, David
Source: Preventing School Failure; Spring2005, Vol. 49 Issue 3, p11-19, 9p
One of our primary responsibilities as teachers is to help our students learn. It is difficult
for learning to take place in chaotic environments. Subsequently, we are challenged daily
to create and maintain a positive, productive classroom atmosphere conducive to
learning. On any given day, this can be quite a challenge. In our attempts to face this
challenge, we find ourselves making common classroom behavior management mistakes.
This article is designed to presents some of these common mistakes followed by
suggestions as to what we should do instead. The mistakes presented are committed
frequently, at many grade levels and in all types of learning environments. Each
suggestion is relatively easy to implement and useful for all types of learners.
We have based our suggestions on several assumptions and beliefs. First and foremost,
teachers have considerable influence over student behavior. This is particularly true if
interventions begin early and are supported at home. Next, most student misbehaviors are
learned and occur for a reason. It is our job to determine those reasons and teach
appropriate behaviors to replace those misbehaviors. We believe that prevention is the
most effective form of behavior management. That is, the most efficient way to eliminate
misbehaviors is to prevent their occurrence or escalation from the beginning. Using a
proactive approach also allows us to focus more on teaching appropriate behaviors rather
than eliminating negative behaviors. Our experience tells us that management systems
should be flexible enough to meet the changing needs of our classrooms. Finally,
students, parents, and other professionals can be effective partners in behavior
management.
Mistake #1: Defining Misbehavior By How It Looks
When attempting to change misbehavior, we often describe it by only how it looks (e.g.,
calling out, hitting, getting out of seat). Defining misbehavior by how it looks only
provides us with an incomplete picture of the behavior; it tells us little about why it
occurred and doesn't help much in our behavior-change efforts. For example, a student
who is off task is a common classroom problem. If two of our students are off task
regularly, they may or may not be off task for the same reason. If they are off task for
different reasons, our approaches to change their behaviors may need to differ. Actually,
a strategy that will eliminate the off-task behavior of one student might worsen the off-
task behavior of the other. Defining a misbehavior by how it looks tells us nothing about
why it occurred and often doesn't help in our behavior-change efforts. Just because two
behaviors look the same, doesn't mean they are the same.
Instead: Define Misbehavior By Its Function
To develop a better strategy to manage misbehaviors, we need to ask ourselves, "What

was the function of this misbehavior?" Or more simply, "What did the student gain from
the misbehavior?" Though our students' misbehaviors appear to occur for no reason, they
do serve a purpose, otherwise they would not occur. Although some behavior problems
are the result of organic issues (e.g., hyperactivity) most misbehaviors function for one of
For example, the two off-task students mentioned previously--one student might be off
task to get our attention, whereas the other might be off task because his or her
assignment was too difficult. (e.g., fewer problems to solve, clearer directions) might
eliminate the off-task behaviors. Clearly, these misbehaviors serve dissimilar functions
and need to be solved differently.
Mistake #2: Asking, "Why Did You Do That?"
Although we are tempted, it is not a good idea to ask our students, "Why did you do
that?" First, many times our students will not know the reasons why they misbehaved.
Second, we often will not like their answers. For example, if Victor is playing at his desk
during our lesson and we ask him why, he may very well say, "Because this lesson is so
boring." We are not likely to be pleased with that response.
Instead: Assess the Behavior Directly to Determine its Function
The function of a behavior is the purpose it serves the student (i.e., what the student gets
from it). As stated previously, most misbehaviors serve a getting or an avoiding function.
To determine a behavior's function, we need to study what is happening in the classroom
before and after it occurrs. This information-gathering procedure is called a functional
assessment. An Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence (ABC) chart can be used as a
functional assessment tool. An ABC chart has three columns on which we record the
behavior and what happened before and after it. The standard way to make this chart is to
separate a sheet of paper into three columns and label the first Antecedent, the second
Behavior, and the third Consequence. When the misbehavior occurs, it is written down in
the behavior column, then the observer records what happened immediately before
(recorded in the antecedent column) and after its occurrence (recorded in the consequence
column). To make data collection simpler, a modified ABC chart can be used that
contains several predetermined categories of teacher or peer antecedent behavior, student
responses, and consequential events (See Figure 1).
A functional assessment gives us a more complete picture of the misbehavior by

including the environmental antecedents and consequences in its description (Alberto &
Troutman, 2003). Once we determine the function of a misbehavior ("why" it occurs), we
need to teach and reinforce an appropriate replacement behavior that serves the same
function as the misbehavior. For instance, if a functional assessment reveals that Olivia
teases her friends at recess because it is the only time that she gets their attention, we
need to teach Olivia appropriate methods to get peer attention, such as sharing or asking
to be invited to join in a game. A functional assessment might reveal that changes in our
teaching methods are needed. For instance, if Ricardo tends to act out during math class,
a change in how or what we are teaching may be in order. The problem might be that
Ricardo is missing some prerequisite math skills. By reviewing those prerequisite math
skills, we could reduce his frustrations and acting out, and maximize his learning.
Many times, an ABC analysis is all that is needed to determine a functional assessment.
For complex behavior problems, a more detailed, multifaceted functional assessment may
be needed. At those times, we should contact a behavior-management specialist, school
psychologist, or other trained professional for a more thorough assessment. Conducting a
functional assessment can be time consuming. However, research shows that behavior-
change programs designed from this process tend to be more effective than those begun
without the comprehensive information provided by this assessment (Kamps, 2002). For
additional information on conducting a functional assessment, we recommend visiting the
Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice Web site at http://cecp.air.org/fba/.
Mistake #3: When an Approach Isn't Working, Try Harder
When a management approach isn't working, our first tendency is to try harder. The
problem is that we most often try harder negatively. We make loud, disapproving
statements, increase negative consequences, or remove more privileges. This does not do
anything to teach appropriate behavior. Instead, our increased negativity results in
impaired student-teacher relationships and increases the likelihood of our students feeling
defeated.
Instead: Try Another Way
When an approach is not working, instead of trying harder, we should try another way.
Some examples include verbal redirecting, proximity control, reinforcing incompatible
behaviors, changing the academic tasks and providing additional cues or prompts. These
approaches are more effective, simpler to use, and create a more positive classroom
climate than trying harder. If two of our students, Danny and Sara, are talking in class,
instead of reprimanding them, we could walk in their direction (use proximity control),
make eye contact, and provide a nonverbal cue to get on task. This approach allows
Danny and Sara to save face with their peers and promotes teacher respect.
Instead of increasing negative consequences, we should increase the frequency of

contingent praise for appropriate student behavior. Teacher praise is easy to deliver and is
one of the most powerful tools available to us. In fact, praise (or some type of
reinforcement) should be included in all approaches to behavior change. For example,
when Jamal is off task, instead of reprimanding, we should find another student who is
on-task and praise that student. This will reinforce the on task student and has the added
benefit of notifying Jamal of his misbehavior, without singling him out. When using
praise, we should remember that it is effective when it is provided immediately
(minimally before the next opportunity to perform the behavior again), specifically (by
identifying the behavior as we praise), and frequently.
Our most challenging students, such as students with severe emotional and behavioral
problems, often need the most reinforcement, yet they often receive the least. Descriptive
research of classrooms for children with behavior disorders shows low praise rates of
only 1.2 to 4.5 times per hour (Gable, Hendrickson, Young, Shores, & Stowitschek,
1983; Shores et al., 1993; Van Acker, Grant, & Henry, 1996; Wehby, Symons, & Shores,
1995). This trend needs to be changed.
Finally, when we find ourselves making more stop than start requests, we need to reverse
our behavior. For example, instead of asking Sam to stop talking, ask him to work on his
assignment. When he complies, provide praise. For excellent resources on practical,
positive classroom management techniques, see Rhode, Jenson, and Reavis (1992) and
Kerr and Nelson (2002) in the appendix.
Mistake #4: Violating the Principles of Good Classroom Rules
Classroom rules play a vital role in effective classroom management. However, rules
alone exert little influence over student behavior. Too often, rules are posted at the
beginning of the year, briefly reviewed once, and then attended to minimally. When this
is the case, they have little to no effect on student behavior.
Instead: Follow the Guidelines for Classroom Rules
There are several rules for rule setting that, when followed, help create orderly,
productive classrooms that teach appropriate social skills along with the academic
curriculum. To be more effective, our classrooms should have four-to-six rules that could
govern most classroom situations. Too many rules can make it difficult for students to
comply and for teachers to enforce. Along with other professionals (e.g., Gathercoal,
1997; Paine, Radicchi, Rosellini, Deutchman, & Darch, 1983), we see benefits to students
actively participating in rule setting. When students play an active role, they begin to
learn the rules, and they are more inclined to have rule ownership. The rules become their
rules, not our rules. To include students, conduct several short rule-setting meetings the
first few days of school. For these meetings to be effective, we need to share with our
students the rule-making guidelines (e.g., the rules need to be stated positively, they have
to be observable and measurable, consequences need to be realistic). With guidelines in
place, students often select rules similar to the ones we would have selected. Without
guidelines, students are inclined to make too many rules, make rules that are too
stringent, and make those that are not specific enough.
Classroom rules should be simple, specific, clear, and measurable. The degree of rule
simplicity depends on the age and ability levels of our students. For younger students, we
may want to include pictures in the rule posters. Rules are specific when they are clear
and unambiguous. For example, the rule "bring books, paper, and pencils to class" is
much clearer than the rule "be ready to learn." Clearly stated rules are easily observed
and measured. The classroom rules should be posted.
Another characteristic of effective rules is that they are stated positively. Positively stated
rules are "do" rules. Do rules provide information as to how to behave and set the
occasion for teacher praise. An example is "Raise your hand for permission to talk."
Conversely, negatively stated rules or "don't" rules tell students what not to do and
encourage us to attend to student rule breaking. An example of a don't rule is "Don't call
out."
Some teachers develop subrules that correspond with each of the major classroom rules.
For example, a classroom rule might be, "Follow classroom expectations." One of the
corresponding subrules for line behavior could be "Keep your hands and feet to yourself."
Once the subrules are set, we need to teach or role play appropriate behavior by having
mini-lessons ( 3-5minutes) several times a day for the first few weeks of school. Some
teachers continue to review subrules prior to each activity or periodically, depending on
their students' needs. A simple, quick way to review is to have a student volunteer to read
the posted subrules prior to each major activity.
We consistently need to carry out the consequences and noncompliance of our classroom
rules or they will mean very little. If our students follow the rules for group work at the
learning center, we should verbally praise them and provide additional reinforcement as
needed (e.g., stickers, extra free time). On the other hand, if the classroom consequence
for fighting with a peer is the loss of recess, then we must make certain that we follow
through. We need to make clear the consequences for following and not following the
rules (Babyak, Luze, & Kamps, 2000).
We often need reminders to praise our students throughout the school day. One way is to
place a sign in the back of the room that says, "Have you praised your students lately?"
Each time we notice the sign, we should praise a student or the group for following one
of the classroom rules. Another way is to keep a running tally of our praise comments on
an index card or on a card clipped to a string that hangs from our necks (similar to those
used with many school identification cards).
To summarize, the guidelines for classroom rules include the following: (a) develop 4-6
measurable, observable, positive classroom rules and include students in rule
development; (b) teach the rules and subrules directly; (c) post the rules and review them
frequently; and, (d) be sure to carry out the consequences for rule compliance and
noncompliance.
Mistake #5: Treating All Misbehaviors as "Won't Dos"
When students misbehave, it often seems as though it is exclusively a motivational issue.

At times, this is true. On those occasions, we need to increase the reinforcement for
appropriate behavior and eliminate it for inappropriate behavior. However, several
misbehaviors are due to a lack of appropriate skills not a lack of motivation. We call
these behaviors "can't dos."
Instead: Treat Some Behaviors as Can't Dos

Can't dos occur because of lack of skills not lack of motivation or reinforcement. We
should deal with can't do misbehaviors the same way that we deal with student's
academic mistakes. When students make repeated errors during our lessons, we make
changes in how we teach (e.g., provide more examples, allow students to practice more),
and provide more intensive instruction. Our improved lessons make us more proactive
teachers, decreasing the likelihood of chronic, academic errors being repeated. This
preventative approach is referred to as precorrection (Colvin, Sugai, & Patching, 1993).
In contrast, when students chronically misbehave, we are more inclined to remain
reactive, provide only correction procedures (simply tell them that they are misbehaving),
and increase the intensity of our negative consequences. We would be more effective in
solving chronic misbehaviors if we moved into the precorrectivemode.
The following are seven major precorrection steps:
Step 1. Identify the context and the predictable behavior (where and when the
misbehavior occurs);
Step 2. Specify expected behavior (what we want instead);
Step 3. Systematically modify the context (e.g., changes in instruction, tasks, schedules,
seating arrangements);
Step 4. Conduct behavior rehearsals (have students practice the appropriate behavior);
Step 5. Provide strong reinforcement such as frequent and immediate teacher praise;
Step 6. Prompt expected behaviors; and
Step 7. Monitor the plan (collect data on student performance).
Let's apply this step to a traditional classroom behavior problem--calling out during
teacher-led instruction. The misbehavior occurs during guided instruction (Step 1). The
behavior that we want instead is for our students to raise their hands and wait to be called
on (Step 2). To accomplish this goal, we could verbally remind our students to raise their
hands prior to each question and no longer respond to our students' call outs. Also, we
could model hand-raising as we ask the question to prompt students to do the same (Steps
3 and 6). Before our teacher-led lessons, we could have a short review of the rules for
appropriate hand-raising (Step 4). When our students raise their hands appropriately, we
should praise immediately and frequently and perhaps give them bonus points on the
classroom management system (Step 5). Finally, to determine if our plan is effective, we
should tally how often students appropriately raise their hands (Step 7).
Although initially more time consuming, precorrection procedures allow us to be more

proactive than reactive and to reduce or eliminate behavior problems before they become
well established. This, in turn, increases the amount of time that we have to reinforce
appropriate behavior.
Mistake #6: Lack of Planning for Transition Time
When planning our teaching day, planning for transitions often gets overlooked. Yet, a
significant amount of class time is spent transitioning from one subject to another or from
one place to another. Without proper planning, transitioning can be one of the most
frustrating times of the day for teachers. These times seem to invite behavior problems.
Why? At times students are not ready for the transition. Inconsistent expectations cause
transition problems. Furthermore, because we are often transitioning with the students,
our attention is diverted away from them, making transitions longer and inviting even
more misbehavior.
Instead: Appropriately Plan for Transition Time
Successful transitioning requires just as much planning as effective academic instruction,

but the time is worth it. When transitions are done quickly and quietly, it allows lessons
to start on time and can set a positive tone for the lesson, whereas unplanned, poorly done
transitions can waste valuable time and cause negative student--teacher interactions.
Transition problems can be reduced significantly by following a few practical procedures.

First, it is best that our transition expectations are consistent, meaning the same rules
apply for each type of transition. Consistency begins by developing transition rules with
our students (e.g., quietly put materials away, keep your hands and feet to yourself.)
Once we have developed our transition rules, we should teach them to our students. We
can do this by having brief lessons at the beginning of the school year followed by
frequent reviews. It is a good idea to post the transition rules, and have a student
volunteer to read them before transitioning. We should consistently provide readiness
signals or cues for pending transitions. We can do this by letting our students know that
in 5 minutes the next activity will begin and that it is time to finish the task at hand. We
need to follow that statement by praising students as we see them finishing their tasks. It
is important not to move to the next step of the transitioning process until everyone has
followed the previous steps. For example, if we ask our students to return to their seats
and get out their math books, everyone needs to have followed those directions before we
begin our math lesson. For groups that have a difficult time switching gears, such as
many students with learning disabilities or behavior disorders, providing a 30-second
group silence at their seats prior to beginning the next activity promotes calmness before
moving on. This is particularly useful when students are returning from a highly
stimulating activity, such as physical education.
Many students respond positively to transition timing games. To do this, first set a time
goal (e.g., everyone should be in line within 20 seconds). Using a stopwatch, time their
transition and then praise individual students or the group for meeting the goal. When
transitions involve leaving the classroom, prior to leaving, we should have our students
take out the materials for the lesson that is going to be conducted on their return. This
will facilitate getting started when they return to the classroom.
Our role as teachers during transitions should be to monitor students' performance and to
praise appropriate behavior. To do this, we must have our materials prepared ahead of
time. When needed, we should use students or aides to gather materials or equipment,
allowing us to better attend to our students and provide praise.
Mistake #7: Ignoring All or Nothing at All
Ignoring can be a valuable tool in reducing misbehaviors when used with behavior-
building strategies. However, it's difficult for many of us to determine which behaviors to
ignore and which to give attention. We tend to take ignoring to extremes by ignoring
almost all misbehaviors or none at all. Neither approach is effective.
Instead: Ignore Wisely
First, not all behaviors should be ignored. We should only ignore the behaviors motivated
for our attention. For example, if Larry is playing his favorite computer game instead of
doing math, ignoring him will not work because his behavior is not motivated by our
attention. His motivation is playing on the computer. However, when behaviors are
attention seeking we need to ignore continuously (every single time). As soon as we
begin to ignore our student's misbehavior, he or she will seek it elsewhere, most likely
from peers. It can be difficult for peers to ignore misbehaviors. Therefore, ignoring
misbehavior should be a classroom rule that receives powerful reinforcement. Also, we
need to plan for the misbehavior to get worse (happen more often and more intensely)
before it improves. When this happens, we must continue to ignore.
Ignoring must be used in combination with behavior-building strategies, such as

reinforcement of appropriate behaviors, teaching replacement behaviors, and reinforcing
peers. Ignoring teaches students what not to do, but does not teach them what they should
do instead. For example, a preschool student, Monica, has a tendency to tug at our
clothing or yell to get our attention. In this scenario, we should ignore these
misbehaviors. In addition, we need to teach Monica appropriate ways to gain our
attention (e.g., raising her hand, saying "excuse me") and praise her each time she uses
these replacement behaviors. To add to the effectiveness, we could also praise peers who,
in her presence, appropriately seek our attention.
There are occasions when ignoring is inappropriate. These include when there are
concerns for observational learning of misbehaviors, when our students are engaging in
extreme or dangerous behaviors, and, as stated earlier, when the misbehavior is not
attention seeking.
Mistake #8: Overuse and Misuse of Time Out

Time out occurs when a teacher removes a student for a specific time from a chance to
receive reinforcement. There are several time-out strategies ranging from brief in-class
ignoring to placing a student in a secluded area. We are tempted to overuse time out
because it results in a reprieve from problematic students. At times, we misuse time out
by inadvertently reinforcing misbehaviors while using the procedure.
Instead: Follow the Principles of Effective Time Out
Time out can be an effective tool but only when used appropriately (Turner & Watson,
1999). First, we must remember that time out is not a place. Instead it is a process
whereby all opportunities to get reinforced are withdrawn. Consequently, for it to work,
the time-in area (the activity) must be more reinforcing than the time-out area. Ways to
make the time-in area more reinforcing include changing the activity, our instructional
techniques, and increasing our praise. For example, Trevor constantly disrupts the
language arts lesson by throwing paper or talking to peers, resulting in frequent time outs
in the hall. Time out would only be effective if the language-arts lesson is more
stimulating than what is going on in the hall, which often is not the case. A better method
would be to make the language-arts lesson highly stimulating by using cooperative
learning, hands-on activities, and frequent student responding. If we still need to use time
out with Trevor, we need to find a less stimulating, designated time-out area, such as a
partitioned corner of the room.
For mildly disruptive misbehavior, time outs should be done in class. In-class time out
involves the removal of all forms of reinforcement for a brief period of time. One type of
in-class time out is planned ignoring, which involves the brief removal of
social reinforcers, such as attention or verbal interaction. This involves looking away
from the student, refraining from any interaction, or remaining quiet. A second form of
in-class time out is the brief removal of the student from an activity by being placed on
the outskirts (i.e., a few steps back) but still able to "look" into the more reinforcing time-
in setting.
When misbehaviors are more severe, we may need to send our students to out-of-class
time out. The out-of-class time out area should be a quiet, nonintimidating,
reinforcement-free room with no other purpose. It should not be a highly stimulating,
reinforcing place like the office area, other classrooms, or the hallway. If possible, we
should use the same place for each time out. Despite our frustrations, we should
administer time out with a calm, neutral tone of voice. We should also give our students a
brief explanation for the time out to help build an association between the misbehavior
and the time-out consequence. Time outs should last for only brief, reasonable periods of
time (from a few seconds for in-class to several minutes for out-of-class time outs) and
should be monitored occasionally to make certain the student is not receiving
reinforcement. We should collect data to assess the overall effectiveness of time out.
Finally, time out should always be used with precorrective, behavior-building strategies
and reinforcement.
Mistake #9: Inconsistent Expectations and Consequences

Students are often given mixed signals as to what is expected and what will happen if
they do not meet these expectations. Inconsistent expectations cause student confusion
and frustration. Inconsistent consequences maintain misbehaviors and can even cause the
behavior to occur more frequently or intensely. In addition, we find ourselves constantly
reminding and threatening which, in turn, enhances our frustration.
Instead: Have Clear Expectations That Are Enforced and Reinforced Consistently
Expectations are clear when they are identifiable and consistent. Reviewing expectations
and rehearsing rules help build routines and minimize the potential for problems. We can
do this by asking our students to read the expectations prior to each activity. When we
have temporary expectation changes (e.g., changes in rules due to a guest being present
or special school event), we must inform our students.
Expectations are pointless if they are not backed up with reinforcement for compliance
and reasonable negative consequences for noncompliance. For rule compliance, positive
consequences should be applied continuously at first (every time the student is
appropriate) and then intermittently (every so often). For example, if "following teacher's
directions" is the classroom rule, then we should provide some form of positive
consequence, perhaps praising the students for following directions quickly and
appropriately. At first, praise should be delivered each time the student follows teacher
directions. Once the teacher establishes the behavior (in this case, following teacher
directions), we can move to an intermittent praise schedule. On the other hand, negative
consequences (punishment procedures) are most effective when applied continuously.
For instance, if our classroom consequence for verbal aggression toward a peer is the loss
of recess privileges, then each time one of our students is verbally aggressive we should
apply that negative consequence. Of course, to effectively deal with this verbal
aggression, we also need to implement additional precorrective methods, such as teaching
appropriate expressions of anger, peer mediation, prompting and providing praise for
socially, appropriate interactions.
Mistake #10: Viewing Ourselves as the Only Classroom Manager
Managing classroom behavior may be more challenging today than ever before. Many
teachers face larger class sizes, more students who come from stressful, chaotic homes,
and increased diversity in students' abilities and cultures (Grossman, 2004). Yet, many of
us are determined to manage classroom behavior ourselves. After all, collaborating with
others takes time and energy to build rapport and come to a consensus on behavior-
change priorities and strategies. It's tempting just to forge ahead. Although, going at it
alone may seem like a good idea in the short-run, in the long run, we are more likely to
burn out and lose our effectiveness.
Instead: Include Students, Parents, and Others in Management Efforts

Fortunately, there are many others who can assist in our behavior management efforts,
including students, their peers, fellow teachers, administrators, parents, and other school
personnel. One effective way to include students in their own behavior change programs
is the use of self-monitoring. With self-monitoring, a student helps regulate his or her
own behavior by recording its occurrence on a self-monitoring form. To help ensure
accuracy of self-monitoring, we should occasionally collect the data ourselves and
compare our recordings with those of our student. If our student accurately self-
monitored, we should reinforce his or her accuracy. In addition, we should hold brief,
occasional student-teacher conferences to review the student's progress. For more
information on self-monitoring, see Alberto and Troutman (2003) or
Webber, Scheuerman, McCall, and Coleman (1993). Also, go to
http://www.coe.missouri.edu/%26sim;vrcbd to learn about KidTools, a computer-based
program used to help students create and use a variety of self-monitoring
materials. KidToolscontains easy-to-use templates used to create personalized self-
monitoring forms, including point cards, countoons, self management cards, make-a-plan
cards, and contracts. To use this program, students enter information about target
behaviors into a template and print out the card for immediate use in the classroom.
The power of the peer group can be used to produce positive changes in student behavior.
Peers can serve as academic tutors and can monitor and reinforce each other's behaviors.
Also, group-process, conflict resolution, or peer mediation meetings can be used in which
students provide each other with behavior management suggestions (e.g., "Ignore him
when he calls you names"), praise each other for behaving appropriately, and help each
other resolve a current classroom behavior problem (Barbetta, 1990; Smith & Daunic,
2002). To help facilitate group cohesiveness, we can use group-oriented contingencies in
which the class earns its level of privileges and reinforcers as a group.
We should also include other adults in behavior management. Fellow teachers can
provide support in several ways. One way is to schedule regular meetings where we share
behavior management solutions. Occasionally, we may need some extra support from a
colleague, particularly if we work with students with emotional disorders. During those
days, we shouldn't hesitate to ask a colleague to stop by during his or her planning period
and provide us with some additional support or a short break. If we find ourselves in a
teaching situation with one or more volatile students, we should develop a support plan
with a teacher in a classroom nearby (Lindberg & Swick, 2002). This plan could include
an agreement that our colleague will cover our room in the event we have to escort a
disruptive student out of the room or contact the principal or school security. Another
example of how we can support each other is by playing an active role in school-wide
behavior management (Lindberg & Swick). As we move throughout the school grounds
(e.g., hallway, cafeteria, auditorium, playground), we should be aware of all students'
behaviors (not just our own students) and prompt and provide praise or negative
consequences as appropriate.
When including administrators in behavior management, we tend to make two mistakes

that are at opposite ends of the support spectrum (Lindberg & Swick, 2002). We either
send students to them too frequently or we wait too long to get them involved. It is best to
resolve as many behavior problems in our class and only involve administrators for more
serious situations, such as physical aggression.
Parents and teachers who work actively together make a powerful team. Most parents can
provide useful information about their child (i.e., medications, allergies, issues at home).
Some parents can assist in our behavior management efforts at home by providing their
child additional prompting and reinforcement. Although, there are many benefits to
working with parents, some teachers are reluctant due to the challenges that often exist.
The potential benefits, however, make it worthwhile in most situations, and there are
many ways to increase parent-teacher team effectiveness (See Jones & Jones, 2002 in
appendix). As teachers, it is our responsibility to build productive and positive parent-
teacher partnerships. We can do this by contacting parents when their child does well,
treating them with respect during conferences, maintaining positive and on-going
communication, and validating any concerns they may have.
School counselors, psychologists, and other professionals can be invaluable resources.

We should seek out their assistance when needed for support, guidance, and additional
strategies.
Mistake #11: Missing the Link Between Instruction and Behavior
At times there is a direct link between our lessons and student misbehavior. Perhaps our
lesson is too easy or difficult, ineffective, or nonstimulating, which can lead to student
misbehavior (Center, Deitz, & Kaufman, 1982).
Instead: Use Academic Instruction as a Behavior Management Tool
The first line of defense in managing student behavior is effective instruction. Good
teachers have always known this and research supports this notion (Evertson & Harris,
1992). Jones (1991) found that when teachers demystify learning, achievement and
behavior improve dramatically. Examples of how to demystify learning include students
establishing his or her learning goals, students monitoring his or her own learning,
involving students in developing classroom rules and procedures, and relating lessons to
students' own lives and interests.
Effective teaching practices include (but are not limited to) instruction that is fast paced,
includes high rates of active student responding, involves modeling new behaviors, and
provides guided practice and positive and corrective feedback (Evertson & Harris
1992; Sugai & Tindal, 1993). Effective instructional strategies include the use of
response cards, guided notes, and peer tutoring (Heward, 2003; Heward et al., 1996;
Miller, Barbetta, & Heron, 1994). Consistent use of these strategies, and others that share
the characteristics of effective instruction, helps create highly effective learning
environments, which, in turn, reduces the likelihood of behavior problems.
Mistake #12: Taking Student Behavior Too Personally

When students misbehave, it often feels like a personal attack, and for good reason. Some
of our students are very good at making it feel personal. When we take students'
misbehavior personally, we tend to lose our objectivity, look for quick management fixes
that rarely work, and get emotionally upset, which takes time and energy away from our
teaching.
Instead: Take Student Misbehavior Professionally, Not Personally
When we take misbehavior professionally, we view behavior management as our

responsibility. Professionals know the importance of having a sound management system
in place that deals with classwide issues and individual student problems. Professionals
have realistic expectations for improvement in behavior and know that there are no quick
fixes with lasting effects. Most importantly, confident professionals ask for assistance
when it is needed.
Although handling misbehaviors may be more challenging than teaching academics,

there are many effective strategies we can use that will make our classroom days more
pleasant and less chaotic. When we are more effective, we're calmer and less likely to
react personally to student misbehavior. Although some student misbehavior may appear
to be targeted toward us, these behaviors may be an outcome of their own wants and
needs, lack of skills, or emotional difficulties and frustrations. The time and energy
wasted being upset at our students' misbehavior is better spent celebrating our students'
success.
Conclusion
This article briefly reviewed common behavior management mistakes that we make as
teachers and provided numerous strategies as to what to do instead. We believe these
suggestions will be useful in the context of developing and implementing a
comprehensive behavior management plan. By no means do these suggestions represent a
complete list of effective strategies. For more thorough information on some of the
recommended strategies, refer to the reference list.
http://web.cortland.edu/andersmd/psy501/12.htm
WHAT IS CONFLICT RES OLUT ION?

Conflict, arguments, and change are natural parts of our lives, as well as the lives of
every agency, organization, and nation.
Conflict resolution is a way for two or more parties to find a peaceful solution to a
disagreement among them. The disagreement may be personal, financial, political, or
emotional.
When a dispute arises, often the best course of action is negotiation to resolve the
disagreement.
The goals of negotiation are:
 To produce a solution that all parties can agree to

 To work as quickly as possible to find this solution
 To improve, not hurt, the relationship between the groups in conflict
Conflict resolution through negotiation can be good for all parties involved. Often, each
side will get more by participating in negotiations than they would by walking away, and
it can be a way for your group to get resources that might otherwise be out of reach.
WHY SHOULD YOU RESOLVE CONFLICT?

The main goal of negotiation with your opposition is to come to an agreement that
benefits all parties.
Some other good reasons to negotiate are:
 To understand more about those whose ideas, beliefs, and backgrounds may be
different from your own. In order to resolve a conflict, you'll need to look at the
conflict from your opponent's point of view and learn more about this person or
group's perspective and motivations.
 To ensure that your relationships with opponents continue and grow. If you make
peace with your opponents, you increase your own allies in the community.
Successful negotiations pave the way for smooth relationships in the future.
 To find peaceful solutions to difficult situations. Full-blown battles use up
resources -- time, energy, good reputation, motivation. By negotiating, you avoid
wasting these resources, and you may actually make new allies and find new
resources!
WHEN SHOULD YOU RESO LVE CONFLICT?

Conflict resolution is appropriate for almost any disagreement. Our daily lives offer
plenty of opportunities for negotiation - between parents and children, co-workers,
friends, etc., and as a result, you probably already have a variety of effective strategies
for resolving minor conflicts. But for more serious conflicts, and conflicts between
groups rather than individuals, you may need some additional skills. How, for example,
should you structure a meeting between your group and your opponent? When should
you settle, and when should you fight for more? How should you react if your opponent
attacks you personally? Read on for more information on specific conflict resolution
techniques.
HOW SHOULD YOU RESOLVE CONFLICT?

There are seven steps to successfully negotiating the resolution of a conflict:
1. Understand the conflict
2. Communicate with the opposition
3. Brainstorm possible resolutions
4. Choose the best resolution
5. Use a third party mediator
6. Explore alternatives
7. Cope with stressful situations and pressure tactics
1. UNDERSTAND THE CO NFLICT

Conflicts arise for a variety of different reasons. It is important for you to define clearly
your own position and interests in the conflict, and to understand those of your opponent.
Here are some questions to ask yourself so that you can better define the conflict.
Inerests
 What are my interests?

 What do I really care about in this conflict?
 What do I want?
 What do I need?
 What are my concerns, hopes, fears?
Possible Outcomes
 What kinds of agreements might we reach?
Legitimacy
 What third party, outside of the conflict, might convince one or both of us that a
proposed agreement is a fair one?
 What objective standard might convince us that an agreement is fair? For
example: a law, an expert opinion, the market value of the transaction.
 Is there a precedent that would convince us that an agreement is fair?
Their Interests
 What are the interests of my opposition?

 If I were in their shoes, what would I really care about in this conflict?
 What do they want?
 What do they need?
 What are their concerns, hopes, fears?
Interests play an important role in better understanding conflict. Often, groups waste time
"bargaining over positions." Instead of explaining what the interests of their position are,
they argue about their "bottom line." This is not a useful way to negotiate, because it
forces groups to stick to one narrow position. Once they are entrenched in a particular
position, it will be embarrassing for them to abandon it. They may spend more effort on
"saving face" than on actually finding a suitable resolution. It is usually more helpful to
explore the group's interests, and then see what positions suit such interests.
Example:
Your parent group wants the local high school to change its American history textbook.
You feel that the textbook doesn't represent the history of African-Americans, Latinos,
and Asian-Americans in the U.S. adequately. You come to the School Committee and
say, "The only textbook that works for us is The People of the United States, and that's
final!" You have presented a position rather than your interests. By drawing a bottom
line, you're stuck in one position. If you don't convince the School Committee to choose
this textbook, you'll lose.
A more effective way to approach the School Committee would be to state your interests.
You might say, "We're concerned about the under-representation of racial minorities in
the current U.S. history textbook, and would like to find an alternative." By
communicating your interests, rather than one position, you are leaving some room to
negotiate while still being firm and clear about your goals.
Often, the same interest can have many positions. For example, the School Committee
might vote to supplement the history textbook with a packet of articles about minorities;
add mandatory units on slavery, the Harlem Renaissance, and Japanese internment
camps, or offer a new course about minorities in America. These are different positions
that address the same interest.
2. COMMUNICATE WITH THE OPPOSIT ION
Now that you have thought through your own interests and those of the other party, you
can begin to communicate directly with your opposition. Here are some tips for
productive talks:
 Listen. Their opinions are important to you, because their opinions are the source
of your conflict. If something is important to them, you need to recognize this.
Recognizing does not mean agreeing, of course!
 Let everyone participate who wants to. People who participate will have a stake in
a resolution. They will want to find a good compromise.
 Talk about your strong emotions. Let the other side let off steam.
 Don't, however, react to emotional outbursts! Try an apology instead of yelling
back. Apologizing is not costly, and is often a rewarding technique.
 Be an active listener. Rephrase what you're hearing as a question: "Let me see if
I'm following you. You're saying that... Have I got that right?" You can still be
firm when you're listening.
 Speak about yourself, not the other party. In the textbook example, you might say,
"I feel angry to know that my children are reading this old-fashioned textbook,"
rather than, "How could you choose such a racist book?"
 Be concrete, but flexible. Speak about your interests, not about your position.
 Avoid early judgments. Keep asking questions and gathering information.
 Don't tell the opposition, "It's up to you to solve your problems." Work to find a
solution for everyone.
 Find a way to make their decision easy. Try to find a way for them to take your
position without looking weak, but don't call it a way for them to "save face."
Egos are important in negotiations!
3. BRAINSTORM POSSIB LE RESOLUTIONS

Now that you know what the interests of both parties are, and how to better communicate
with the opposition, you can start thinking about solutions. Look at all of the interests you
have listed, for you and for your opponents, and look for common interests. Often both
parties share many interests -- for example, both groups may want stability and public
respect.
Before you hold a brainstorming meeting, think carefully about how you'll set up the
meeting. Write a clear purpose statement for the meeting. Try to choose a small group of
5-8 people total. Hold the meeting in a different environment from your usual setting.
Make sure the setting is an informal one where people feel comfortable and safe. Find an
unbiased facilitator, someone who can structure the meeting without sharing his or her
own feelings about the conflict.
To begin brainstorming, decide whether you want to brainstorm with your opposition, or
with only your group. In either case, you will want to establish some ground rules.
 Work on coming up with as many ideas as possible. Don't judge or criticize the
ideas yet -- that might prevent people from thinking creatively.
 Try to maximize (not minimize) your options.
 Look for win-win solutions, or compromises, in which both parties get something
they want.
 Find a way to make their decision easy
 During the meeting, seat people side by side, facing the "problem"-- a blank
chalkboard or large pad of paper for writing down ideas. The facilitator will
remind people of the purpose of the meeting, review the ground rules, and ask
participants to agree to those rules. During the brainstorming session, the
facilitator will write down all ideas on the chalkboard or pad.
4. CHOOSE THE BEST R ESOLUT ION

After the meeting, you will need to decide which resolution is best. Review your
brainstorm ideas. Star the best ideas - these are what you will work with during the
conflict resolution process. Set a time to discuss them and determine which idea is the
best.
The goal here is to use both groups' skills and resources to get the best result for
everyone. Which resolution gives both groups the most? That resolution is probably the
best one.
5. USE A THIRD PARTY MEDIATOR
As you are brainstorming and choosing a good resolution, you may want to use a third
party mediator. This is a person who is not from your group or your opponent's group,
but whom you both trust to be fair. Your mediator can help both sides agree upon a
standard by which you'll judge your resolution. Standards are a way to measure your
agreement. They include expert opinions, law, precedent (the way things have been done
in the past), and accepted principles.
For example:
Let's say you're building a new playground for your town's elementary school. You
disagree with the superintendent about what kinds of materials you'll use to build the
playground. The superintendent wants to use chemical-treated wood, but you feel it's
unsafe. A mediator might read the current guidelines of the lumber industry and tell you
which kinds of wood are considered safe for children. Maybe you and the superintendent
will agree to follow the lumber industry's advice--in other words, to use that as the
standard.
Your mediator could also, for example, run your brainstorming session.
Here are some other possible jobs for a mediator:
 Setting ground rules for you and your opponent to agree upon (for example, you
might both agree not to publicly discuss the dispute)
 Creating an appropriate setting for meetings
 Suggesting possible ways to compromise
 Being an "ear" for both side's anger and fear
 Listening to both sides and explaining their positions to one another
 Finding the interests behind each side's positions
 Looking for win-win alternatives
 Keeping both parties focused, reasonable, and respectful
 Preventing any party from feeling that it's "losing face"
 Writing the draft of your agreement with the opposition
Perhaps Harriet is considering quitting her job because her boss wants to transfer her to
another office. The mediator might say, "It sounds like Harriet doesn't care about
transferring to the downtown office. What she's worried about is losing rank. Harriet, do
you agree with that? Ms. Snell, do you understand Harriet's concern? How can we assure
Harriet that she won't lose rank if she agrees to transfer?"
6. EXPLORE ALTERNATIVES
There may be times when, despite your hard work and good will, you cannot find an
acceptable resolution to your conflict. You need to think about this possibility before you
begin negotiations. At what point will you decide to walk away from negotiations? What
are your alternatives if you cannot reach an agreement with your opponent?
It is important that you brainstorm your alternatives to resolution early on in the
negotiation process, and that you always have your best alternative somewhere in the
back of your mind. As you consider possible agreements with your opponent, compare
them to this "best" alternative. If you don't know what the alternative is, you'll be
negotiating without all the necessary information!
In order to come up with an alternative, start by brainstorming. Then, consider the pros
and cons of each alternative. Think about which alternative is realistic and practical. Also
think about how you can make it even better.
At the same time, don't forget to put yourself in the shoes of your opposition. What
alternatives might they have? Why might they choose them? What can you do to make
your choice better than their alternative?
Roger Fisher and Danny Ertel call this alternative your BATNA -- Best Alternative To a
Negotiated Agreement. You can read more about BATNA in their book Getting Ready to
Negotiate.
7. COPE WITH STRESSF UL SITUATIONS AND PR ESSURE
TACTICS
So far, we've talked about how to negotiate with a fairly reasonable opponent. However,
you need to be prepared to negotiate with all kinds of opponents, both reasonable and
unreasonable. What if your opponent is more powerful and influential that you are? What
if they refuse to meet or talk with you?
All of these situations are stressful, and intended to put extra pressure on you to make a
quick decision in the opposition's favor. When a situation like this takes place, stay calm
and go slow. Don't get angry or make a rushed decision. Instead, talk about the pressure
tactic without judging.
HERE ARE SOME POSSIB LE S ITUATIONS:
My opponent is more powerful
If you have already decided on your best alternative, you have nothing to fear. You can
walk away at any time, and go that route instead. Think about everything that you can do,
and that your mediator can do. Although you may be less powerful, at least you will be
negotiating with all the available information.
My opponent won't budge
In a situation like this, you may be tempted to do the same thing: "If you won't change
your mind, neither will I!" However, you will fail if you insist on sticking to your
position. Instead, treat your opponent's position as a real possibility. Ask lots of
questions. Listen to their logic. Understand what their interests are, and what it is that
they really want. Learn what their criticisms of your idea are. The more you know about
where they're coming from, the better a resolution you can create.
IN SUMMARY
In conflict resolution, the best solution is the solution that is best for both sides. Of
course, that's not always possible to find, but you should use all your resources to solve
your conflict as smoothly as you can.
Contributor
Rebecca Wolff
Jenette Nagy
https://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/implement/provide-information-enhance-
skills/conflict-resolution/main
Collaboration and Conflict Resolution In Education
TwitterFacebookLinkedInReddit
by Jim Melamed, John Reiman
Since most of us grew up in a culture that treats negotiation and conflict resolution as
forms of competition, we have much to learn about how concerned parents and school
officials can better communicate and resolve conflict. In this article, we present several
exciting and challenging possibilities for improving collaboration and conflict resolution
skills.
We aim to present "what works" in conflict resolution between parents and educators.
The concepts presented here may be useful to parents and educators in direct
collaboration, or in mediation. They may also be used in training students and others who
wish to work as mediators with parents and educators.
The goal in all cases is to resolve issues in ways that will benefit the child and endure.
Such cooperation not only supports the child, but also supports the essential ongoing
relationship between parents and schools. Developing a quality relationship between
educators and parents promises to pay continuing dividends into the future.
When direct collaboration is tried and fails, the parties may appropriately reach for
mediation, a guided opportunity to reach a resolution that is acceptable to all. The
effective mediator keeps the parties on course and employs methods based on the
following concepts:
PERSPECTIVES NOT TRUTH
Conflict arises when one or more participants views the current system or relationship as
not working! At least one party is so dissatisfied with the status quo, that he or she is
willing to speak-up in hopes of improving the situation. It is no accident that we most
often find ourselves in conflict with those with whom we spend the most time -- family,
friends, and colleagues. In addition to our closeness, we all have different perceptions of
a situation and interpret our perceptions in terms of our sometimes different beliefs and
values.
It is important to recognize that educators and parents bring different perceptions and
beliefs to most situations. What is "true" for one, may not be "true" for the other.
Mediators will commonly encourage an atmosphere in which participants may
comfortably express themselves. The mediator cannot move forward until each
participant experiences being heard. Each is supported to clearly state his or her
perspective, what it is that is desired, and why. Simple expressions of perspective,
however, are not enough; participants must also come away with the feeling that they
have not only spoken, but have also been heard.
Once they feel heard, people in conflict are willing to consider new ways of resolving the
situation. In collaboration and conflict resolution, everyone can have their "truth" and still
come to agreement. Participants need only agree on arrangements for the future, not the
past nor the reasons why.
CONSIDER THE COMMON GROUND
People in conflict may frequently not want to acknowledge that they often share much
common ground. Mediators and collaborators do well in observing these points:
We have overlapping interests. Parents and educators share an interest in doing what is
best for the child. Typically, they also have friends and colleagues in common. Both are
interested in expeditious and economic resolution.
No one is an island. We are interdependent. Neither the educator nor the parent has the
ability to unilaterally impose a resolution. Each must somehow work with the other.
We can find easy points of agreement. Even when there are many disputed issues, there
will likely still be several points of agreement. Once these points are identified, they may
be used as the foundation for further discussions.
So often, conflicts deteriorate into one side insisting on "our way" and the other side
saying, "No, our way!" The wise mediator and collaborator observes that neither way will
likely prevail, and charges participants to fashion a third way--one that builds on common
and cumulative interests.
CAPACITY AND EMPOWERMENT
In our culture during the negotiation process, we regularly cast our side as stronger, and
the other side as weaker. Any resolution, however, based on one side imposing their will
is not likely to endure and chances for a viable working relationship may be jeopardized.
We suggest that each participant be assisted to become as capable as possible. In the
interests of a resolution that will endure over time, paradoxical as it may seem, each party
may reasonably endeavor to empower the other. This can be achieved by providing sound
information about special education issues and by careful choice of effective discussion
and negotiation approaches.
HOW MUCH TIME IS ENOUGH TIME?
Collaborative discussions are somewhat time consuming. Since we are interested in

achieving ongoing relations between children, parents, and schools, the collaborative
approach, although lengthy, is an investment that will pay dividends for years. A series of
2 or 3 meetings could make a world of difference in parents' perceptions of educators
commitment to working jointly. Further, the greatest progress toward agreement often
develops between, not at, meetings. Special Education conflict resolution often includes
relationship building.
HOW SHALL WE DEAL WITH EMOTIONAL/RELATIONAL ISSUES?
These potentially damaging issues can be managed in ways that support mutual respect
and personal safety. Once participants voice these problems and sense that they have
been heard, they are then more able to focus on future arrangements. Ignoring past
difficulties is tempting; however, if they remain unexpressed, they tend to contaminate
attempts to reach agreement. The following suggestions are ways to deal with emotional
issues:
Use a private feedback process. Participants may send personal messages to other
participants, either anonymously or with identification (as the group decides). This can
allow for desirable direct communication of feelings in a safe way. It can provide an
effective catharsis (as well as some valuable information).
Take a group "temperature." A "10" may mean the group is hot, that is, operating as well
as it possibly can; a "7" may mean that members are warm (pretty good); a "3" may mean
that things are "cool" and could be improved; and a "1" may mean that things are
"frozen" between participants. Following the taking of group temperature, the mediator or
moderator might note, "It seems the group sees itself somewhere around a "5," perhaps
not as bad as we could be, but also not as good as we can be." The mediator might then
ask: "What can we do to take this so-so performance and improve it to an "8," or a "9," or
even a "10"?
Get current. It is essential that the group separate past-focused emotional/relational

difficulties from their future-focused problem solving. One way to do this is to allow
participants a one-time opportunity to say whatever they would like about difficulties in
the past. The only rule is not to repeat. The moderator or mediator might need to help
participants express their messages. Following sharing, the moderator or mediator might
remark: "Well, there have obviously been some difficulties in the past and I thank you for
so clearly and honestly sharing your perceptions. My sense is also that we could agree
that we would like to do things differently, better, in the future. Perhaps we might now go
around the room and hear from each how, specifically, we might be able to better work
together in the future." Any time additional relational difficulties arise, the moderator
might suggest again "getting current" so as to separate such discussions from future
problem solving.
HOW WILL WE MAKE DECISIONS?
Groups, especially larger groups, benefit by deciding what their decision-making

standard will be. Will it be "majority rules," a super-majority standard, some type of
"consensus" or "unanimity"? Sometimes a combination of these will work. For example,
a school group may adopt a consensus standard of 75% support within the school team,
whereas unanimity might be required between the school team and parents.
It may also be beneficial to come up with a voting response system that is more sensitive
than the polarizing "yay" or "nay" system. The following "levels of agreement" model
may be used. Participants can be encouraged to use raised fingers (between one and five)
to indicate their level of support for a proposal. Following an initial vote, the group may
want to hear from anyone voting a "4" or a "5" to see if that participant's concerns can be
addressed by a refined proposal. Degrees of support might be expressed as follows:
"1" Strongly support
"2" Support
"3" Willing to go along
"4" Want to be heard
"5" Unwilling to support
DEFINING AN EFFECTIVE PROBLEM-SOLVING STRUCTURE
There is a saying in the field of conflict resolution that "a problem well stated is a
problem half solved." Participants may, however, offer issues for discussion as
accusations, such as "how to get the school to stop . . ." or "how to get the parents to do
their share of . . ." It is important for group members and any facilitator to reflect any
such "blame frame" statements back to participants as effective problem-solving
challenges. Effective problem-solving statements may be expressed: (a) "How can we
best . . . ?" or (b) "What is the best way for us to . . . ?" The key is to recognize the
essence of the concern and then state that issue as one for discussion in mutualizing,
affirming, problem-solving terms. For example, a special education coordinator's
complaint that the parents are not there to pick their child up in a timely way might be
restated as follows: "How can we best ensure that everyone performs their
responsibilities under this plan in a consistent and timely way?"
ANY GROUND RULES FOR DISCUSSION?
Remember to ask, "How can we best discuss these issues?" It may make sense for a
group to adopt "ground rules" for their discussion. A sample of such understandings is:
We will have a full and equal opportunity to speak up on every issue presented for
discussion. There is no need to rush or interrupt.
We are encouraged to ask genuine "questions of clarification," avoiding "questions of

attack."
We will use each other's first names, not the pronouns "he" or "she."
We will speak only for ourselves, not for anyone else.
If something is not working for us, we will speak up.

We will try to avoid establishing hard positions, expressing ourselves instead in terms of
our personal interests, positive intentions, and the outcomes we would like to create.
The group can then immediately begin to practice such understandings. If someone
"violates" such a behavioral norm, an effective inquiry to the group might be: "Did we
still want to have the understanding about using first names...?" The key here is to avoid
shaming any participant.
ADDRESSING THE ISSUES
Having defined our communication process, perhaps "gotten current", identified our
common ground, and developed an agenda for solving our problems, we can begin to
address the issues. The following procedures leads to active participation and
empowerment. Best of all, it leads to solutions that are likely to endure because they
come from the participants themselves. The procedure below follows a logical
progression: (a) defining interests and intentions, (b) developing options, (c) selecting
arrangements, and (d) integrating and finalizing. A flip chart is handy for identifying
participants' interests and intentions. And once the intentions are clear, to identify options
that might satisfy one or more party. Finally, we identify arrangements that are
acceptable to everyone.
IDENTIFY INTERESTS AND POSITIVE INTENTIONS ON EACH AGENDA

ITEM
A mediator might ask, "On this issue, what would you like to create?" If a participant
responds in positional terms, such as by saying, "We want private placement," "We want
the million dollar machine," or "We want to mainstream him," it is wise to help the
speaker go beneath such a positional demand to their underlying interests. The easiest
way to do this is to ask, "If you had your [positional demand], what would be satisfied?"
To the extent that the parties answer in terms of negative interests, such as, "We would
then avoid. . ." or respond with revenge motives such as "We want more now because
we've been cheated in previous years," the wise mediator asks, "Imagine that you were
successful in [avoiding ___, or getting ___], what would you then have?" Through such
questioning, you can help parties appreciate that positions, negative interests, and revenge
motives can be understood in terms of their underlying positive intentions, for example, a
desire for equal treatment, respect, appreciation, security, or the like. The theory here is
that all behavior is ultimately, positively intended. As biologic beings, we are constantly
seeking to improve (not to worsen) our condition. The question in collaborative
discussions and conflict resolution is, specifically, what positive intentions are the
participants seeking to satisfy? So reframed, collaborative conflict resolution discussions
can become a joint search for mutual satisfaction.
DEVELOP OPTIONS
Once the interests and intentions are established, participants can then identify all options
that might satisfy one or more interests. This may be done by brainstorming. Participants
are encouraged to generate a full range of possible solutions, and this is done before any
kind of evaluation. The resulting solution is often a "package deal," and may include
components of several of the generated possibilities.
SELECT ARRANGEMENTS
One might assume that participants would make their decisions based on objective
criteria, but we have found that often they do not. Instead, they select options based on
subjective and idiosyncratic criteria, standards, principles, rationales, or rationalizations.
The key point is that participants will only move to agreement when they can develop
some explanation that will satisfy themselves and significant others. It is this ability to
explain that makes the movement to agreement a safe one. In helping parties select from
among options, you may encourage participants to identify any "easy agreements," with
each option being considered in its own right. Also, remember that options can be broken
apart and at other times combined. It may then be helpful to consider any possible
"package deals," possibly a good homework exercise. Finally, participants may want to
prioritize any options that remain. When the parties understand how important each
option is to the other, exchanges may be stimulated.
INTEGRATE AND FINALIZE
Near the end of a discussion of a topic, it may be helpful to ask, "Can we do any better in
a way that may be acceptable to all?" If the answer is "yes," we may say, "Then, we are
not yet done working." If the answer is "no," we can confirm as follows: "Then you are
telling me that we have reached what you perceive to be the best possible mutually
acceptable agreement?" With the participants' gentle head nods, "yes," we can conclude
that we have, in fact, done our best.
CONCLUSION
We have presented here an overview of the concepts underlying certain techniques

collaborators and mediators may use to resolve conflicts between parents and educators,
especially in the area of special education. We hope our suggestions will create methods
of communication that honor and respect all participants. Most of all, we hope the
resulting arrangements will provide maximum benefit to our children and will accurately
reflect the caring support that exists on all sides.
Biography
https://www.mediate.com/articles/edu.cfm
4 Effective Conflict Resolution Strategies in the Classroom

By The Room 241 Team • February 4, 2013
 Face
In your classroom, you’re bound to come across conflict—it’s virtually unavoidable.
Fortunately, there are lots of approaches to resolving conflict between your students (and
keeping your stress levels down in the process!).
We’ve outlined four effective conflict resolutions for the classroom. Try one (or all) of
these strategies to see what works best. But first, something to note about conflict.
A big conflict can begin small

A paper co-authored by Donna Crawford, Director of the National Center for Conflict
Resolution Education (NCCRE) and Richard Bodine, NCCRE’s Training
Director, details some interesting researchabout how conflict begins—and that
the largest number of conflicts that result in violence often start as relatively minor
incidences.
Actions like a student using another student’s property without permission or unprovoked
contact, for example, can actually lead to major conflict. This indicates that few initial
contacts are predatory, but conflict escalates rapidly.
Their report also followed with the fact that most incidents occurred at home or at school,
and the majority occurred between individuals who knew each other.
Finally, Crawford and Bodine elaborate on the premise that the common goal of violent
acts involve retribution. What is interesting is that the research indicates violent acts are
not the result of absence of values, but according to the authors, are from a value system
that accepts violence. Keep this in mind as you explore the conflict resolution strategies
below.
Role playing
Role playing can bring a level of levity to conflict resolution. When students are placed in
opposing roles than what they may play in a real life situation, it teaches them empathy
and forces them to look at actions from another point of view.
Role playing also provides insight into where the conflict started. Rather than having
conflicts rise with statements like “Well, how would you like it if I did this to you?” your
students can look at conflict from a more objective standpoint by acting it out.
This is a very effective method of helping your students manage conflict, and should be
something to consider trying in your own classroom. Not only will your students learn
how to solve whatever conflict they’re in, but they’ll learn how to be more empathetic
toward others.
Tracking
As an assignment, have students observe and track various conflicts that they either
witness or are involved in over a period of time. These can be tracked in a journal
and written without specifically identifying other students. The identities are not as
important as the activity they witness and the reaction of those involved.
Encourage students to be on the lookout for situations where conflict resolution can help.
This will also set a baseline for how severe a problem may be.
At some point, students should voluntarily share their observations in their journals and
discuss the positives and negatives of the involved students’ reactions. This allows
students to discuss specific incidents, without “outing” offenders.
This activity can be completed multiple times over the school year, ensuring that your
students are paying attention to their surroundings. This will also give you a better idea of
what’s going on in your classroom and how you can help and better implement conflict
resolution strategies.
Listening
Many conflicts start because of misunderstandings and miscommunication. Teaching
students good listening habits can be an important tool.
Start with a classroom discussion about recent student conflicts. You are likely to hear
things like “He wouldn’t listen” or “They didn’t understand what I was saying.”
This is a good opportunity to let students realize the power of listening. It also lends itself
to teaching “how” to listen.
Teach them to:
 Look directly at the speaker and make eye contact.
 Let the speaker talk without interruption.
 Ask questions.
 Do not give advice or offer suggestions.
 Give the speaker positive reinforcement by nodding or smiling.
 Repeat what you have heard in your own words.
Writing about the conflict

If there are conflicts in the classroom, having the involved students sit down to write
about it serves a couple of purposes. First, it serves as a time-out or a cooling off period.
It also makes them reflect on the incident in an academic, proactive way.
When you have students write about the conflict, have them include how it made them
feel, and what other, better choices they should have made during the conflict. Offer them
suggestions like “list 3 things that you would do differently now that you’ve had a chance
to think about better options.”
Writing makes students self reflect—a powerful tool that will help them become more
self aware in your classroom and beyond.
Do you use any different strategies to keep conflict at a minimum in your classroom?
We’d love to hear—join us on Facebook whenever you want to share ideas with other
educators.
https://education.cu-portland.edu/blog/classroom-resources/4-effective-conflict-
resolution-strategies-in-the-classroom/
Conflict Resolution Programs in the Schools

Nadine E. Garner, Ed.D.
There is no doubt of the real need for comprehensive
conflict resolution programs in the schools. The Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention has stated that violence in the
nation has reached epidemic proportions and that all students
from preschool through twelfth grade should be involved in a
conflict resolution program. The summary of the position
statement on conflict resolution by the American School
Counselor Association (ASCA, 2006, para 1) declared, “A
comprehensive conflict-resolution program promotes a safe
school environment that permits optimal personal growth and
learning. Through participation in a comprehensive conflictresolution
program, students learn skills that maximize their
potential for reaching personal goals and success in school.”
The ability to effectively and peacefully handle conflict is
not necessarily intuitive; rather, it is a learned skill. Johnson
and Johnson (1991, p. 3), echoed these sentiments when, after
over 30 years of research, they stated that “most students
simply do not know how to manage their conflicts
constructively.” They found that students struggled with issues
of verbal harassment, verbal arguments, rumors, gossip, and
dating or relationship issues.
Conflict Resolution Programs
Conflict resolution programs have various names,
including Conflict Resolution Education (CRE), Peace
Education, Peacemaking, Violence Prevention, or Violence
Reduction. Conflict resolution models have common goals
because they seek to create opportunities for students and
other members of the school community to: recognize that
conflict is a natural part of life and that it can be resolved
peacefully, develop awareness of their own unique responses
to conflict and to understand the diversity with which others
respond, learn and practice the principles of conflict resolution
and the skills of peaceful problem-solving processes, empower
themselves to be individually and cooperatively responsible
for resolving conflicts peacefully, and integrate this
responsibility in their daily lives.
An authentic conflict resolution program contains two key
elements: 1) the principles of conflict resolution (separate the
people from the problem; focus on interests, not positions;
invent options for mutual gain; and use objective criteria as
the basis of decision-making); and 2) a problem-solving
process (negotiation, mediation, or consensus decisionmaking;
Crawford & Bodine, 1997). These two components
are common factors in the following four approaches to
conflict resolution currently used in the schools:
1. Process Curriculum - a specific time (e.g., separate course,
distinct curriculum, daily lesson plan) is dedicated to teaching
conflict resolution.
2. Mediation Program - adults and/or students who are
trained in conflict resolution principles and the problemsolving
process of mediation act as neutral third-party
facilitators to help disputants reach a resolution.
3. Peaceable Classroom - conflict resolution is integrated
into the core curriculum and classroom management.
Peaceable classrooms form the foundation for the peaceable
school.
4. Peaceable School - all members of the school community
(teachers, staff, students, administrators, and parents) receive
training in conflict resolution (Crawford & Bodine, 1997).
The Professional School Counselor’s Role
Nationwide, the number of school-based conflict
resolution programs has skyrocketed from about 50 programs
in 1984 to over 6,000 programs involving over 300,000
students in 1995 (Girard & Koch, 1996). Today, these
programs have been implemented in the majority of schools.
Professional school counselors often take a leading role in the
implementation of these programs.
ASCA (2006) recommends the professional school
counselor assume the leading role in the following
components of school-wide, comprehensive conflictresolution
programs: design, implementation, monitoring, and
evaluation. Further, ASCA recommends that professional
school counselors include the following elements in such
programs: prevention services, training, education in
recognition of early warning signs, intervention services, crisis
response and follow-up, community involvement, peer
mediation programs, and evaluation of program effectiveness.
Lindsay (1998) suggests that the elements of high-quality
conflict resolution programs include recognition that school
programs alone are no panacea, given the influence of families
and communities on students. Programs in the schools should
be part of a larger strategy that includes addressing conflict
resolution in families and in the community. Sandy (2001)
reports that conflict resolution programs can positively affect
the school and classroom climate most strongly when there is
an involvement of the total school community.
Strategies for Implementing a Conflict Resolution
Program
Due to the multidimensional nature of conflict resolution
programs, the prospect of implementing a comprehensive
conflict resolution program can appear to be an overwhelming
task for professional school counselors. A more manageable
approach to developing a comprehensive conflict resolution
program is to plan for its development by using both longrange
and immediate strategies.
Long-Range Strategies
It takes a village. Research indicates that the most
successful conflict resolution programs are ones in which the
whole school community is both an active participant in the
process of training, practice, and evaluation and links with
mediation agencies to develop training programs for the
school community.
Conflict resolution committee . Instead of handling such a
large task alone, professional school counselors may organize
a conflict resolution committee to plan and implement the
long-range conflict resolution program goals for the school.
Membership on this committee builds a foundation of
supporters and should include professional school counselors,
teachers, students, administrators, parents, and community
members. The conflict resolution program should be seen as a
shared opportunity. By involving members from all segments
of the school community, the professional school counselor is
not viewed as the sole proponent of the conflict resolution
program.
Exploration of available curricula. There are numerous
programs available designed specifically for elementary,
middle, or high school levels. Many programs offer
comprehensive curricula complete with lesson plans, training
materials, reproducible handouts, transparency masters,
videos, instructor’s guides, and evaluation tools. Some
programs are tailored to specific areas of conflict resolution
such as bullying and relational aggression.
Immediate Strategies
Small changes lead to larger changes. Look for
opportunities to integrate concepts that focus on conflict
resolution into your existing work with students. When
consulting with teachers, ask them what small steps they
would be willing to take now to infuse conflict resolution
concepts into their existing curriculum. In so doing, when it is
time to implement a comprehensive curriculum, there will
already be a core group of people who are taking proactive
steps.
A multiple intelligences approach to conflict resolution.
Garner (1996) introduced a training program for counselors to
use with students entitled, “A Multiple Intelligences Approach
to Conflict Resolution.” Using Howard Gardner’s (1983,
1999) theory of multiple intelligences to draw out students’
differing learning styles, the program encourages students to
develop an increased awareness of how they use the various
intelligences to think about and deal with conflict and conflict
resolution. The program teaches students about the multiple
intelligences, presents activities that need one or more of the
intelligences to be activated in order to complete them, and
asks students to reflect on which intelligences and activities
are strengths for them. Armstrong (1993), one of the
pioneering authors to apply the use of multiple intelligences to
educational settings, supports the use of the intelligences as an
effective way to teach the most students through a variety of
learning pathways.
Summary/Conclusion
Conflict resolution programs encourage the development
of useful skills for resolving conflict peacefully that can be
applied across the lifespan. When implemented
comprehensively, such programs promote a positive school
climate. There are a variety of approaches from which to
choose. The most effective program is a comprehensive one
that strives to train and support all members of the school
community. A conflict resolution program is not an instant
solution – it is a long-term commitment requiring patience,
training, and support at all levels of the school community,
and ongoing evaluation to tailor the program to the needs of
the school.
https://www.counseling.org/resources/library/aca%20digests/acapcd-19.pdf
Preparing Teachers for Conflict Resolution in the Schools. ERIC Digest.
by Girard, Kathryn L.
Violence prevention, conflict resolution, peer mediation, peaceable classrooms: These are
the words that frame a growing movement in education. Violence prevention connotes
both a need and a program, a part of which may address conflict resolution skills.
Conflict resolution refers generally to strategies that enable students to handle conflicts
peacefully and cooperatively outside the traditional disciplinary procedures. Peer
mediation is a specific form of conflict resolution utilizing students as neutral third
parties in resolving disputes. A peaceable classroom or school results when the values
and skills of cooperation, communication, tolerance, positive emotional expression, and
conflict resolution are taught and supported throughout the culture of the school.
Conflict resolution in education is linked to democracy and citizenship, developing a

peaceful world, cooperative learning, multicultural education, prejudice reduction, social
justice, violence prevention and intervention, critical thinking and problem-solving, and
site-based management. In recent years, the growth of violence in schools has fueled
interest in conflict resolution. There is, however, concern among conflict resolution
practitioners that the need for immediate fixes to problems may lead to unrealistic and
inappropriate goals and expectations. The press to address issues of social justice and
prejudice leads to similar concerns. Experienced practitioners view conflict resolution as
only one component in preparing youth to find nonviolent responses to conflict, in
promoting social justice, and in reducing prejudice in school communities (Bettmann &
Moore, 1994; Bodine, Crawford, & Schrumpf, 1994; DeJong, 1994; Miller, 1994).
Classroom curriculum, classsroom management, and school- or district-based programs

are main entry points for conflict resolution in schools. Information and skills find their
way quietly into individual classrooms through social studies, English, literature, science,
and even math curricula, as well as through direct instruction in communication and
cooperative problem solving. Some teachers, often in conjunction with curricular
initiatives, choose to incorporate principles of conflict resolution in classroom
management. Since peer mediation typically requires participation, support, and
resources beyond those of a single classroom, entire schools and sometimes whole
districts may be involved. Such comprehensive efforts may entail substantial parent
education and staff development and are very dependent on strong administrative
leadership (Lieber & Rogers, 1994; National Association for Mediation in Education
[NAME], 1994).
This Digest will discuss several approaches, both inservice and preservice, to preparing
teachers to play a role in conflict resolution within schools and will identify problematic
issues related to preparation.
CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN TEACHER EDUCATION
The study of conflict and its resolution encompasses many fields. Accordingly, teaching,
research, and writing occurs in many academic departments. Course materials typically
draw from social psychology, education, law, sociology, communication, and
anthropology, as represented in foundation texts (Deutsch, 1973; Fisher & Ury, 1981;
Axelrod, 1984; Hocker & Wilmot, 1991; Duryea, 1992).
Inservice Training
Conflict resolution in schools has grown rapidly. The National Association for Mediation
in Education (NAME) estimates that in 1984, the year of its founding, there were
approximately 50 school-based conflict resolution programs. Eleven years later NAME
estimates the number of programs at well over 5,000. One of those early programs was
the Responding to Conflict Creatively Program (RCCP) sponsored by Educators for
Social Responsibility, which now operates in 300 schools nationwide. Other programs
have expanded similarly. The New Mexico Center for Dispute Resolution has carried out
a statewide school mediation program for 10 years and currently involves over 30,000
students. Through the Community Board Program, three-fourths of San Francisco's
schools have peer conflict managers (National Institute for Dispute Resolution [NIDR],
1994; Inger, 1991).
Educators primarily learn about conflict resolution on their own or through staff
development programs. The issue of whether teachers can conduct peer mediation and
other conflict resolution programs without training is a central question. While mediation
and peaceable school curricula are available to individual teachers, the authors encourage
substantial training (Kreidler, 1984; Bodine et al., 1994; Schmidt, 1994). NAME provides
a curriculum and program to train those interested in conducting staff development in
schools (Townley & Lee, 1993). Training is viewed as necessary due to the difficulty in
changing adult attitudes and behavior. Without sufficient training to address teachers'
own behavior, there is the danger that the adults' words will not match their actions. Since
modeling is essential, training is viewed as essential (Bodine et al., 1994; Lieber &
Rogers, 1994; Miller, 1994).
Who conducts training for teachers? In Massachusetts one source is the Office of the
Attorney General. Some states, such as Ohio, sponsor dispute resolution centers or
commissions. University faculty based in special programs or in schools of law,
education, or public justice provide training. In many states private nonprofit
organizations work specifically on peace or conflict resolution in schools (NIDR, 1994).
Other issues arising in the preparation of inservice teachers echo problems encountered in
any change effort. They include the importance of the principal's leadership; the need for
targeted follow-up support to teachers; the fit (or lack of it) between program demands
and resources; and the need for systemic, school-wide change versus individual
classroom change (DeJong, 1994; Lieber & Rogers, 1994).
Preservice and Graduate Preparation
The inclusion of conflict resolution within preservice and graduate education programs
has grown more slowly but curricula have found their way into schools and departments
of education in a variety of ways. The subject has been introduced within the frameworks
of existing courses and as separate courses. Coursework combined with action research is
viewed as particularly effective (Girard & Koch, 1995; Lieber & Rogers, 1994; Hughes,
1994).
NAME and NIDR initiated the Conflict Resolution in Teacher Education Project in 1993.
That project brought together experts in prejudice reduction, multiculturalism, conflict
resolution, and teacher education, including representatives from professional
associations and specialties of health, counseling, and administration. The project's
curriculum, Conflict Resolution in the Schools (Girard & Koch, 1996), is the first
comprehensive set of materials directed at the incorporation of conflict resolution in the
professional preparation of educators. It includes background material and instructional
modules on the nature of conflict, foundation skills, conflict resolution processes,
rationales for conflict resolution in schools, and application options for schools and
teacher education. Eleven colleges and universities participated in a pilot training based
on this curriculum and then implemented conflict resolution at their home sites.
CONCLUSION
Limited evaluation studies show positive trends related to aggression, student self-image
and skills, and overall school climate (Lam, 1989; Metis, 1990). However, the full
benefits of conflict resolution in schools may depend on the inclusion of this subject in
the preservice curriculum; more comprehensive training; support of teachers,
administrators, and parents at sites; and expansion from individual to school- and district-
wide programs.
Two resources for additional information are:
* National Association for Mediation in Education, 205 Hampshire House, Box 33635,
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003-3635. (413) 545-2462.
* National Institute for Dispute Resolution, 1726 M Street, N.W., Suite 500, Washington,
DC 20036. (202) 466-4764.
https://www.ericdigests.org/1996-2/conflict.html

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Conflict Resolution in the Philippine Education Context

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