Construction and Building Materials 50 (2014) 22–27

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Properties of green concrete containing stainless steel oxidizing slag

resource materials
Yeong-Nain Sheen, Her-Yung Wang, Te-Ho Sun ⇑
Department of Civil Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan, ROC

h i g h l i g h t s

 Replacing the natural aggregate with SSOS improves the compressive strength.
 The expansion of the 100% SSOS aggregate is less than the requirement.
 The durability of the SSOS aggregate concrete is enhanced.
 No heavy metals leach from the SSOS aggregate material or mixed concrete occurred.
 This study shows that the optimal aggregate replacement ratio for SSOS is 100%.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study aims to investigate the engineering properties of green concrete containing stainless steel oxi-
Received 6 May 2013 dizing slag (SSOS). The goal of this study is to determine the best substitution proportion of the SSOS for
Received in revised form 16 September 2013 fine and coarse aggregates. The results indicated that a 100% substitution of SSOS for the natural fine
Accepted 17 September 2013
aggregate creates a mortar with better compressive strength. A 100% SSOS substitution also produces
Available online 3 October 2013
better hardened concrete properties, such as the compressive strength, surface resistance and ultrasonic
pulse velocity, than the natural coarse aggregate. Furthermore, X-ray diffractometer (XRD) and energy
Keywords:
dispersive spectrometer (EDS) microstructure analyses show that the CH content tend to decrease with
Stainless steel oxidizing slag (SSOS)
Aggregate
increasing SSOS aggregate substitution, and the alkaline elements sodium (Na) and potassium (K) dis-
Recycling of resources solve into the mortar and coarse aggregate interfaces. These alkaline reducing agents help improve the
concrete durability. Additionally, heavy metals do not leach from the SSOS concrete. Thereby, the SSOS
could be considered a green concrete material as it is a recycled resource.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction stainless steel slag can be simply treated as a common, nonhazard-

Stainless steel slag is a byproduct of manufacturing stainless
steel from scrap iron. Approximately one ton of stainless steel
waste is generated to produce three tons of stainless steel [1].
Stainless steel slag is different from carbon steel electric arc
furnace slag [1,2] because the process of making stainless steel
requires the addition of ferrochrome and nickel. This waste creates
problems not only because of its quantity but also its toxic ingre-
dients, such as chromium, lead, nickel, and cadmium, which pose
both occupational and environmental health threats [1,3–8]. Chro-
mium has been reported as the most harmful element in stainless
steel waste [9]. The toxicity characteristic leaching procedure
(TCLP) [10] results for stainless steel slag from Italy, China and
ous waste. In general, stainless steel slag could be used as a landfill
material in earth engineering [1].
In 2010, stainless steel production reached 1.5 million tons in
Taiwan, which created stainless steel slag and the other wastes
nearly 0.5 million tons. Therefore, determining how to recycle this
slag is very important. This research aims to investigate the use of
SSOS as the aggregate in concrete and the engineering properties of
this green concrete. This use of SSOS would reduce stainless steel
wastes and enhance the economic value of stainless steel slag.
2. Experimental plan
2.1. Experimental material

Taiwan concluded that the amount of almost all of the heavy met-
als recovered via leaching were below the detection limits
[1,8,9,11–16]. Therefore, the pollution risks posed by heavy metals
from stainless steel slag are very low. Moreover, in most areas,
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +886 7 3814526x5236; fax: +886 7 3961294.
E-mail address: darrel.sun@msa.hinet.net (T.-H. Sun).
This study used ASTM C150 type I Portland cement (manufactured by Taiwan
Cement Corporation, Taiwan) with a fineness of 3800 cm2/g and a gravity of 3.15.
The mixing water was normal tap water. Stainless steel oxidizing slag (SSOS) was
obtained from Lihwa Corp. by crushing before performing magnetic separation fol-
lowed by sieving which had been placed for more than 6 month in normal weather
outdoor. Figs. 1 and 2 show the sieve analysis grading of the SSOS fine aggregate
and SSOS coarse aggregate matched ASTM C33. The fineness modulus (F.M.) of
the SSOS fine aggregate is 3.00. The gravity of the SSOS aggregate is 2.9.

0950-0618/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.09.017
 Y.-N. Sheen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 50 (2014) 22–27 23

Table 2
Mix design proportion of the SSOS aggregate cylindrical concrete specimens.

Material Stainless steel oxidizing slag (SSOS)

(unit: g/m3)
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
Water-to-binder ratio 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Cement 386 386 386 386 386
Water 193 193 193 193 193
Coarse aggregate Natural aggregate 1051 788 525 263 0
SSOS 0 278 556 835 1113
Natural fine aggregate 718 736 754 770 785
Total 2348 2382 2414 2446 2477

Fig. 1. The sieve analysis grading curve of the SSOS fine aggregate.
the SSOS coarse aggregates was tested according to ASTM C39 compressive strength
of cylindrical concrete specimens. A cylinder specimen 100 mm in diameter and
200 mm high was created and tested after 3 days, 7 days, 28 days, 56 days, 90 days,
120 days, 180 days and 240 days. The ASTM C1260 standard was used to detect po-
tential deleterious alkali-silica reactions from the SSOS aggregate in the mortar
bars. Ultrasonic detection was performed according to ASTM C597. An ultrasonic
instrument was used to transmit ultrasonic pulse waves through the cylinder spec-
imen, and the signals then returned to the pulse wave receiver. As the concrete test
blocks aged, they became more compact, and the measured ultrasonic pulse veloc-
ity increased [13,17–19]. According to the ASTM C876 standard for surface resis-
tance, the resistivity can be measured using the contact section of the concrete.
During this test, the specimen was dry on the outside but saturated on the inside.
The concrete surface resistance was based on the concrete density and index of
impermeability [13,17,20]. The metal dissolution value for the SSOS was measured
using the TCLP test [10]. A scanning electron microscope (SEM) was to analyze the
micro crystalline phase of SSOS mortar for different replacements and different
ages, and the composition was analyzed by XRD. Furthermore, EDS was used to ex-
plore the changes in the interface element analysis of SSOS aggregate and mortar
[13,17,21–24].

3. Results and analysis

3.1. Workability

Fig. 2. The sieve analysis grading curve of the SSOS coarse aggregate.
Table 1
Mix design proportion of the SSOS aggregate mortar.
Fig. 3 shows the flow value of SSOS fine aggregate mortar and
Fig. 4 shows the slump of SSOS coarse aggregate concrete. The flow
value and slump for the groups of different SSOS aggregate propor-
tions tended to decrease with substitution. This workability reduc-
tion is because the surface of the SSOS aggregate is rough and
multi-angular; therefore, this shape will increase the friction be-
tween the particles of mortar or concrete.

Material Stainless steel oxidizing slag (SSOS)

(9 specimens unit: g) 3.2. Compressive strength
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
As shown in Fig. 5, the SSOS fine aggregate mortars possessed
Water-to-binder ratio 0.485 0.485 0.485 0.485 0.485
Cement 740 740 740 740 740
better compressive strengths than the control group after 3 days,
Water 359 359 359 359 359 7 days and 28 days. The compressive strength for the different
Fine aggregate Standard sand 2035 1526 1018 509 0 SSOS fine aggregate proportions tended to increase with both the
SSOS 0 509 1017 1526 2035

2.2. Test variables and mixture proportion

This study was divided into two parts. The first part of the study involved study-
ing the cement mortars according to ASTM C109, with the proportions of cement :
fine aggregate = 1:2.75, and a water-to-binder ratio of 0.485 after replacing 0% (con-
trol group), 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% by weight of the standard sand with SSOS fine
aggregate (Table 1). These specimens were aged 3 days, 7 days and 28 days. The
second part of the study studied the concrete compression specimens according
to ASTM C192, C39, C617 and ACI method mix design [13,17]. The natural coarse
aggregate was replaced with 0% (control group), 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of the SSOS
aggregate by weight (Table 2). These specimens were aged 3 days, 7 days, 28 days,
56 days, 90 days, 120 days, 180 days and 240 days.

2.3. Test items and methods

The compressive strength of the SSOS fine aggregate was tested according to
ASTM C109 compressive strength of hydraulic cement mortars, using 50 mm cube
specimens, and tested after 3 days, 7 days and 28 days. The compressive strength of Fig. 3. Flow value of the SSOS fine aggregate mortar.
24 Y.-N. Sheen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 50 (2014) 22–27

Fig. 4. Slump of the SSOS coarse aggregate concrete.

Fig. 7. Potential alkali reactivity of the SSOS aggregate mortar.

Fig. 5. Compressive strength of the SSOS fine aggregate mortar.

Fig. 8. Ultrasonic pulse velocity of the SSOS aggregate concrete.

Fig. 6. Compressive strength of the SSOS coarse aggregate concrete.

substitution amount and age. The mortar compressive strength for

the 100% SSOS was 1.13 times that of the 0% SSOS aggregate after
28 days. As shown in Fig. 6, the SSOS coarse aggregate concrete Fig. 9. Surface resistance of the SSOS aggregate concrete.
possessed better compressive strengths than the control group
after 7 days, 28 days, 56 days, 90 days, 120 days, 180 days and
240 days. The compressive strength for different SSOS proportions times that of the 0% SSOS aggregate after 28 days. This effect might
tended to increase with both the substitution amount and age. The be due to the increase of the multi-angular rough surface and the
cylindrical concrete compressive strength of 100% SSOS was 1.14 improved bonding capacity of the SSOS aggregate and cement mor-
 Y.-N. Sheen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 50 (2014) 22–27 25

Table 3
TCLP of the SSOS.

Element
Cu Cr Cd Pb Zn As Hg Cr+6
SSOS ND 0.56 <0.01 0.11 – <0.0005 0.0007 <0.0005
SSOS mortar <0.05 0.13 <0.01 0.23 – 0.0023 <0.0005 <0.5
Standard – 5.0 1.0 5.0 – 5.0 0.2 2.5

tar. Using the SSOS aggregate instead of the natural aggregate im-
proved the mechanical properties and the compressive strength.
Similar results have been reported in the literature [3,4,25].

3.3. Potential alkali reactivity

Fig. 7 shows the potential alkali reactivity of the SSOS aggregate

after 16 days and indicates that the different SSOS fine aggregate
proportions have lower values than the control group. The expan-
1 0% -7days 3 100% SSOS - 7days sion for the 100% SSOS aggregate was 0.05% lower than the 0.20%
requirement, which indicates a mostly innocuous behavior. These
results show that using the SSOS aggregate instead of the natural
aggregate decreases the potential alkali reactivity.

3.4. Ultrasonic pulse velocity

Fig. 8 shows that the ultrasonic pulse velocity for the SSOS
aggregate after 7 days, 28 days, 56 days, 90 days, 120 days and
180 days is higher than for the control group. The ultrasonic pulse
velocity tended to increase with the SSOS aggregate proportions
2 0% -28days 4 100% SSOS -28days and age. The highest ultrasonic pulse velocity was 4581 m/s, which
was 8% higher than for the control group, with a replacement ratio
Fig. 10. SEM of the SSOS aggregate concrete.
of 100% after 180 days. These results show that the SSOS aggregate

Fig. 11. XRD of the SSOS aggregate concrete.

26 Y.-N. Sheen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 50 (2014) 22–27

creates more compact concrete blocks than the natural aggregate 4. Conclusions
[13,17–19].
1. The SSOS aggregate surfaces are rough and multi-angular. Such
a shape increases the friction between aggregate particles and
reduces the mortar flow and concrete slump. In addition, this
3.5. Surface resistance
shape increases and improves the bonding capacity of the
aggregate and cement mortar. Replacing the natural aggregate
When there is a corrosion risk in a reinforced concrete struc-
with SSOS improves the compressive strength, with the value
ture, the resistivity should be above 20 kX cm to prevent corroding
for the 100% SSOS aggregate being nearly 1.13–1.14 times the
the reinforcement [13,17]. Fig. 9 indicates the surface resistance of
natural aggregate after 28 days.
the SSOS aggregate, which had a resistance between 7 and
2. The expansion of the 100% SSOS aggregate is 0.05% less than
13 kX cm could not reach the required value of 20 kX cm to pre-
that of the 0.20% requirement, which indicates the material
vent corrosion [13,17]. This problem results from the experiment
were generally innocuous. These results show that the SSOS
following the ACI method mix design from the literature, rather
aggregate expresses a decreased alkali reactivity potential rela-
than the traditional ACI mix design, which use a concrete age of
tive to the natural aggregate.
90 days and a resistance value not exceeding 10 kX cm [20].
3. The SSOS aggregate concrete surface resistance values were
Although the SSOS aggregate concrete could not meet the rein-
between 7 and 13 kX cm. Although the resistance value for
forcement corrosion prevention requirements, the resistance value
the SSOS aggregate concrete could not meet the 20 kX cm
was still higher than that of the control.
required to prevent the corrosion of the reinforcement, the
value was still higher than that of the control group.
4. No heavy metals leach from the SSOS aggregate material or
3.6. Metal dissolution test mixed concrete occurred. This finding suggests that the slag will
not influence the environment and can be used as a concrete
Table 3 indicates that no heavy metals were dissolved from the engineering material.
SSOS aggregate material or mixed concrete. This result is consis- 5. The SEM microstructure analysis of the 0% and 100% SSOS
tent with those of previous studies [1,8,9,11–16] and suggests that aggregate mortars are similar. The same hydration products,
the slag will not affect the environment and can be safely used in C–S–H gels and C–A–H crystals, are produced. Furthermore,
concrete engineering materials. the durability of the SSOS aggregate concrete is enhanced
because the CH content of the hydration products and both
the Na and K alkaline contents are lower.
3.7. Microstructure analysis 6. This study shows that the optimal aggregate replacement ratio
for SSOS is 100%. Therefore, stainless steel oxidizing slag may
Fig. 9 shows the SEM images of the SSOS aggregate mortar. The qualify as an aggregate for green concrete materials. This prac-
hydration products for the 0% and 100% SSOS aggregate were sim- tice will reduce stainless steel slag wastes, and will contribute
ilar and produce the same hydration product, C–S–H gels and C–A– to recycling and environmental protection.
H crystals (see Fig. 10). The XRD results shown in Fig. 11 indicate
that using the SSOS aggregate to replaces the standard sand reduce
the CH content of the hydration product relative to the control Acknowledgment
group after 28 days. Consuming the water-soluble CH content re-
duces the probability of efflorescence and enhances the durability. The authors would like to thank the National Science Council of
Table 4 shows the changes in the interface EDS elemental analysis the Republic of China, Taiwan, for financially supporting this
for the SSOS aggregates and mortars. For the 100% SSOS aggregate research under Contract No. NSC 100-2221-E-151-047.
after 28 days, 90 days and 120 days, the alkaline elements such as
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