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Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and

Environmental Effects
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Emission Characteristics of a Diesel Engine Fueled by

25% Sunflower Oil Methyl Ester and 75% Diesel Fuel
Blend
a
C. İlkılıç
a
Technical Education Faculty, Firat University, Elaziğ, Turkey
Published online: 06 Feb 2009.

To cite this article: C. İlkılıç (2009) Emission Characteristics of a Diesel Engine Fueled by 25% Sunflower Oil Methyl Ester
and 75% Diesel Fuel Blend, Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 31:6, 480-491, DOI:
10.1080/15567030701531329

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15567030701531329

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 Energy Sources, Part A, 31:480–491, 2009
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1556-7036 print/1556-7230 online
DOI: 10.1080/15567030701531329

Emission Characteristics of a Diesel Engine

Fueled by 25% Sunflower Oil Methyl Ester
and 75% Diesel Fuel Blend

C. İLKILIÇ1
1
Technical Education Faculty, Firat University, Elazığ, Turkey
Downloaded by [University of York] at 01:49 20 September 2013

Abstract Combustion of fossil fuels is the main culprit in increasing the global
carbondioxide level, a consequence of global warming. Diesel engines are the major
source of greenhouse gas emissions (CO2 ) and other air pollutants, such as HC,
CO, NOx, and smoke. One way of reducing these emissions or air pollutants is by
the utilization of renewable alternative fuels for diesel engines, like vegetable oils.
High viscosity is one of the major problems relating to the direct use of vegetable
oils as diesel fuels. One method of reducing viscosity is by blending with a low
viscosity and volatile fuel. This article investigates the emission characteristics of the
fuel blend of 25% sunflower oil methyl ester with 75% diesel fuel (25/75 fuel) in a
single cylinder unmodified diesel engine. The results show that 25/75 fuel has better
emission characteristics than diesel fuel.

Keywords diesel engine, diesel fuel, exhaust emissions, 25/75 fuel

1. Introduction
The invention of internal combustion engines and subsequent developments in engine
technology has led to widespread exploitation of the petroleum fuels. Due to the shortage
of petroleum products and its increasing cost, efforts are being made to develop alternative
fuels, especially for fully or partial replacement of diesel oil. Moreover, the combustion of
petroleum fuels has polluted the air and environment. Pollutants from internal combustion
engines include carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2 ), nitrogen oxide (NOx),
sulfur oxide (SOx), hydrocarbon (HC), and particulate matter (PM).
Combustion of fossil fuels caused an increase at global CO2 level, a consequence
of global warming (Wigley, 2005). As global warming accelerates and people’s energy
demands continue to rise, people have to have cleaner and more sustainable energy
sources. Thus energy conservation and alternative fuel researches are given high priority
in energy planing in some countries. Several studies conducted worldwide have shown
that vegetable oil, without any modification, can give performances comparable with
those of diesel fuels. One of these studies is on vegetable oils to be used in diesel engines
(Labeckas and Slavinskas, 2005; Ryu and Oh, 2004; Rakopoulos, 1992; Pugazhvadivu
and Jeyachandran, 2005; Lapuerta et al., 2005; Nwafor, 2004a, 2004b; Huzayyin et al.,
2004; Hebbal et al., 2006; Geyer et al., 1984; Yoshimoto and Tamaki, 2002). It has
been found that vegetable oils are promising fuels because their properties are similar to

Address correspondence to Cumali İlkiliç, Technical Education Faculty, Firat University,

Elazığ 23119, Turkey. E-mail: cilkilic@firat.edu.tr

480
 Emissions of Diesel Engine with Fuel Blend 481

Table 1
Fatty acid composition of sunflower oil in comparison with other vegetable oils

Chemical Chemical Sunflower Cottonseed Soybean Corn

Component bond equation oil oil oil oil

Palmitic acid 16:0 C16H32 O2 23 22 17 12

Stearic acid 18:0 C18H36 O2 3 2 3 2
Oleic acid 18:1 C18H34 O2 24 25 26 25
Linoleic acid 18:2 C18H32 O2 49 50 54 60
Linolenic acid 18:3 C19H32 O2 1 1 3 1

that of diesel and are produced easily from crops (Jung et al., 2004; Zou and Atkinson,
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2003; Nagaraj and Prabhu Kumar, 2002; Bari et al., 2002). Vegetable oils are non-toxic,
renewable sources of energy, which do not contribute to the global CO2 buildup. Vegetable
fuels could be used as an emergency energy source in the event of another petroleum fuel
shortage. Extensive studies on alternative fuels for these engines have been carried out
since the fossil-based fuels are limited. Common vegetable oils are sunflower, cottonseed,
olive, soya bean, corn, nut, leenseed, and sesame oils. The oils produced most in Turkey
are sunflower, cottonseed, olive, and nut oils.
Sunflower and other vegetable seeds release oil on compression processes. During the
processes of compression of these seeds and final storage, many fatty acids are formed
(Gunstone, 2003; Bikou et al., 2003; Warner et al., 1997; Yücesu and İlkılıç, 2006).
These are palmitic, stearic, oleic, lynoleic, arachidic, and behenic acids. Sunflower oil
also contains some fatty acids like other vegetable oils. The chemical formulations and
the percentage of sunflower oil and some other oils’ fatty acids are given in Table 1.
The melting point of fatty acids rises with the length of the structural chain of acid.
Some vegetable oil contains high concentrations of less common fatty acids. Physical
properties of sunflower oil used in this study in comparison with some other vegetable
oils are given in Table 2. These oils are almost entirely consumed in foods. The excess
extent of these could be used as diesel fuel besides being consumed in foods.
It has been shown that pure vegetable oils have harmful effects on engine parts and
cause a starting problem (Engler et al., 1983; Schlick et al., 1988; Ramadhas et al., 2005b;
Muñoz et al., 2004; Bari et al., 2002; Ziejewski and Kaufman, 1983; Goodrum and Geller,

Table 2
Physical properties of sunflower oil in comparison with other some vegetable oils

Properties Sunflower oil Cottonseed oil Soybean oil Corn oil

Density @ 26ı C (Kg/lt) 0.918 0.912 0.92 0.91

Viscosity (mm2 /s) at 26ıC 34 35 34 36
Flash point (ı C) 220 210 230 280
Calorific value (kJ/kg) 39,500 39,450 39,600 39,550
Setan number 36 42 38 37
Acid value 0.15 0.11 0.20 0.16
Sulphur value (%) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
 482 C. İlkılıç

Table 3
Physical properties of CSO, SOME, diesel fuel, and blend of 25% SOME
and 75% diesel fuel (25/75 fuel)

Properties CSO SOME Diesel fuel 25/75 fuel

Density @ 26ıC (Kg/lt) 0.918 0.89 0.84 0.86

Viscosity (mm2 /s) at 26ı C 34 4.5 3.2 3.75
Flash point (ıC) 220 85 59 66
Calorific value (kJ/kg) 39,500 40,500 42,980 42,360
Setan number 36 74 56 60
Acid value 0.15 0.13 0.22 1.14
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2005; Dorado et al., 2002; Krishna et al., 2004). The problems caused by the viscosity
and density of the vegetable oils having different physical and chemical properties from
the diesel fuel should be eliminated by making them less viscous. With this aim, it
is necessary to obtain either esters or emulsions of vegetable oils (Bhattacharyya and
Reddy, 1994; Agarwal and Das, 2001; Barnwal and Sharma, 2005; Schwab et al., 1987).
Vegetable oils can be used as material to produce methyl or ethyl ester. There are several
methods for manufacturing of ester and the best method is known as transesterification
(Freedman et al., 1986; Mittelbach and Enzelsberger, 1999; Schuchardt et al., 1998;
Ramadhas et al., 2005a; İlkılıç and Yücesu, 2005; Megahed et al., 2004; Dorado et al.,
2004; Encinar et al., 2002; Noureddini and Zhu, 1997; Ma and Hanna, 1999; Harrington
and D’Arcy-Evans, 1985). Transesterification is the most frequently applied method of
industrial ester production. A strong acide can be used in the manufacturing process of
the transesterification method.
Vegetable oil methyl or ethyl ester is considered a promising alternative fuel for
the reduction of pollutant from diesel engines. Methyl ester can be used in any diesel
engine in pure form or blended with diesel fuel at any level. Even a blend of 20% methyl
ester and 80% diesel fuel will significantly reduce carcinogenic emissions by 27% and
gases that may contribute to global warming (Petrowski, 2002). Vegetable oil methyl
ester is an alternative fuel that is cleaner than diesel fuel. In this study, the sunflower
oil methyl ester (SOME) produced by a transesterification technique was further reacted
by using a peroxidation process. Sunflower oil methyl ester was mixed with diesel fuel
volumetrically 25% SOME and 75% diesel fuel (25/75 fuel). Diesel fuel and 25/75 fuel
were compared for their fuel properties and emission characteristics. Physical properties
of crude sunflower oil (CSO), crude sunflower oil methyl ester (SOME), diesel fuel, and
a blend of 25% SOME and 75% diesel fuel (25/75 fuel) are given Table 3.

2. Experimental Procedure
Sunflower oil methyl ester manufactured from crude sunflower oil was blended with
diesel fuel (25/75 v/v) and used as diesel fuel in a diesel engine. This study aimed
to test the emissions of diesel engine using blends of 25% SOME and 75% diesel
fuel (25/75 fuel), and characterize gaseous emissions, which are harmful to humans.
Experimental investigations have been carried out using 25/75 fuel as an alternative fuel
in single cylinder, compression ignition engines under varying engine speeds. A direct-
injection, air-cooled and one cylinder Lombardini diesel engine (Italy), model 6LD 400,
 Emissions of Diesel Engine with Fuel Blend 483

Table 4
Lombardini diesel engine technical details

Type 6LD 400 Lombardini

Number of cylinder 1
Cylinder diameter 86 mm
Stroke 68 mm
Clearance volume 395 cm3
Compression ratio 18:1
Maximum speed 3,600 l/min
Maximum power 6.2 kW @ 3,600 l/min
Maximum torque 20 N.m @ 2,200 l/min
Fuel tank capacity 4.3 lt
Oil consumption 0.0115 kg/h
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Cooling By air
Injection timing 30 BTDC
Injection opening pressure 200 kg/cm2
Starting By dynamometer
Dry weight 45 kg

was selected because of its typical current design, relatively small size, and low fuel
consumption. The displacement of thise engine is 3.95 cm3 with an 8.6 cm bore and
6.8 cm stroke. It has an 18:1 compression ratio. The engine’s technical data are listed in
Table 4.
Tests were held on a laboratory test bed which consisted of a diesel engine, an
electrical dynometer, an exhaust gas analyzer, a data acquisition system, and engine
mounting elements, as shown in Figure 1. In this work, various emission parameters
such as CO, CO2 , NOx, and O2 exhaust temperatures during the combustion process
under varying operating conditions with diesel fuel, and 25/75 fuel was measured. The
ECE (Euro 2) drive cycle was used for all emission tests (Euro 2 is the standard for
emission regulation in European Union countries). In this study, the exhaust gas emission
was measured using a gas analyzer apparatus. Percentages of carbon dioxide (%), carbon

Figure 1. Schematic layout of the engine test system.

 484 C. İlkılıç

monoxide (ppm and mg/Nm3 ), nitrogen oxide (ppm), nitrogen dioxide (ppm), sulphur
dioxide (ppm and mg/Nm3 ), oxygen (%), efficiency of combustion (%), and exhaust
gas temperature (ı C) were determined by Orsat gas analyzer apparatus. The test bed
examination was comprised of the measurement of engine performance and of exhaust
emission and soot in combustion gases. The engine has been run on diesel fuel and on
25/75 fuel.

3. Exhaust Gas Emissions

3.1. Carbon Monoxide (CO) Emissions

Carbon monoxide is exerted as a result of inadequate burning and partial oxidation of
carbon atoms in fuel. This emission changes depending on the air/fuel ratio in an engine
cylinder. When this ratio is small, the amount of CO increases. When the air is insufficient,
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CO transforms to CO2 after a certain amount of air. The percentage of carbon monoxide
in 25/75 fuel was lower than diesel fuel. This was because better combustion took place
in the engine fueled with 25/75 fuel. The variation of CO emissions in relation with
25/75 fuel and diesel fuel are shown in Figure 2. The CO concentrations in the exhaust
were lower for 25/75 fuel operation compared to diesel fuel. The CO production was
higher when running on 25/75 fuel at low engine speed and was significantly reduced at
high speed operations.
As can be seen from CO engine speed relationship, CO emission tends to decrease
with the increase in engine speed. When hydroxyl (OH) radical, which transforms CO
to CO2 , decreases below 1,500ıK, burning deteriorates and, consequently, the amount of
CO increases due to the lower temperature. Since turbulence occurs in the combustion
chamber at higher engine speeds, burning improves, and due to the increase of the
temperature of the mixture, CO emission decreases. When the engine speed decreases
and the loading increases, the quality of burning gets worse and CO emission rises.
Generally, carbon dioxide emission also decreases at all engine speeds in 25/75 fuel. The
CO emission is 1,500 ppm for diesel fuel and 1,190 ppm for 25/75 fuel at 3,100 rpm,
at the maximum power speed. CO emission is seen to be 3,244 ppm for diesel fuel and
3,071 ppm for 25/75 fuel at the maximum torque speed. In the case of diesel fuel, it is
seen that CO emission is higher than 25/75 fuel at all engine speeds. These observations
show that 25/75 fuel is environmentally friendly as far as the CO gases are concerned.

Figure 2. The variation of the CO with diesel fuel and and 25/75 fuel at various engine speeds.
 Emissions of Diesel Engine with Fuel Blend 485

It was found that CO concentration was up to 10% less when the engine burned 25/75
fuel, compared to 100% diesel fuel. These findings are useful to gain an understanding
of the emissions and environmental impacts of 25/75 fuel.

3.2. Carbon Dioxide (CO2 ) Emissions

Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is an odorless, colorless non-flammable gas and is the most
prominent greenhouse gas in the Earth’s atmosphere. Fossil fuels contain carbon, and
when they are burned they combine with oxygen to form carbon dioxide. The important
factor is the large rise in concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. These
gases trap heat that is radiated from the surface of the Earth and prevent it from escaping
into space. The prime culprit is CO2 , a gas emitted when fossil fuels are burned. The
World Energy Council reported that global carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil
fuels rose 12% between 1990 and 1995. The Commission White Paper European policy
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predicts that by the year 2010, the CO2 emissions from transport will have risen to about
1,113 million tons annually with the main responsibility resting on road transport, which
accounts for 84% of the transport related CO2 (Labeckas and Slavinskas, 2006).
The carbon dioxide increased with increasing engine speed. It was also found that
with 25/75 fuel the percentage of carbon dioxide was lower compared to diesel fuel.
There was very little difference between CO2 emission when running 25/75 fuel and
diesel fuel at low engine speeds. The variation of CO2 emissions in relation with 25/75
fuel and diesel fuel are shown in Figure 3. Carbon dioxide emission is an emission
product related to the entire combustion of the fuel. High post-combustion temperature
and existence of enough oxygen for an exact burning increase the amount of CO2 . It
is seen from the CO2 amount-engine speed graphics that the CO2 amount is higher at
around the maximum torque speed for both fuels. It is also seen that the best burning
happened near this speed. The CO2 emission is 9.60% for diesel fuel and 8.97% for
25/75 fuel at 3,100 rpm, the maximum power speed. CO2 emission is seen to be 10.46%
for diesel fuel and 9.90% for 25/75 fuel at the maximum torque speed. In the case of
diesel fuel, it is seen that CO2 emission is higher at all engine speeds. This means that
the quality of combustion for diesel fuel is higher than 25/75 fuel.

Figure 3. The variation of the CO2 with diesel fuel and 25/75 fuel at various engine speeds.
 486 C. İlkılıç

3.3. Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) Emissions

The conversion of nitrogen and oxygen to NOx is generated by the high combustion tem-
peratures occurring within the burning fuel sprays and is controlled by local conditions.
NOx is a collective term used to refer to nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ).
The nitrogen oxides in exhaust gases are formed through the reaction between nitrogen
and oxygen. The two factors that most significantly influence the formation of NOx are
temperature and oxygen concentration—the higher the temperature and the longer the
residence time at high temperatures in the cylinder, the greater the amount of NOx that is
generated. Combustion processes produce nitrogen oxides from nitrogen in the air and to a
small extent from nitrogen in fuels. Its formation is dependent on the duration of the flame
temperature in the combustion chamber above 1,800ı K (Borat et al., 1994; Heywood,
1988). When the burning temperature is above 1,800ıK, NOx formation considerably
accelerates. NOx formation changes depending upon the air surplus coefficient. When
air surplus coefficient is higher, the cooling rate of the engine decreases and the exhaust
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system remains hot. In poor mixtures, O2 is decomposed to 2O first. Then, NO is formed

from free radicals. As explained in Zeldhovich mechanism, NOx formations are:

O C N2 $ NO C N and N C O2 $ NO C O:

Later in the process, during expansion and in the exhaust system, part of the NO is
converted to NO2 and N2 O (nitrous oxide), typically 5% and 1%, respectively, of the
original. If the fuel contains nitrogen, and some residual fuels contain as much as 1%,
then all or part of this nitrogen will also oxidize to form NOx.
Since the activation energies of these reactions are high, both reactions in lower
temperatures are very slow. Regarding this, the amount of oxygen, which determines the
reaction rate at lower temperatures, can be neglected. At the temperature in the burning
fuel sprays, nitrogen is no longer inactive, and oxygen and nitrogen react to form oxides
of nitrogen. The immediate reaction is the formation of NO. As can be seen from Figure 4,
initially the increase in NOx emission is for both fuels with the increase in engine speed
and then the decrease after the maximum torque speed. From both graphics of emissions,
it is seen that the best burning is in the maximum torque range. This also means that the
maximum temperature is reached in this range and NOx emissions are higher.
In Figure 4, NOx emissions and engine speed graphics are seen. As seen in Figure 4,
initially the increase in NOx emission for both fuels with the increase in engine speed

Figure 4. The variation of the nitrogen oxide (NOx) with diesel fuel and 25/75 fuel at various
engine speeds.
 Emissions of Diesel Engine with Fuel Blend 487

increases and then decreases after the maximum torque speed is reached. From both
emissions curves, it can be seen that the best burning takes place in the maximum torque
range. This also means that the maximum temperature is reached in this range, and NOx
emissions are higher. NOx emissions are lower for all the engine speeds in the case of
diesel fuel. The decrease in NOx emission is between 8–11%. NOx emission reaches a
maximum at the maximum torque speed: 2,370 ppm with diesel fuel and 2,560 ppm for
25/75 fuel. The NOx emission is 1,160 ppm for diesel fuel and 1,250 ppm for 25/75
fuel at 3,100 rpm, the maximum power speed. At the lowest test speed, 1,300 rpm, NOx
emission is 1,860 ppm for diesel fuel and 2,145 ppm for 25/75 fuel. At all the test speeds,
25/75 fuel’s NOx emissions level is higher than that of diesel fuel.

3.4. Oxygen (O2 ) Emissions

The amount of power which an engine can produce is limited by how much fuel it can
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burn, and the amount of fuel it can burn is limited by the amount of oxygen in the
engine cylinder. The amount of oxygen in the engine cylinder is limited by the amount
of air in the cylinder. Increasing the oxygen flow to the diesel engines reduces particulate
emissions and increases engine power output. Figure 5 shows the change of oxygen (O2 )
for diesel fuel and 25/75 fuel. For engine speeds up to 2,200 rpm, the O2 is decreased
and then it is increased slowly for diesel fuel and 25/75 fuel. The amount of oxygen
decreases from 8.1% to about 4.8% when the engine speed is increased from 1,300 rpm
to 2,200 rpm for No. 2 diesel fuel. From engine speeds of 1,300 rpm to 2,200 rpm, O2
decreases from 8.4% to about 5.12% and then increases the other high engine speeds for
25/75 fuel. From an engine speed of 2,200 rpm to 3,100 rpm, O2 increases from 4.8% to
8.06% for diesel fuel and from an engine speed of 2,200 rpm to 3,100 rpm, O2 increases
from 5.12% to 8.56% for 25/75 fuel. In the case of 25/75 fuel, it is seen that O2 emission
is higher at all engine speeds. This means that the 25/75 fuel contains more oxygen than
diesel fuel.

3.5. Exhaust Gas Temperature

The exhaust gas temperature was measured at a distance 1 m away from the motor
outlet. The variation of the exhaust gas temperatures of the test fuels was evaluated

Figure 5. The variation of the oxygen (O2 ) with 25/75 fuel and diesel fuel at various engine
speeds.
 488 C. İlkılıç

Figure 6. The variation of the exhaust gas temperature with 25/75 fuel and diesel fuel at various
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engine speeds.

on a graph. From the graphs, it is seen that exhaust gas temperatures are the maximum
around the maximum torque speeds. The variations of exhaust temperature (ı C) values in
relation with the various engine speeds are shown in Figure 6. Exhaust gas temperature
measurements showed a variation of between 483ıC–589ıC only for diesel fuel and
25/75 fuel. Exhaust gas temperatures vary depending on the factors such as viscosity,
heat capacity, and flame velocity during burning. If the heat capacity of the fuel is
high, the energy exerted during combustion gets higher; this subsequently leads to higher
exhaust gas energy. The temperatures of exhaust gas at 2,200 rpm are 588ı C and 572ıC
for diesel fuel and 25/75 fuel, respectively. Low viscosity causes poor atomization, which
leads to longer ignition times and burning in the expansion stroke. Consequently, at higher
engine speeds, spreading of the burning in the exhaust system causes the temperature of
the exhaust gases to rise.

4. Results and Discussion

In this study, the methyl ester of sunflower oil was produced from the crude sunflower oil
and this ester was mixed volumetrically 25% in diesel fuel and used in a four-stroke and
single-cylinder diesel engine in order to determine if it could be enviromentally friendly
as an alternative fuel. Engine exhaust gas emission using 25/75 fuel is comparable with
diesel fuel. 25/75 fuel can be used in unmodified diesel engines. It can also be used
in its pure form but many require certain engine modifications to avoid maintenance
and performance problems. The physical properties of 25/75 fuel are not very different
from conventional diesel fuel except that it has a higher viscosity and specific gravity and
slightly lower cetane index. It is also observed that 25/75 fuel is environmentally friendly
compared to diesel fuel, does not affect engine and bearing components seriously, does
not degrade lubricating oil, and produces a comparable amount of carbon deposits. The
following results were obtained from these experiments:
1. While the density and viscosity of sunflower oil methyl ester decreased from
0.918 kg/lt and 33.98 mm2 /s to 0.89 kg/lt and 4.5 mm2 /s, respectively, at 26ıC,
the calorific value increased from 39,500 kJ/kg to 40,500 kJ/kg. While the density
and viscosity of 25/75 fuel decreased from 0.89 kg/lt and 4.5 mm2 /s to 0.86
kg/lt and 3.75 mm2 /s, respectively, at 26ıC, the calorific value increased from
 Emissions of Diesel Engine with Fuel Blend 489

39,500 kJ/kg to 42,360 kJ/kg. 25/75 fuel has more similar properties to diesel
fuel compared with raw sunflower oil; viscosity considerably decreased as the
result of esterification.
2. CO2 emissions measured in the experiments with diesel fuel were higher than with
25/75 fuel for all the engine speeds. Maximum CO2 emission was measured at the
engine speed of 2,500 rpm for both fuels. CO2 emission is an emission product
related to the entire combustion of the fuel. High post-combustion temperature
and existence of enough oxygen for an exact burning increased the amount of
CO2 . Maximum NOx emission was measured at the engine speed of 2,200 rpm
at the maximum engine torque speed for both fuels. NOx and CO2 emissions
were at maximum in the range of maximum burning efficiency. The exhaust
gas temperatures were also at maximum in the same range. When the exhaust
emissions are considered, it can be concluded that 25/75 fuel is better than diesel
fuel.
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3. The presence of oxygen on the ester molecules did not lead to an increase in
NOx formation. On the contrary, a certain decrease was observed at high load.
Although increases in NOx emissions have often been attributed to the oxygen
content of the fuel molecule, a balance on oxygen availability reveals that, even
by including the oxygen of the ester molecule, the oxygen/fuel mass ratio remains
below that of the conventional fuel.
4. The test results showed that 25/75 fuel emitted low CO2 compared to diesel fuel.
A very significant reduction in emissions of CO was recorded when running on
25/75 fuel. CO emissions were noted to increase with an increased amount of
diesel fuel. The fuel economy was a little worse when running on 25/75 fuel due to
its low energy content. There were no marked differences noted for the exhaust
temperatures of the fuels, 25/75 fuel and diesel fuel, at high-speed operation.
However, the diesel fuel operation produced high exhaust temperatures at high
engine speed. Lubricating oil analysis showed a reduction in viscosity indicating
oil dilution.

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