LAB MANUAL

Control Lab

EE-495

Department of Electrical Engineering

Zakir Husain College of Engineering and Technology
Aligarh Muslim University
Aligarh
Course Title Control System Lab
Course number EE-495
Credit Value 2.0
Course Category DC
Pre-requisite EE-341, EE-278, EE-325, EE-473
Contact Hours (L-T-P) 0-0-3
Type of Course Lab
Course Understand and analyze control applications, simulation, and
Objectives implementation of controller on systems.
Course At the end of the course the students will:
Outcomes a) be able to apply control systems theory to real engineering system.
b) understand the effects of controller parameters on system.
c) develop and analyze system models via Matlab simulation tools.
d) have the basic knowledge of power measurement techniques of
renewable energy system.
Syllabus List of Experiments
1. To determine the characteristics of a Synchro Transmitter Receiver
System.
2. To determine the steps per revolution and step angle of a stepper motor.
3. To determine the time response of linear time invariant (LTI) systems.
4. To study the effects of digital controller parameters for a given
simulated system on a 8-bit microprocessor.
5. To implement a lead lag compensator for a second order system.
6. To study state and transfer function representation of control system.
To draw plots in s and frequency domains using MATLAB.
7. To simulate Pole placement technique by state feedback using
MATLAB.
8. To study the power balance in stand-alone solar PV system.
9. To study the loss of power generation due to mismatch of solar PV
modules.
Course Viva 20 Marks
Assessment/ Sessional Evaluation of report 40 Marks
Evaluation/ End Semester Examination (3 Hours) 40 Marks
Grading Total 100 Marks
Policy
 PROGRAM OUTCOMES:

a. Students will demonstrate knowledge of mathematics, science and

Electrical Engineering.
b. Students will demonstrate an ability to identify, formulate and solve
Electrical engineering problems.
c. Students will demonstrate an ability to design electrical and electronic
circuits and conduct experiments with electrical systems, analyze and
interpret data.
d. Students will demonstrate an ability to design a system, component or
process as per needs and specification within realistic constraints.
e. Students will demonstrate an ability to visualize and work on laboratory
and multidisciplinary tasks.
f. Students will demonstrate skills to use modern engineering tools,
software and equipment to analyze problems.
g. Students will demonstrate knowledge of professional and ethical
responsibilities.
h. Students will be able to communicate effectively.
i. Students will show the understanding of impact of engineering solutions
on the society and also will be aware of contemporary issues.
j. Students will develop confidence for self-education and ability to engage
in life-long learning.
k. Students who can participate and succeed in competitive examinations.

Mapping with Programme Outcomes (POs)

POs
a b c d e f g h i j K
x x x x x x
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EXPERIMENT NO. 1
Object: To Study the Characteristics of a Synchro Transmitter Receiver System.

Theory: Scientech 2455 Synchro Transmitter Reciever helps the user to gain
invaluable knowledge about the working principal and operating of Synchro motors.
It also contains onboard AC voltmeter to measure the voltages between rotor and
stator windings.

Synchro Transmitter

Figure 2: Synchro transmitter

Figure 3 illustrates a cross section of a synchro transmitter and shows the effective
voltage induced in one stator coil as the rotor is turned to different positions. 110volts
is applied to the rotor coil. The maximum induced voltage occurs each time there is
maximum magnetic coupling between the rotor and the stator coil (views A, C, and E).
The effective voltage induced in the secondary winding is approximately equal to the
product of the effective voltage on the primary; the secondary-to-primary turns ratio,
and the magnetic coupling between primary and secondary. Therefore, because the
primary voltage and the turns ratio are constant, it is commonly said that the secondary
voltage varies with the angle between the rotor and the stator.

Figure 3: Stator voltage vs rotor position

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When stator voltages are measured, reference is always made to terminal-to-terminal
voltages (voltage induced between two stator terminals) instead of to a single coil's
voltage. This is because the voltage induced in one stator winding cannot be measured
because the common connection between the stator coils is not physically accessible.
Synchro Receiver
Synchro torque receivers, commonly called synchro receivers, are electrically identical
to transmitters of the same size except for the addition of some form of damping. Unlike
the transmitter, the receiver has an electrical input to its stator and a mechanical output
from its rotor. The synchro receiver's function is to convert the electrical data supplied
to its stator from the transmitter, back to a mechanical angular position through the
movement of its rotor. This function is accomplished when the rotor is connected to the
same ac source as the transmitter and assumes a position determined by the interaction
of its magnetic field with the magnetic field of the stator. Normally, the receiver rotor
is unrestrained in movement except for brush and bearing friction. When power is first
applied to a system, the transmitter position changes quickly; or if the receiver is
switched into the system, the receiver rotor turns to correspond to the position of the
transmitter rotor.

Figure 4: Cutaway view of torque receiver with inertia damper

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Synchro System
A transmitter (TX) and a receiver (TR) make up a simple synchro system. Basically,
the electrical construction of synchro transmitters and receivers is similar, but their
intended functions are different. The rotor of a synchro transmitter is usually geared to
a manual or mechanical input. This gearing may drive a visual indicator showing the
value or quantity being transmitted. The rotor of the receiver synchronizes itself
electrically with the position of the rotor of the transmitter and thus responds to the
quantity being transmitted.
Synchro System Operation
Now consider what happens in a synchro transmitter. Let 110-volt AC flow through the
rotor. As shown in figure 4 (A), the rotor will produce a changing magnetic field. Its
direction at some selected instant is shown by the black arrow. At that instant, the rotor
field induces currents in the three stator fields, which are connected to a load. This
transformer action produces in the three stator windings three fields (white arrows)
which, when added to produce a resultant (symbolized by a large white arrow), exactly
oppose the field in the (primary) rotor winding. If the rotor is now turned, say, 60
degrees clockwise, as in figure 4 (B), the rotor field, shown by the black arrow, will
produce in the 3 stator coils 3 fields which will again add up to a resultant directly
opposed to the rotor field.
In each of the cases illustrated in figure 4, the rotor will induce in the stator coils
currents corresponding to that position of the rotor, and to that one only. This is true for
all positions of the rotor.

Figure 5: Transformer action in a Synchro Transmitter

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Consider a synchro transmitter connected to a receiver as in figure 6 (A), so that the
rotors are fed by the same AC line and the stator coils of the receiver load the
corresponding coils of the transmitter. The currents induced in the transmitter stator
flow also in the receiver, and produce the resultant stator fields shown by the white
arrows. Thus the receiver rotor, which produces a magnetic field similar to that of the
transmitter rotor (because it is excited by the same AC line) always, because it is free
to rotate, assumes exactly the same angular position (relative to the stator) as does the
transmitter rotor.
When the transmitter rotor is turned-say 30 degrees, as in figure 6 (B)-the resultant field
produced by the stator turns too, as it did in figure 5; so does the receiver stator field.
And the transmitter rotor, being free to follow, does. See figure 6 (C).

Figure 6: Syncro System (Transmitter connected to receiver

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A simple synchro transmission system consisting of a torque transmitter connected to
a torque receiver (TX-TR) is illustrated in figure 7. As you can see, in this system the
rotors are connected in parallel across the ac line. The stators of both synchros have
their leads connected S1 to S1, S2 to S2, and S3 to S3, so the voltage in each of the
transmitter stator coils opposes the voltage in the corresponding coils of the receiver.
The voltage directions are indicated by arrows for the instant of time shown by the dot
on the ac line voltage.

Figure 7: A simple synchro transmission system

When both transmitter and receiver rotors in a synchro system are on zero or displaced
from zero by the same angle, a condition known as CORRESPONDENCE exists. In
view A of figure 7, the transmitter and receiver are shown in correspondence. In this
condition, the rotor of the TR induces voltages in its stator coils that are equal to and
opposite the voltages induced into the TX stator coils. This causes the voltages to cancel
and reduces the stator currents to zero. With zero current through the coils, the receiver
torque is zero and the system remains in correspondence. The angle through which a
transmitter rotor is mechanically rotated is called a SIGNAL. In view B of figure 7, the
signal is 60º. Now, consider what happens to the two synchros in correspondence when
this signal is generated. When the transmitter's rotor is turned; the rotor field follows
and the magnetic coupling between the rotor and stator windings changes. This results
in the transmitter decreasing S2 coil's voltage, reversing of the S3 coil voltage, and
increasing the S1 coil's voltage. This imbalance in voltages, between the transmitter and
receiver, causes current to flow in the stator coils in the direction of the stronger
voltages. The current flow in the receiver produces a resultant magnetic field in the
receiver stator in the same direction as the rotor field in the transmitter. A force (torque)
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is now exerted on the receiver rotor by the interaction between its resultant stator field
and the magnetic field around its rotor. This force causes the rotor to turn through the
same angle as the rotor of the transmitter. As the receiver approaches correspondence,
the stator voltages of the transmitter and receiver approach equality. This action
decreases the stator currents and produces a decreasing torque on the receiver. When
the receiver and the transmitter are again in correspondence, as shown in view C, the
stator voltages between the two synchros are equal and opposite, the rotor torque is
zero, and the rotors are displaced from zero by the same angle (60º). This sequence of
events causes the transmitter and receiver to stay in correspondence. In the system we
just explained, the receiver reproduced the signal from the transmitter. As you can see,
a synchro system such as this could provide a continuous, accurate, visual reproduction
of important information to remote locations.
Receiver Rotation
When the teeth of two mechanical gears are meshed and a turning force is applied, the
gears turn in opposite directions. If a third gear is added, the original second gear turns
in the same direction as the first. This is an important concept, because the output of a
synchro receiver is often connected to the device it operates through a train of
mechanical gears. Whether or not the direction of the force applied to the device and
the direction in which the receiver rotor turns are the same depends on whether the
number of gears in the train is odd or even. The important thing, of course, is to move
the dial or other device in the proper direction. Even when there are no gears involved,
the receiver rotor may turn in the direction opposite to the direction you desire. To
correct this problem, some method must be used to reverse the receiver's direction of
rotation. In the transmitter-receiver system, this is done by reversing the S1 and S3
connections so that SI of the transmitter is connected to S3 of the receiver and vice
versa (fig. 8), view (A) and view (B).

Figure 8(a): Effect of reversing the S1 and S3 connections between the transmitter
and the receiver.

Figure 8(b): Effect of reversing S1 and S3 of the transmitter and the receiver
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Even when the S1 and S3 connections are reversed, the system at 0º acts the
same as the basic synchro system we previously described at 0º. This is because
the voltages induced in the S1 and S3 stator windings are still equal and oppose
each other. This causes a canceling effect, which results in zero stator current
and no torque. Without the torque required to move the receiver rotor, the
system remains in correspondence and the reversing of the stator connections
has no noticeable effect on the system at 0º. Suppose the transmitter rotor is
turned counterclockwise 60º, as shown in view A of figure 8. The TX rotor is
now aligned with S1. This results in maximum magnetic coupling between the
TX rotor and the S1 winding. This maximum coupling induces maximum
voltage in S1. Because S1 is connected to S3 of the RX, a voltage imbalance
occurs between them. As a result of this voltage imbalance, maximum current
flows through the S3 winding of the RX causing it to have the strongest
magnetic field. Because the other two fields around S2 and S1 decrease
proportionately, the S3 field has the greatest effect on the resultant RX stator
field. The strong S3 stator field forces the rotor to turn 60º clockwise into
alignment with itself, as shown in view B. At this point, the rotor of the RX
induces canceling voltages in its own stator coils and causes the rotor to stop.
The system is now in correspondence. Notice that by reversing S1 and S3, both
synchro rotors turn the same amount, but in Opposite Directions. We must
emphasize that the only stator leads ever interchanged, for the purpose of
reversing receiver rotation, are S1 and S3. S2 cannot be reversed with any other
lead since it represents the electrical zero position of the synchro. As you know,
the stator leads in a synchro are 120º apart. Therefore, any change in the S2 lead
causes a 120º error in the synchro system and also reverses the direction of
rotation. In new or modified synchro systems, a common problem is the
accidental reversal of the R1 and R2 leads on either the transmitter or receiver.
This causes a 180º error between the two synchros, but the direction of rotation
remains the same.
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Object: Study the Characteristics of Synchro Transmitter Receiver System

Equipments Needed:
● Scientech 2455 Synchro Transmitter Receiver
● Patch Cords

(a) SYNCHRO TRANSMITTER

Procedure:
● Connect the mains supply to the system with the help of cable provided.
● Switch on mains supply for the unit.
● Connect patch cord from V~1a to R1a.
● Connect patch cord from V~2a to R2a.
● Switch on Sw1 and set the dial of Motor A in Zero Position.
● Starting from Zero Position, note down the voltage between stator winding
terminals i.e. V(S3a-S1a), V(S1a-S2a) and V(S2a-S3a) with the help of AC
Voltmeter in a sequential manner. Enter readings in a tabula form and plot a graph
of angular position of rotor voltages for all three phases.
● The same procedure will follow for Motor2.
● Note that the zero position of the transmitter rotor coincides with V (S3a-S1a)
voltage equal to zero voltage. Do not disturb this condition.
S.No. Rotor Vrms for Stator Vrms for Vrms for Stator
Position Terminal Stator Terminal V(S2a-
Degrees V(S3a-S1a) Terminal S3a)
V(S1a-S2a)
1 00
2 30
3 60
4 90
5 120
6 150
7 180
8 210
9 240
10 270
11 300
12 330
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(b) SYNCHRO TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER PAIR

Procedure:
● Connect the mains supply to system with the help of cable provided.
● Connect s1, s2 and s3 terminals of synchro transmitter Motor A to s1, s2 and s3
of synchro receiver Motor B by patch cords provided respectively.
● Connect patch cord from V~1a to R1a.
● Connect patch cord from V~2a to R2a.
● Connect patch cord from V~1b to R1b.
● Connect patch cord from V~2b to R2b.
● Switch on Sw1 and Sw2 and switch on the mains supply.
● Move the pointer i.e. rotor position of synchro transmitter Motor A in steps of
30°and observe the new rotor position. Observe that whenever Motor A is rotated,
the rotor of Motor B follows it for both the direction of rotations and their
positions are in good agreement.
● Enter the input angular position in the tabular form and plot the graph.
S.No. Angular Position in Degrees Angular Position in Degrees
Synchro Transmitter Motor A Synchro Receiver Motor B

(c) SYNCHRO TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER PAIR WITH PHASE

DIFFERENCE

Procedure:
● Connect the mains supply to system with the help of cable provided.
● Connect s1, s2 and s3 terminals of synchro transmitter Motor A to s1, s2 and s3
of synchro receiver Motor B by patch cords provided respectively.
● Connect patch cord from V~1a to R2a.
● Connect patch cord from V~2a to R1a.
● Connect patch cord from V~1b to R1b.
● Connect patch cord from V~2b to R2b.
● Switch on Sw1 and Sw2 and switch on the mains supply.
● Move the pointer i.e. rotor position of synchro transmitter Motor A in steps of
30°and observe the new rotor position. Observe that whenever Motor A is rotated,
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the rotor of Motor B follows it for both the direction of rotations but in 180° out
of phase and their positions are in good agreement.
● Enter the input angular position in the tabular form and plot the graph.
S.No. Angular Position in Degrees Angular Position in Degrees Synchro
Synchro Transmitter Motor A Receiver Motor B
1 0
2 30
3 60
4 90
5 120
6 150
7 180
8 210
9 240
10 270
11 300
12 330

Technical Specification of Equipment

Transformer Rating : 100V AC, 1 amp (Rotor winding Supply)
Digital Voltmeter : 0-400 V AC max.
Power Supply : 230V ± 10%, 50Hz
Dimension : W 430 X D 260 X H 100
Weight : 4500gm (Approximately)

Report:-
1) Mention the applications of Synchros.
2) Explain how Synchro is used for position control system.
3) What are the Constructional differences between Synchro Transmitter and
Synchro Receiver?
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EXPERIMENT NO. 2

Object:

To determine the steps per revolution and step angle of a stepper motor.

THEORY:

Stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts electrical pulses

into discrete mechanical movements. The shaft or spindle of a stepper motor rotates
in discrete step increments, when electrical command pulses are applied to it in the
proper sequence. The sequence of applied pulses is related to the direction of
rotation, and the speed of the motor shafts rotation is directly related to the frequency
of the input pulses.

One of the significant advantages of the stepper motor is its ability to be accurately
controlled in an open loop system. This eliminates the use of expensive sensors and
feedback devices.

Stepper motors are broadly divided into three categories:

a) Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor:

The basis of this type of motor is that a freely suspended magnet aligns itself with
the external field. If the external field changes its direction the magnet gets aligned
with the new direction. The rotor has permanent magnet with radial magnetization
and the stator consist of two phases(winding) at right angles, in its simplest
construction. The motion rotor with respect to the ON and OFF switching sequence
of the two phases is shown in the fig. 1 The basic angle is 90 in the fig. since only
one phase is ON at a given time, it is termed as mode-A operation. In actual practice
the reversal of field is obtained by split or bifilar winding shown in Fig. 2 If two
phases are ON at a given time, then it will be referred as mode B operation, in which
the rotor executes the same basic step of 90 but locks in the direction of resultant
field. It is possible to operate the motor alternately in mode A and mode B operating
and resulting in 45 shaft movement per step. This is called AB operation.

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b) Variable Reluctance Stepper motor:

This type of motor consist of a cylindrical rotor with radially projected teeth and
wound stator, usually has a different number of teeth. Coils are placed around the
stator teeth. The rotor is made of soft iron and has no residual magnetism,
consequently has no detent torque (maximum torque that is applied to the shaft
which looks the rotor in some fixed position without being energized and causing
discontinuous rotation). In the unenergized condition, the rotor moves freely. When
one of the phases is energized pair of the rotor teeth aligns themselves with this phase
so as to minimize the reluctance of the magnetic circuit. Subsequent switching of the
remaining phases moves the rotor in steps. Basic step angle is given by
  360 / S  360 / mN r

m-number of phases

N1-number of teeth in the rotor

a) Hybird stepper motor:

The construction and features of these motors are combination of permanent magnet
and variable reluctance type stepper motor shown in Fig. 3. These motor have detent
torque, capable of high stepping rate and high resolution or small step angle. An
axially mounted magnet produces a steady magnetic field between the stator and
rotor teeth. Another set of magnetic field is produced when the phases are energized.
Torque is created by the interaction of these fields, and the rotor aligns itself to
specified position.

Torque Vs speed characteristic of the motor is important for selecting the matching
motor for a specific application. The T Vs N characteristic is shown in fig. 4

Pull in curve (TA) gives the area corresponding to the start/stop region. Pull in rate
is the maximum frequency in which the motor can start or stop instantaneously, with
applied load without loss of synchronism as well as steps.

C-2/3

1
Put out curve (TB) defines an area referred to as slew region. It defines the maximum
frequency at which the motor does not stop at every step but may still maintain
synchronism.

Slew region (AB) defines the region in which the motor does not stop
instantaneously when the input pulses are discontinued.

ON
Ph1
Ph1

S STEP 1 Ph4 N S Ph2 ON

Ph4 Ph2
N
Ph3
Ph3

STEP 4 STEP 2

Ph1 Ph1
STEP 3
N
ON Ph4 S N Ph2 Ph4 Ph2
S

Ph3 Ph3
ON

Fig 1: Steps in Stepper Motor

Fig 2: Bifilar Winding of Phases

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Fig 3: Hybrid Motor Construction

Fig 4: Stepper Motor T Vs N Characteristics

Fig 5: 4-Phase rotor with 180 Step Angle

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PROCEDURE & OBSERVATIONS:
[A] Step angle measurement:

1. Keep switch S1 to single stepping

2. Select clockwise (CW) rotation
3. Connect all the phases to the corresponding drivers.
4. Press the push button and note the change in angular position from the dial.
Also, observe the sequence of pulses for each phase of the driver and indicate
them in a table. Five steps should be taken.
Steps Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4

5. Press the push button in multiples of ten pluses for ten steps.
6. Tabulate the Observation and calculate average step angle.
7. Repeat step 4 and 5 for counter clockwise direction of rotation (CCW).
8. Formulate similar tables as in step 4.

[B] Speed control and steps per revolution

1. Keep switch S1 to free run position

2. Set the pulse frequency to about 10 Hz. Measure the frequency by CRO
Connect all the phases to the corresponding divers. Motor will start
rotating in the selected direction (CW or CCW)
3. Measure the speed of the rotation of the shaft with the help of stopwatch.
4. Calculate steps per revolution.
5. Repeat the above steps at different frequencies (say four different
frequencies) and find the average value of the steps per revolution.
Tabulate these. Repeat the above for other direction of rotation and for
three different values of inertia load on the shaft.
6. Comment on the average value of steps per revolution for different values
of inertial load on the staff.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS:
Q1. What are the advantage and disadvantage of stepper motor
Q2. Explain the dynamic response of the stepper motor for
1. High Stepping rate
2. Low stepping rate.

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EXPERIMENT No. 3

Object: To study the time response of linear time invariant(LTI) systems.

BUILDING BLOCKS OF THE PANEL:

Following types of blocks are in the system:

1. Error detector-cum-gain:
The blocks have three inputs (e1, e2, e3) and one output (eo), which are related by
the expression.
eo = K (e1+e2+e3)
Where K is the gain. The value of K may be varied from 0 to 10 by a ten-turn
potentiometer having a calibrated dial.

2. Intergrator:
The intergrator block has an approximate transfer function of the form k 1/s and
is used in simulating type-1 systems having a pole at the origin

3. Time constant:
The two time constant blocks in the systems have the transfer function of the for
K2/(sT+1) each. The second block has a x 5 option, which results in higher gain.

4. Disturbance adder:
This is a two input (e1, e2), one output (eo) block having a defining equation of
the form

eo = (e1+e2)
This block has similar applications as that of error detector.

5. Uncommitted Amplifier:
This block is used to invert the signal so that the resulting closed loop system is
a negative feedback system.

NOTE:

All blocks in this system have transfer function with a negative sign.

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THEORY:

One pole and/or a zero characterize first order systems. Commonly used first
order systems are pure integrator and a single time constant. Many electrical
systems with RC/RL element are the examples of this type of system. Unit step
response of these functions are shown in figure-1 and are computed as follows:

C (s) K 1 k
1. For the process transfer function  with R( s )  , we get c( s )  .
R( s) s s s2
Equivalently C(t) = Kt.
C (s) K 1
2. For the process transfer function  with R( s )  we get
R ( s ) sT  1 s
k . Equivalently C(t) = K(1-ebT)
c( s ) 
s ( sT  1)

Depending on the value of ξ, various cases are considered with step inputs which
are as follows:

a) Undamped cases (0, ξ < 1)

e nt 1  2
c(t )  1  sin(d t  tan 1 )
1  2 

Where d  n 1   2 ) and is termed as damped natural frequency

b) Critically damped case (ξ = 1)

c(t )  1  e nt (1  nt )

c) Overdamped case (ξ > 1)

n e  s 2t e  s 2t
c(t )  1  (  )
  1 s1 s2

Where s1  (    1)d and s2  (    1)d

2 2

Closed loop or feedback systems are of great interest in control engineering like
automatic correction, disturbance rejection, immunity to noise and parameter
variations etc. Variation of forward path gain shifts the pole location, changes the
situation drastically and makes direct computation of response of little value.
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1. For the process transfer function K and unity feedback, the closed
G1 ( s ) 
s ( sT1  1)

loop transfer function is given by

C (s) K
 2
R ( s ) s T1  s  K

2. Similarly for K , the transfer function is

G2 ( s ) 
( sT1  1)(sT2  1)
C (s) K
 2
R ( s ) s T1  s (T1  T2 )  1  K

From these relations we can observe that varying the open loop gain K can alter the
response of a closed loop system.

Few Definitions:

Delay time (td) is defined as the time needed for the response to reach 50% of the
final value.

Rise time (tr) is the time taken for response to reach 100% of the final value for the
first time for understanding system and 90% of the final value for overdamped
system. One can derive the following relations:
1  2
w  tan 1 here


Maximum overshoot (MP) can be defined mathematically as:

c(t p )  c()
Mp   100%
c()

Setting time (tS) is the time required by the system response to reach and stay within
a tolerance band taken as 2% or 5% and given by,
3 (for 5% tolerance band)
ts 
n

4 (for 2% tolerance band)

ts 
n

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Steady state error (ess) is the error at t-α and can be expressed as
 sE ( s) 
ess  lmt ( SE ( s))  lmt  
s 0 s 0  1  G ( s ) 

PROCEDURE AND OBSERVATION:

(A) Determination of time constant:

1. Apply 100 mV p-p square wave of know frequency and measure it by CRO.
2. Trace the response and find time at which the response reaches 63.2% of the
steady state value for block 2 and 3 in figure-1
3. From the trace measure K which is given as the ratio of peak to peak value
of the response at steady state (ess) to that of square wave input (rss)
(c ss )
K
( rss )

4. Find the transfer function of block 2 and 3

(B) Closed loop response for second order system

1. Choose and wire any of the second order configuration shown in figures 2
and 3.
2. Apply 1V (p-p) square wave input and trace the output for different values of
K.
3. Obtain peak percent overshoot, settling time, rise time and steady state error.
Calculate ξ and ωn.
4. Repeat the above steps for another second order configuration.

SAMPLE QUESTION:

Q1. Modify the connection in figure-3 to result in positive feedback. Explain the
response of the system by increasing K.

Q2. Develop the circuit configuration, which simulate the “integrator” and “time
constant” block. Choose component values.

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R(s) 𝐾1 C(s)
𝑠

Fig 1.

R(s) 𝐾1 C(s)
𝜏𝑠 + 1

Fig 2.

K1 K2
R(s) K s τ1 s + 1 C(s)

Fig 3.

K2 K3
R(s) K τ1 s + 1 τ2 s + 1 C(s)

Fig 4.

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 DISTURBANCE
DISTURBANCE

TIME TIME
INPUT X GAIN INTEGRATOR CONSTANT X
CONSTANT
x5

FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER

10
ON

LEVEL FREQ LEVEL

PANEL DRAWINGS
C-3/6
 C-4/1

EXPERIMENT NO. 4.

Object: To Study of a digital controller parameters for a given simulated system on

a 8-bit microprocessor.

THEORY:

The structure for the analog PID controller is the form:

1 de(t )
m(t )  Kp[e(t ) 
TI  e(t )dt  T D
dt
]

The corresponding difference equation can be given as:-

m(k )  m(k  1)  K p e(k )  e(k  1)  KT e(k )  K D e(k )  2e(k  1)  e(k  2)

The pulse transfer function PID controllers for the above difference equation may
be found as:

M ( z) z z 1
D( z )   k p  kI  kD
e( z ) z 1 z

PROCEDURE AND OBSERVATIONS:

[A] Process Identification:

1. Connect input R(s) to the process M(s) and measure the output at C(s) with the
CRO. Note that the time base should be synchronized with the square wave input.

2. Calculate the process parameter from the peak to peak value of the response at
steady state () and that of square wave input as,
C SS
K
rss
1.678
a
412

11
 C-4/2

Where t1/2 is the time top reach 50% of the steady state value. These values can be
used to get the transfer function of the process as,
Ka '
C(s)=
(s  a) 2

[B] Closed loop response:-

1. Connect R (s),E(s) and M(s) terminals

2. Press reset-go-5000H fill next key on the microprocessor kit in the above
sequence. PC will be displayed on the screen. Give the value of gain (say
4), press next which display DEL on the screen. Enter delay setting as 0.
3. Observe the CLK OUT pulse on the CRO and measure the time between
any two pulses, which is sampling period.
4. Trace the response of C(s) and measure Cpeak
5. Repeat steps 2 to 4 for different values of gain (say 1,2,….16) and delay
setting (0,1,2,4,6,8) and tabulate the result as:

Table-1: Forward gain=4

S. No Delay setting Sampling period Cpeak

1. 0

2. 1

Delay Setting=0.6

S. No Forward Gain Sampling Period Cpeak

1. 1

2. 2

12
 C-4/3

[C] Controller Design:-

1. Press reset-go-5030H-fill-next keys of the microprocessor kit in he given

sequence.PC will be displayed. Enter the value of gain of P, press next enter
the value of gain 1 gain press next and enter the value of gain D. The P,I and
D are the gains of PID controller and the values can be taken from Table 3.

2. Trace the response for different settings of gains

Gain Level available Numerical Values

P 0,1,2,,…….E,F 0,1,2…..14,15

I 0,1,2,……..E,F 0,1/16,2/16,…..15/16

D 0,1,2,….E,F 0,1,2,…….14,15

R(s) E(s) M(s) C(s)

Digital
Process
Controller

13
 C-6/1

EXPERIMENT NO. 6.

Object: To study state and transfer function representation of control system. To

draw plots in s and frequency domains using MATLAB.

Experiment:

i. For a given transfer function determine the state model [tf2ss].

ii. For a given state model determine the transfer function [ss2tf].
iii. Check controllability and observability of the state model [ctrb(A,B),
obsv(A, C)].
iv. For a given transfer function obtain Root locus [rlocus(tf)], Bode Plot
[bode(tf)] and Nyquist Plot [nyquist(tf)].

Steps:

1. Open script editor in MATLAB.

2. Assume a transfer function and write down the vectors (row matrices)
containing the coefficients of s0, s1 ….. sn in numerator and denominator.
Where n is the highest power of s in the transfer function.
s+1
For example, for ,
S2 +3S1 +2
numerator matrix num = [0 1 1];
denominator matrix den = [1 3 2];
3. Form the transfer function using fn = tf(num,den) command. Here fn is the
arbitrary name of a variable containing given transfer function.
4. For a given transfer function determine the state model using tf2ss command.
Note the result.
5. Define A, B, C, D matrices of a control system. For easy verification, use the
same A, B, C, D matrices obtained from step 4. For a given state model
determine the transfer function ss2tf command. Note the result. It should
match the transfer function fn in standard form.
6. Check controllability and observability of the state model using
C = ctrb(A, B) and O = obsv(A, C) commands. Here, C and O will be the
name of controllability and observability command. Note the results obtained.
7. Form a transfer function as in step 2, obtain Root locus, Bode Plot and Nyquist
Plots using rlocus(tf), bode(tf) and nyquist(tf) commands.

14
 Report:

a) Comment on the observability and controllability of the system of step 6.

b) Comment of the stability of the system using bode plot obtained in step 7.
c) Comment of the stability of the system using nyquist plot obtained in step 7.
d) Comment of the stability of the system using root locus plot obtained in step 7.

15
 C-7/1
EXPERIMENT NO. 7

Object: To simulate Pole Placement technique by State Feedback using MATLAB

There are several different ways to describe a system of linear differential equations. For a SISO
LTI system, the state-space form is given below:
𝐱̇ = 𝐀𝐱 + 𝐁𝐮
𝐲 = 𝐂𝐱 + 𝐃𝐮

where x is a n by 1 vector representing the state (commonly position and velocity variable in
mechanical systems), u is a scalar representing the input (commonly a force or torque in
mechanical systems), and y is a scalar representing the output. The matrices A (n by n), B (n by
1), and C (1 by n) determine the relationships between the state and input and output variables.
Note that there are n first-order differential equations. State space representation can also be used
for systems with multiple inputs and outputs (MIMO), but we will only use single-input, single-
output (SISO) systems in these tutorials.

To introduce the state space design method, we will use the magnetically suspended ball as an
example. The current through the coils induces a magnetic force which can balance the force of
gravity and cause the ball (which is made of a magnetic material) to be suspended in midair. The
modeling of this system has been established in many control text books (including Automatic
Control Systems by B. C. Kuo, the seventh edition).

The equations for the system are given by:

d2 h Ki2
M 2 = Mg −
dt h

di
V=L + iR
dt

where h is the vertical position of the ball, i is the current through the electromagnet, V is the
applied voltage, M is the mass of the ball, g is gravity, L is the inductance, R is the resistance, and
K is a coefficient that determines the magnetic force exerted on the ball. For simplicity, we will
choose values M = 0.05 Kg, K = 0.0001, L = 0.01 H, R = 1 Ohm, g = 9.81 m/sec^2. The

16
 C-7/2

system is at equilibrium (the ball is suspended in midair) whenever h = K i^2/Mg (at which point
dh/dt = 0). We linearize the equations about the point h = 0.01 m (where the nominal current
is about 7 amp)

Here:

∆𝑖
𝑥 = [∆ℎ̇]
∆ℎ

is the set of state variables for the system (a 3x1 vector), u is the input voltage (delta V), and y
(the output), is delta h. Enter the system matrices into a m-file.

For the above system, the matrices will be as follows

0 1 0 0
A = [980 0 −2.8 ] , B = [ 0 ] , C = [1 0 0],
0 0 −100 100

QUESTION – 1: Show how does the above matrices are obtained?

Use pole placement using feedback and see the effect of poles for various pole positions using
MATLAB.

STEP-1 Run the following program and observe/save the results

A. Response for original system with no input, and non-initial conditions.

%------------------------------ PROGRAM 1 -----------------------------

A = [ 0 1 0
980 0 -2.8
0 0 -100];
B = [0
0
100];
C = [1 0 0];
poles = eig(A) %eigen values of A (equivalent to poles)
t = 0:0.01:2; %time values from 0 to 2 seconds with a step of 10ms
u = zeros(size(t));%initialize input matrix – zero inputs throughout time
x0 = [0.01 0 0]; %specify initial states
sys = ss(A,B,C,0); %state space representation using ‘ss’command4
[y,t,x] = lsim(sys,u,t,x0); %get the output response y with lsim command
plot(t,y) %plot the response
title('Open-Loop Response to Non-Zero Initial Condition')
xlabel('Time (sec)')
ylabel('Ball Position (m)')

17
 C-7/3
B. Response after placing the pole with no input and non-zero initial condition.

Modify the above program as follows:

STEP-2 Run the following program and observe/save the figure

%------------------------------PROGRAM 2 -------------------------------

%---------------- PLACE POLES AT DESIRED LOCATION ----------------------

A = [ 0 1 0
980 0 -2.8
0 0 -100];

B = [0
0
100];

C = [1 0 0];

poles = eig(A) %eigen values of A (equivalent to poles)

t = 0:0.01:2; %time values from 0 to 2 seconds with a step of 10ms

u = zeros(size(t));%initialize input matrix – zero inputs throughout time
x0 = [0.01 0 0]; %specify initial states

p1 = -10 + 10i;
p2 = -10 - 10i;
p3 = -50;

K = place(A,B,[p1 p2 p3]); %place the poles such that eig values are
%p1,p2 and p3
sys_cl = ss(A-B*K,B,C,0); %get modified state space model

lsim(sys_cl,u,t,x0); %directly plot output response for modified

model
xlabel('Time (sec)')
ylabel('Ball Position (m)')

STEP – 3 Repeat the above steps to place poles at:

p1 = -20 + 20i;
p2 = -20 - 20i;
p3 = -100;

and observe/save the results.

This time the overshoot is smaller. Consult your textbook for further suggestions on choosing the
desired closed-loop poles.

18
 C-7/4
In general, the farther you move the poles, the more control effort it takes.

QUESTION –2: Compare the control effort required (K) in both cases.

C. With reference input

STEP-4: Run the following program and save/observe the results.

%------------------------------PROGRAM 3 -----------------------------
A = [ 0 1 0
980 0 -2.8
0 0 -100];

B = [0
0
100];

C = [1 0 0];

poles = eig(A) %eigen values of A (equivalent to poles)

t = 0:0.01:2;
u = 0.001*ones(size(t));

x0 = [0.01 0 0]; %specify initial states

p1 = -10 + 10i;
p2 = -10 - 10i;
p3 = -50;

K = place(A,B,[p1 p2 p3]); %place the poles such that eig values are
%p1,p2 and p3
sys_cl = ss(A-B*K,B,C,0);

lsim(sys_cl,u,t);
xlabel('Time (sec)')
ylabel('Ball Position (m)')
axis([0 2 -4*e^-6 0])

Observe the input. Is it unity?

Output is not compared to the reference; instead we measure all the states, multiply by the gain
vector K, and then subtract this result from the reference. Therefore, K*x will never be equal to
the desired output (i.e. unity). To eliminate this problem, we can scale the reference input to make
it equal to K*x steady state. This scale factor is called here as Nbar.

19
 C-7/5
STEP – 5: Open new script, copy the following program and paste in the new script. Save
the file with name ‘Nbar.m’ and save it to the same folder where you have saved your main
program.

function[Nbar]=rscale(a,b,c,d,k)
% Given the single-input linear system:
% .
% x = Ax + Bu
% y = Cx + Du
% and the feedback matrix K,
%
% the function rscale(sys,K) or rscale(A,B,C,D,K)
% finds the scale factor N which will
% eliminate the steady-state error to a step reference
% for a continuous-time, single-input system
% with full-state feedback

%8/21/96 Yanjie Sun of the University of Michigan

%under the supervision of Prof. D. Tilbury
%6/12/98 John Yook, Dawn Tilbury revised

error(nargchk(2,5,nargin));

% --- Determine which syntax is being used ---

nargin1 = nargin;
if (nargin1==2), % System form
[A,B,C,D] = ssdata(a);
K=b;
elseif (nargin1==5), % A,B,C,D matrices
A=a; B=b; C=c; D=d; K=k;
else error('Input must be of the form (sys,K) or (A,B,C,D,K)')
end;

% compute Nbar
s = size(A,1);
Z = [zeros([1,s]) 1];
N = inv([A,B;C,D])*Z';
Nx = N(1:s);
Nu = N(1+s);
Nbar=Nu + K*Nx;

20
 C-7/6
D. With reference input and proper scaling
Modify your program C. as follows:

STEP – 6 Run the following program and save/observe results

%------------------------------PROGRAM 4 -----------------------------
A = [ 0 1 0
980 0 -2.8
0 0 -100];
B = [0
0
100];
C = [1 0 0];
poles = eig(A) %eigen values of A (equivalent to poles)
t = 0:0.01:2;
u = 0.001*ones(size(t));
x0 = [0.01 0 0]; %specify initial states
p1 = -10 + 10i;
p2 = -10 - 10i;
p3 = -50;
K = place(A,B,[p1 p2 p3]); %place the poles such that eig values are
%p1,p2 and p3
Nbar = rscale(sys,K);
sys_cl = ss(A-B*K,B,C,0);
lsim(sys_cl,Nbar*u,t)
title('Linear Simulation Results (with Nbar)')
xlabel('Time (sec)')
ylabel('Ball Position (m)')
axis([0 2 0 1.2*10^-3])

QUESTION-3: What is Ackerman`s Formula? Where is it applicable?

Observations: Plot the graphs as discussed above .

Report: Answer the all questions asked above.

References:
1. For this, and more MATLAB based experiments for control systems you can visit the
following link:
http://ctms.engin.umich.edu/CTMS/index.php?example=Introduction&section=ControlStateSpace
(Last accessed on 23.01.2017)

2. Benjamin C. Kuo, “AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS” 7th Edition. Katsuhiko Ogata, Modern
Control Engineering" 2th Edition

21
 C-8/1

EXPERIMENT NO. 8:

Object: To study the loss of power balance in Stand-alone solar PV system.

Equipments: Solar PV panel 67 Wp , 21.8 V, battery 12 V, 3 Ah, battery charger,

ac/dc load.

Brief theory: Solar PV panel can supply energy directly to a dc load; however the
output voltage will keep on changing with variation in insolation. The operation will
not be satisfactory as a load is rated for certain fixed voltage.

Therefore, a battery with a charge controller is also provided to supply a stable

voltage. The functions of a charge controller are as follows:
1. It converts variable dc output voltage available form solar PV to a constant
voltage.
2. It initially supplies a high current to a discharged battery to charge it in
minimum time. When the battery tends to get fully charged it switches to
trickle charging mode.
3. When the battery is discharged it disconnects the load from battery.

Important: For proper operation of charge controller the battery must be connected
to work as power supply for the electronic circuit provided inside.

22
 C-8/2

Green LED
Three Yellow LEDs

Red LED

Green LED: It will glow only if PV module is connected at the input of charge
controller.

Three Yellow LEDs: Upper most yellow LED will indicate that battery is fully
charged, middle one will indicate moderately charged battery and lower one will
indicate low battery.

Red LED: It will indicate that the charge controller is not ready for operation, so do
not connect the PV module to the input of charge controller.

Procedure:
Part 1:
1. Construct the circuit as shown in Fig. (a)
2. Vary the insolation on solar panel and record the readings of load voltage and
current as given in the following table.

23
 C-8/3

S. No. PV o/p Voltage (V) PV o/p Current (A) PV o/p Power (W)
1.
2.
3.

Part 2:
(a) Only battery charging (ac/ dc loads are off, inverter disconnected)
1. Construct the circuit as shown in Fig. (b), but without dc / ac loads and
inverter. The charge controller should be connected to battery terminal s 1 st
and then it should be connected to PV module. The power supplied will be
used for battery charging and a current of 4 mA will flow into the charge
controller to meet the losses.
2. Vary the insolation on solar panel and record the readings of load voltage and
current as given in the following table.

S. PV o/p PV o/p PV Charge Battery Battery Battery Total

No. Voltage Current Power, contr. i/p i/p i/p Power
(V) (A) Wp losses voltage voltage Power consumed
(W) Wc (V) (A) WB Wt (W)
(W) (W)
1.
2.
3.

For power balance:

Output PV power = Charge controller losses + battery input power = Total power
consumed

Wp = Wc + WB = Wt

(b) Battery charging and only dc loads connected

1. Construct the circuit as shown in Fig. (b), but without inverter and ac load. The
power supplied by PV module will be used for battery charging, to meet the
losses of the charge controller and remaining power to feed the dc load.
2. Vary the insolation on solar panel and record the readings of load voltage and
current as given in the following table.

24
 C-8/4

DC load current (A)

Battery I/P Current
Charge contr losses
PV O/P Current (A)

Battery I/P Voltage

DC load voltage (V)

DC load Power Wdc

PV O/P Voltage (V)

consumed Wt (W)
Battery I/P Power
PV Power Wp (W)
S

Total power
N

WB (W)
Wc (W)
S. No

(W)
(A)
(V)
1
2
3

For Power balance:

Wp = Wc + WB + Wdc = Wt

(c) Battery charging and both ac and dc loads connected

1. Construct the circuit as shown in Fig. (b), including inverter and ac load. The
power supplied by PV module will be used for battery charging, to meet the
losses of the charge controller, to meet the losses of inverter and remaining
power to feed the dc as well as ac loads. To calculate the losses of the inverter,
its efficiency may be assumed as 95%.
2. Vary the insolation on solar panel and record the readings of load voltage and
current as given in the following table.

25
 3
2
1
S
N

3
2
1
S
N
S. No. S. No.
Charge contr losses PV O/P Voltage (V)

Report:
Wc (W)
PV O/P Current (A)
Battery I/P Voltage
(V)
PV Power Wp (W)

For Power balance:

For Power balance:
Battery I/P Current
Charge contr losses
(A) Wc (W)

discrepence, if any.
Battery I/P Power Battery I/P Voltage
WB (W) (V)
Battery I/P Current
DC load voltage (V) (A)

Battery I/P Power

Wp = Wc + WB + Wdc + Wi + Wac = Wt
DC load current (A)
Wp = Wc + WB + Wdc + Wi + Wac = Wt WB (W)

current as given in the following table.

26
DC load voltage (V)
DC load Power Wdc
(W) DC load current (A)

1. Draw VI characteristics of a solar PV module

Inverter losses Wi DC load Power Wdc
(W)
(d) PV module OFF and both ac and dc loads connected

(W)
Inverter losses Wi
AC load voltage (V) (W)

AC load voltage (V)

AC load current (A)
AC load current (A)
AC load Power Wac
AC load Power Wac

2. Comment on power balance of the system and explain the reasons for
(W)
(W)
Total power Total power
Vary the insolation on solar panel and record the readings of load voltage and
1. Switch OFF the PV module, now battery will be feeding both dc and ac loads.

consumed Wt (W) consumed Wt (W)

C-8/5
 C-8/6

27
 C-9/1

EXPERIMENT NO. 9:

Object: To study the loss of power generation due to mismatch of solar PV

modules.

Apparatus Required:

S. No. Apparatus Required Qty Remark

1
2
3
4
5

Theory: Mismatch losses are caused by the interconnection of solar cells or modules
which do not have identical properties or which experience different conditions from
one another. Mismatch losses are a serious problem in PV modules and arrays under
some conditions because the output of the entire PV modules array under worst case
conditions is determined by the module with the lowest output. For example, when
one module is shaded while the remainder modules are not, the power being
generated by the “good” modules can be dissipated by the lower performance
module rather than powering the load. This in turn can lead to highly localized power
dissipation and the resultant local heating may cause irreversible damage to the
module.

Mismatch in PV modules occurs when the electrical parameters of one solar cell are
significantly altered from those of the remaining devices. The impact and power loss
due to mismatch depend on:

1. The operating point of the PV modules

2. The parameter (or parameters) which are different from the remainder of the
solar cells.

28
 C-9/2

Observations:

Set 1: For single modules of each type

For Mono-crystalline PV modules

S .no. Module Module Voltage Module current Module power
Temperature
1
2
3
4

For Poly-crystalline PV modules

S .no. Module Module Voltage Module current Module power
Temperature
1
2
3
4

For CIGS thin film PV modules

S .no. Module Module Voltage Module current Module power
Temperature
1
2
3
4

For Amorphous silicon thin film PV modules

S .no. Module Module Voltage Module current Module power
Temperature
1
2
3
4

29
 C-9/3

Set 2: For combination of 2 modules of different types

For Mono-crystalline and poly crystalline PV modules

Series connected modules Parallel connected modules
S .no. Module Module Module Module Module Module
Voltage current power Voltage current power
1
2
3
4

For Poly-crystalline and CIGS PV modules

Series connected modules Parallel connected modules
S .no. Module Module Module Module Module Module
Voltage current power Voltage current power
1
2
3
4

For CIGS thin film and Amorphous Si PV modules

Series connected modules Parallel connected modules
S .no. Module Module Module Module Module Module
Voltage current power Voltage current power
1
2
3
4

For Amorphous silicon thin film and Mono-crystalline PV modules

Series connected modules Parallel connected modules
S .no. Module Module Module Module Module Module
Voltage current power Voltage current power
1
2
3
4
30
 C-9/4

For Amorphous Si thin film and poly crystalline PV modules

Series connected modules Parallel connected modules

S .no. Module Module Module Module Module Module
Voltage current power Voltage current power
1
2
3
4

For Mono-crystalline and CIGS PV modules

Series connected modules Parallel connected modules

S .no. Module Module Module Module Module Module
Voltage current power Voltage current power
1
2
3
4

Result: Compare the power output of a module with other type of module and
single module at constant load at inverter output.

31
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR PERFORMING EXPERIMENTS FOR ALL THE LABS

1. All students shall carry out experiments in groups.

2. Each group will carry out a particular experiment, assigned to them in each term.

3. The next experiment to be performed is the next experiment mentioned in the list of

experiments (cyclic order).

4. The student should come prepared and should go through the experiment sheet provided to

them and the relevant theory before their experiment turns. Surprise viva-voce can be taken

anytime throughout the semester.

5. After completion of the connection of circuit, get the connection checked by Instructor or lab

staff.

6. After performing the experiment, get the observation signed by a teacher.

7. Submit the Report, complete in all respect, on the consecutive next turn. Provide sample

calculation, graph, comment on result etc.

8. The Instructors and lab staff are available to assist the students in their work.

9. In case of any accident while performing experiments, turn off the power supply immediately.

10. It is prohibited to smoke, eat or drink in the laboratory.

11. The class room discipline has to be maintained in the laboratory.

32