Introduction To Quaternions With Numerou PDF

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INTRODUCTION
QUATERNIONS,
WITH NUMEROUS EXAMPLES.
.
(Cambridge:
PRINTED BY C. J. C.L.A.Y., M.A.
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
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**
INTRODUCTION
TO
Q UA TER NIONS,
WITH NUMEROUS EXAMPLES.
BY
P. KELLAND, M.A., FR
FORMERLY FELLow of QUEENs' collFGE, CA;
AND * Cº. º.º.

P. G. TAIT, M.A.,
**º
Sºlº
ForMERLY FELLow of ST PETER's COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE ;
PROFESSORS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS IN THE

LNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH.
‘ſomtſon:
MAC MILLAN AND CO.
1873.
[All Rights reserved.]

PREFACE.
THE present Treatise is, as the title-page indicates, the joint

production of Prof. Tait and myself. The preface I write
in the first person, as this enables me to offer some personal
explanations.
For many years past I have been accustomed, no doubt
very imperfectly, to introduce to my class the subject of
Quaternions as part of elementary Algebra, more with the
view of establishing principles than of applying processes.
Experience has taught me that to induce a student to think
for himself there is nothing so effectual as to lay before him
the different stages of the development of a science in some
thing like the historical order. And justice alike to the stu
dent and the subject forbade that I should stop short at that
point where, more simply and more effectually than at any
other, the intimate connexion between principles and pro
cesses is made manifest. Moreover in lecturing on the ground
work on which the mathematical sciences are based, I could
not but bring before my class the names of great men who
spoke in other tongues and belonged to other nationalities
than their own—Diophantus, Des Cartes, Lagrange, for in
stance—and it was not just to omit the name of one as
vi PREFACE.
great as any of them, Sir William Rowan Hamilton, who

spoke their own tongue and claimed their own nationality.
It is true the name of Hamilton has not had the impress
of time to stamp it with the seal of immortality. And it
must be admitted that a cautious policy which forbids to
wander from the beaten paths, and encourages converse
with the past rather than interference with the present, is
the true policy of a teacher. But in the case before us,
quite irrespective of the nationality of the inventor, there
is ample ground for introducing this subject of Quaternions
into an elementary course of mathematics. It belongs to
first principles and is their crowning and completion. It
brings those principles face to face with operations, and thus
not only satisfies the student of the mutual dependence of
the two, but tends to carry him back to a clear apprehension
of what he had probably failed to appreciate in the sub
ordinate sciences. - - -
Besides, there is no branch of mathematics in which

results of such wide variety are deduced by one uniform
process; there is no territory like this to be attacked
and subjugated by a single weapon. And what is of the
utmost importance in an educational point of view, the
reader of this subject does not require to encumber his
memory with a host of conclusions already arrived at in
order to advance. Every problem is more or less self
contained. This is my apology for the present treatise.
The work is, as I have said, the joint production
of Prof. Tait and myself. The preface I have written
without consulting my colleague, as I am thus enabled
PREFACE. vii
to say what could not otherwise have been said, that

mathematicians owe a lasting debt of gratitude to Prof.
Tait for the singleness of purpose and the self-denying
zeal with which he has worked out the designs of his
friend Sir Wm. Hamilton, preferring always the claims of
the science and of its founder to the assertion of his own
power and originality in its development. For my own

part I must confess that my knowledge of Quaternions
is due exclusively to him. The first work of Sir Wm.
Hamilton, Lectures on Quaternions, was very dimly and im
perfectly understood by me and I dare say by others, until
Prof. Tait published his papers on the subject in the
Messenger of Mathematics. Then, and not till then, did
the science in all its simplicity develope itself to me. Sub
sequently Prof. Tait has published a work of great value
and originality, An Elementary Treatise on Quaternions.
The literature of the subject is completed in all but
what relates to its physical applications, when I mention in
addition Hamilton's second great work, Elements of Quater
nions, a posthumous work so far as publication is concerned,
but one of which the sheets had been corrected by the
author, and which bears all the impress of his genius. But
it is far from elementary, whatever its title may seem to
imply; nor is the work of Prof. Tait altogether free from
difficulties. Hamilton and Tait write for mathematicians,
and they do well, but the time has come when it behoves
some one to write for those who desire to become mathe
maticians. Friends and pupils have urged me to undertake
this duty, and after consultation with Prof. Tait, who from
viii PREFACE,
being my pupil in youth is my teacher in riper years,

I have, in conjunction with him, and drawing unreservedly
from his writings, endeavoured in the first nine chapters
of this treatise to illustrate and enforce the principles of
this beautiful science. The last chapter, which may be
regarded as an introduction to the application of Quater
nions to the region beyond that of pure geometry, is due
to Prof. Tait alone. Sir W. Hamilton, on nearly the last
completed page of his last work, indicated Prof. Tait as
eminently fitted to carry on happily and usefully the appli
cations, mathematical and physical, of Quaternions, and as
likely to become in the science one of the chief successors
of its inventor. With how great justice, the reader of this
chapter and of Prof. Tait's other writings on the subject
will judge.
* PHILIP KELLAND.
UNIVERSITY of EDINBURGH,
October, 1873.
C O N T E N T S.
CHAPTER I.
- PAGES
INTRODUCTORY . • *- - e - - 1—5
CHAPTER II.
WECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION - - - - e . 6–31
Definition of a VECTOR, with conclusions immediately resulting

therefrom, Art. 1–6; examples, 7; definition of UNIT VECTOR and
TENSOR, with examples, 8; coplanarity of three coinitial vectors,
with conditions requisite for their terminating in a straight line,
and examples, 9–13; mean point, 14.
ADDITIONAL ExAMPLEs To CHAPTER II.
CEIAPTER III.
WECTOR MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION - . 32–57
Definition of multiplication, and first principles, Art. 15–18;

fundamental theorems of multiplication, 19–22; examples, 23;
definitions of DIVISION, VERSoR and QUATERNIon, 24–28; examples,
29; conjugate quaternions, 30; interpretation of formulae, 31.
ADDITIONAL Examples To CHAPTER III.
x CONTENTS.
CHAPTER IV.
PAGES
THE STRAIGHT LINE AND PLANE . - - - - - . 58–71
Equations of a straight line and plane, 32, 33; modifications and

results—length of perpendicular on a plane—condition that four
points shall lie in the same plane, &c. 34; examples, 35.
ADDITIONAL ExAMPLEs To CHAPTER IV.
CHAPTER W.
THE CIRCLE AND SPHERE - - - - - - - . 72–89
Equations of the circle, with examples, 36, 37; tangent to circle

and chord of contact, 38, 39; examples, 40; equations of the sphere
with examples, 41, 42.
ADDITIONAL ExAMPLEs. To CHAPTER W.
CHAPTER WI.
THE ELLIPSE . - - - - - - - - - . 90–104
Equations of the ellipse, 43; properties of ºpp, 44; equation of

tangent,45; Cartesian equations, 46; p *p, pp, &c. 47; properties
of the ellipse with examples, 48–50.
ADDITIONAL ExAMPLEs To CHAPTER WI.
CHAPTER VII.
THE PARABOLA AND HYPERBOLA . e - - e e ... 105–126
Equation of the parabola in terms of ºpp with examples, 52–54;

equations of the parabola, ellipse and hyperbola in a form corre
sponding to those with Cartesian co-ordinates, with examples, 55.
ADDITIONAL ExAMPLEs To CHAPTER WII.
CONTENTS. xi
CHAPTER WIII.
PAGES
CENTRAL SURFACEs of THE SECOND ORDER. - - - . 127–152
Bquation of the ellipsoid, 56; tangent plane and perpendicular

on it, 57, 58; polar plane, 59, 60; conjugate diameters and diame
tral planes, with examples, 60–64; the cone, 65, 66; examples on
central surfaces, 67; Pascal's hexagram, 68.
ADDITIONAL ExAMPLEs To CHAPTER VIII.
CHAPTER IX.
FoEMULE AND THEIR APPLICATION - - - - - . 153–179
Formulae, 69, 70; examples, 71.

ADDITIONAL ExAMPLEs To CHAPTER IX.
CHAPTER X.
WECTOR EquaTIONs of THE FIRST DEGREE . .. - - . 180—208
APPENDIx . - - - - - - - - - . 209–227
---！^*）：
INTRODUCTION TO QUATERNIONS.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY,
THE science named Quaternions by its illustrious founder, Sir

William Rowan Hamilton, is the last and the most beautiful ex
ample of extension by the removal of limitations.
The Algebraic sciences are based on ordinary arithmetic, start
ing at first with all its restrictions, but gradually freeing themselves
from one and another, until the parent science scarce recognises
itself in its offspring. A student will best get an idea of the thing
by considering one case of extension within the science of Arith
metic itself. There are two distinct bases of operation in that
science—addition and multiplication. In the infancy of the science
the latter was a mere repetition of the former. Multiplication was,
in fact, an abbreviated form of equal additions. It is in this form
that it occurs in the earliest writer on arithmetic whose works have
come down to us—Euclid. Within the limits to which his prin
ciples extended, the reasonings and conclusions of Euclid in his
seventh and following Books are absolutely perfect. The demon
stration of the rule for finding the greatest common measure of
two numbers in Prop. 2, Book VII. is identically the same as that
which is given in all modern treatises. But Euclid dares not
venture on fractions. Their properties were probably all but un
known to him. Accordingly we look in vain for any demonstration
of the properties of fractions in the writings of the Greek arith
meticians. For that we must come lower down. On the revival
T. Q. l
35
2 QUATERNIONS. [CHAP.
of science in the West, we are presented with categorical treatises
on arithmetic. The first printed treatise is that of Lucas de Burgo
in 1494. The author considers a fraction to be a quotient, and
thus, as he expressly states, the order of operations becomes the
reverse of that for whole numbers—multiplication precedes addi
tion, etc. In our own country we have a tolerably early writer on
arithmetic, Robert Record, who dedicated his work to King Edward
the Sixth. The ingenious author exhibits his treatise in the form
of a dialogue between master and scholar. The scholar battles
long with this difficulty—that multiplying a thing should make it
less. At first, the master attempts to explain the anomaly by
reference to proportion, thus: that the product by a fraction bears
the same proportion to the thing multiplied that the multiplying
fraction does to unity. The scholar is not satisfied; and accord
ingly the master goes on to say: “If I multiply by more than one,
the thing is increased ; if I take it but once, it is not changed ; and
if I take it less than once, it cannot be so much as it was before.
Then, seeing that a fraction is less than one, if I multiply by a
fraction, it follows that I do take it less than once,” etc. The
scholar thereupon replies, “Sir, I do thank you much for this
reason; and I trust that I do perceive the thing.” -
Need we add that the same difficulty which the scholar in the
time of King Edward experienced, is experienced by everythinking
boy of our own times; and the explanation afforded him is precisely
the same admixture of multiplication, proportion, and division which
suggested itself to old Robert Record. Every schoolboy feels that
to multiply by a fraction is not to multiply at all in the sense in
which multiplication was originally presented to him, viz. as an
abbreviation of equal additions, or of repetitions of the thing multi
plied. A totally new view of the process of multiplication has
insensibly crept in by the advance from whole numbers to fractions.
So new, so different is it, that we are satisfied Euclid in his logical
and unbending march could never have attained to it. It is only
by standing loose for a time to logical accuracy that extensions in
the abstract sciences—extensions at any rate which stretch from
one science to another—are effected. Thus Diophantus in his
I.]. INTRODUCTORY. 3.
Treatise on Arithmetic (i. e. Arithmetic extended to Algebra)

boldly lays it down as a definition or first principle of his science
that “minus into minus makes plus.” The science he is founding
is subject to this condition, and the results must be interpreted
consistently with it. So far as this condition does not belong to
ordinary arithmetic, so far the science extends beyond ordinary
arithmetic : and this is the distance to which it extends—It makes
subtraction to stand by itself, apart from addition; or, at any rate,
not dependent on it.
We trust, then, it begins to be seen that sciences are extended
by the removal of barriers, of limitations, of conditions, on which
sometimes their very existence appears to depend, Fractional
arithmetic was an impossibility so long as multiplication was re
garded as abbreviated addition; the moment an extended idea was
entertained, ever so illogically, that moment fractional arithmetic
started into existence. Algebra, except as mere symbolized arith
metic, was an impossibility so long as the thought of subtraction
was chained to the requirement of something adequate to subtract
from. The moment Diophantus gave it a separate existence—
boldly and logically as it happened—by exhibiting the law of minus
in the forefront as the primary definition of his science, that moment
algebra in its highest form became a possibility; and indeed the
foundation-stone was no sooner laid than a goodly building arose
on it.
The examples we have given, perhaps from their very simplicity,
escape notice, but they are not less really examples of extension
from science to science by the removal of a restriction. We have
selected them in preference to the more familiar one of the extension
of the meaning of an index, whereby it becomes a logarithm, because
they prepare the way for a further extension in the same direction
to which we are presently to advance. Observe, then, that in frac
tions and in the rule of signs, addition (or subtraction) is very
slenderly connected with multiplication (or division). Arithmetic
as Euclid left it stands on one support, addition only, inasmuch
as with him multiplication is but abbreviated addition. Arithmetic
in its extended form rests on two supports, addition and multiplica.
1—2
4. QUATERNIONS. [CHAP,
tion, the one different from the other. This is the first idea we
want our reader to get a firm hold of; that multiplication is not
necessarily addition, but an operation self-contained, self-interpret
able—springing originally out of addition; but, when full-grown,
existing apart from its parent.
The second idea we want our reader to fix his mind on is this,
that when a science has been extended into a new form, certain
limitations, which appeared to be of the nature of essential truths
in the old science, are found to be utterly untenable; that it is, in
fact, by throwing these limitations aside that room is made for the
growth of the new science. We have instanced Algebra as a growth
out of Arithmetic by the removal of the restriction that subtraction
shall require something to subtract from. The word “subtraction”
may indeed be inappropriate, as the word multiplication ap
peared to be to Record's scholar, who failed to see how the multi
plication of a thing could make it less. In the advance of the
sciences the old terminology often becomes inappropriate ; but if
-
the mind can extract the right idea from the sound or sight of a
word, it is the part of wisdom to retain it. And so all the old words
have been retained in the science of Quaternions to which we are
now to advance.
The fundamental idea on which the science is based is that of
motion—of transference. Real motion is indeed not needed, any
more than real superposition is needed in Euclid's Geometry. An
appeal is made to mental transference in the one science, to mental
superposition in the other.
We are then to consider how it is possible to frame a new science
which shall spring out of Arithmetic, Algebra, and Geometry, and
shall add to them the idea of motion—of transference. It must be
confessed the project we entertain is not a project due to the
nineteenth century. The Geometry of Des Cartes was based on
something very much resembling the idea of motion, and so far the
mere introduction of the idea of transference was not of much value.
The real advance was due to the thought of severing multiplication
from addition, so that the one might be the representative of a kind
of motion absolutely different from that which was represented by
I.] INTRODUCTORY. 5
the other, yet capable of being combined with it. What the nine
teenth century has done, then, is to divorce addition from multipli
cation in the new form in which the two are presented, and to
cause the one, in this new character, to signify motion forwards
and backwards, the other motion round and round.
We do not purpose to give a history of the science, and shall
accordingly content ourselves with saying, that the notion of sepa
rating addition from multiplication—attributing to the one, motion
from a point, to the other motion about a point—had been floating
in the minds of mathematicians for half a century, without producing
many results worth recording, when the subject fell into the hands
of a giant, Sir William Rowan Hamilton, who early found that his
road was obstructed—he knew not by what obstacle—so that many
points which seemed within his reach were really inaccessible. He
had done a considerable amount of good work, obstructed as he was,
when, about the year 1843, he perceived clearly the obstruction to
his progress in the shape of an old law which, prior to that time,
had appeared like a law of common sense. The law in question is
known as the commutative law of multiplication. Presented in its
simplest form it is nothing more than this, “five times three is the
same as three times five;” more generally, it appears under the
form of “ab = ba whatever a and b may represent.” When it
came distinctly into the mind of Hamilton that this law is not a
necessity, with the extended signification of multiplication, he saw
his way clear, and gave up the law. The barrier being removed,
he entered on the new science as a warrior enters a besieged city
through a practicable breach. The reader will find it easy to enter
after him.
CHAPTER II.
VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION.
1. Definition of a Vector. A vector is the representative of

transference through a given distance, in a given direction. Thus
if AB be a straight line, the idea to be attached to “vector AB” is
that of transference from A to B.
For the sake of definiteness we shall frequently abbreviate the
phrase “vector AB" by a Greek letter, retaining in the meantime
(with one exception to be noted in the next chapter) the English
letters to denote ordinary numerical quantities. -
If we now start from B and advance to C in the same direction,

BC being equal to AB, we may, as in ordinary geometry, designate
“vector BC” by the same symbol, which we adopted to designate
“vector A.B.”
Further, if we start from any other point 0 in space, and
advance from that point by the distance OX equal to and in the
same direction as AB, we are at liberty to designate “vector OX”
by the same symbol as that which represents AB. -
Other circumstances will determine the starting point, and in

dividualize the line to which a specific vector corresponds. Our
definition is therefore subject to the following condition:—All lines
which are equal and drawn in the same direction are represented by
the same vector symbol.
We have purposely employed the phrase “drawn in the same
direction” instead of “parallel,” because we wish to guard the
student against confounding “vector AB” with “vector B.A.”
ART, 2.] VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION. 7
2. In order to apply algebra to geometry, it is necessary to

impose on geometry the condition that when a line measured in
one direction is represented by a positive symbol, the same line
measured in the opposite direction must be represented by the cor
responding negative symbol.
In the science before us the same condition is equally requisite,
and indeed the reason for it is even more manifest. For if a
transference from A to B be represented by + a, the transference

which neutralizes this, and brings us back again to A, cannot be
conceived to be represented by anything but — a, provided the
symbols + and — are to retain any of their old algebraic meaning.
The vector AB, then, being represented by + a, the vector BA will
be represented by — a.
3. Further it is abundantly evident that so far as addition and

subtraction of parallel vectors are concerned, all the laws of Algebra
must be applicable. Thus (in Art. 1) AB+ BC or a + a produces
the same result at AC which is twice as great as AB, and is there
fore properly represented by 20 ; and so on for all the rest. The
distributive law of addition may then be assumed to hold in all its
integrity so long at least as we deal with vectors which are parallel
to one another. In fact there is no reason whatever, so far, why
a should not be treated in every respect as if it were an ordinary
algebraic quantity. It need scarcely be added that vectors in the
same direction have the same proportion as the lines which corre
spond to them.
We have then advanced to the following—
LEMMA. All lines drawn in the same direction are, as vectors,
to be represented by numerical multiples of one and the same
symbol, to which the ordinary laws of Algebra, so far as their addi
tion, subtraction, and numerical multiplication are concerned, may
be unreservedly applied.
4. The converse is of course true, that if lines as vectors are
represented by multiples of the same vector symbol, they are
parallel. -
8 - QUATERNIONS. [CHAP. II.
It is only necessary to add to what has preceded, that if BC be
a line not in the same direction with C
AB, then the vector BC cannot be
represented by a or by any multiple
of a. The vector symbol a must A B
be limited to express transference in a certain direction, and can

not, at the same time, express transference in any other direction.
To express “vector B0° then, another and quite independent
symbol 3 must be introduced. This symbol, being united to a by
the signs + and —, the laws of algebra will, of course, apply to
the combination. -
5. If we now join AC, and thus form a triangle ABC, and if

we denote vector AB by a, BC by 8, AC by y, it is clear that we
shall be presented with the equation a +/3 = y.
This equation appears at first sight to be a violation of Euclid I.
20: “Any two sides of a triangle are together greater than the
third side.” But it is not really so. The anomalous appearance
arises from the fact that whilst we have extended the meaning of
the symbol + beyond its arithmetical signification, we have said
nothing about that of a symbol =. It is clearly necessary that the
signification of this symbol shall be extended along with that of
the other. It must now be held to designate, as it does perpetually
in algebra, “equivalent to.” This being premised, the equation
above is freed from its anomalous appearance, and is perfectly con
sistent with everything in ordinary geometry. Expressed in words
it reads thus: “A transference from A to B followed by a trans
ference from B to C is equivalent to a transference from A to C.”
6, AXIOM. If two vectors have not the same direction, it is
impossible that the one can neutralize the other.
This is quite obvious, for when a transference has been effected
from A to B, it is impossible to conceive that any amount of trans
ference whatever along B0 can bring the moving point back to A.
It follows as a consequence of this axiom, that if a, B be different
actual vectors, i.e. finite vectors not in the same direction, and if
ART. 7] vBCTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION. 9
ma+ ng = 0, where m and n are numerical quantities; then must

m = 0 and m = 0. - .
Another form of this consequence may be thus stated. If

ma + m3 = pa + q8, then must m = p, and n = q.
7. We now proceed to exemplify the principles so far as they

have hitherto been laid down. It is scarcely necessary to remind
the reader that we are assuming the applicability of all the rules
of algebra and arithmetic, so far as we are yet in a position to draw
on them ; and consequently that our demonstrations of certain of
Euclid's elementary propositions must be accepted subject to this
assumption. -
To avoid prolixity, we shall very frequently drop the word vector,

at least in cases where, either from the introduction of a Greek
letter as its representative, or from obvious considerations, it must
be clear that the mere line is not meant. The reader will not fail
to notice that the method of demonstration consists mainly in reach
ing the same point by two different routes. (See remark on Ex.9)
ExAMPLEs.
Ex. 1. The straight lines which join the extremities of equal and
parallel straight lines towards the same parts are themselves equal
and parallel.
Let AB be equal and parallel to CD; A B
Spy
to prove that AC is equal and parallel
to BD.
Let vector AB be represented by a, /~10 S
/> </ -
then (Art. 1) vector CD is also repre- 9 D
sented by a.
If now vector CA be represented by 8, vector DB by y, we shall
have (Art. 5) vector CB=CA + AB = B+a,
and vector CB = CD + DB = a +y;
. . B+ a = a + Y,
and 8-y;
so that 8 and y are the same vector symbol; consequently (Art. 1)
10 QUATERNIONS. - [CHAP. II.
the lines which they represent are equal and parallel; i.e. CA is
equal and parallel to BD.
Ex. 2. The opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal; and
the diagonals bisect each other.
Since AB is parallel to CD, if vector AB be represented by a,
vector CD will be represented by some numerical multiple of a
(Art. 3), call it ma.
And since CA is parallel to DB; if vector CA be 8, then vector
DB is m3; hence - -
- vector CB = CA + AB = B+ a,
and = CD + DB = ma + m3;
... a + 8 = ma + m3.
Hence (Art. 6) m = 1, n = 1, i.e. the opposite sides of the paral
lelogram are equal.
Again, as vectors, A0+ 0B = AB
- = CD
= CO + OD;
And as AO is a vector along OD, and CO a vector along OB;
it follows (Art. 6) that vector A0 is vector OD, and vector C0 is
OB; - -
... line AO = OD, CO = OB.
Ex. 3. The sides about the equal angles of equiangular triangles

are proportionals.
Let the triangles ABC, ADE have a common A.
angle A, then, because the angles D and B are
equal, DE is parallel to BC.
Let vector AD be represented by a, DE by
B, then (Art. 3) AB is ma, BC m3. -
... as vectors, AE = AD + DE = a + 8, D E.
AC = AB+ BC = ma + m3. -
Now AC is a multiple of AE, call it p (a + 8).

... ma + n/2 = p (a + 3),
and m = p = n (Art. 6).
Ex. 4.] VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION, 11
But line A B : A D = m,
line BC : DE = n,
..". AB : AD :: BC : DE.
Ex. 4. The bisectors of the sides of a triangle meet in a point

which trisects each of them. -
Let the
in sides
D, E,ofF,
theand
triangle ABCBE
be
bisected let AD, A.
meet in G.
Let vector BD or DC be a, CE or EA 8, F E
then, as vectors,
BA = BC +CA = 2a+28 = 2 (a +8), B I) C
DE = DC + CE = a + 8,
hence (Art. 4) BA is parallel to DE, and
equal to 2DE.
Again, BG + GA = BA.
== 2D E *
= 2 (DG + GE).
Now vector BG is along GE, and vector GA along DG.
... (Art. 6) BG = 2GE,
GA = 26D,
whence the same is true of the lines.
2
Lastly, BG = 3 BE
2
= 3 (BC + CE)
2
=3(2a+8);
... CG = BG – BC
2
=;(2a+8)–2a
- 2
=3(8–6),
13 QUATERNIONS. [CHAP. II.
GF = BF – BG
- B4-B6.
- 2 -
- = a +8–5(2a+8)
I
- = 3 (8–0);
hence CG is in the same straight line with GF, and equal to 2GF.
Ex. 5. When, instead of D and E being the middle points of
the sides, they are any points whatever in those sides, it is required
to find G and the point in which CG produced meets A.B.
JBC CA -
Let jø-m, º, = n ; also let vector DC = a, vector CE = 3;

..". BC = ma, CA = m/3.
Hence BE = BC + CE = ma + 8,
DA = a + m3.
Let BG = a,b E, GA = y DA,
then BA = BG+GA = a (ma + 8) + y (a + m3).
But BA = ma + m3, - -
... (Art. 6) a m + y = m, a + yn = n, -
and ac, i.e. BE

£6 (n-1)*
mn – 1 °
y or AD
4% -ºil);".
mm – 1
Again, let BF = p/BA = p (ma + m3).

But JBF = BC + O'F'
= ma + a multiple of CG
= ma + 2 CG suppose
= ma + 2 {BG – BC}
-mars (“F*ºne-º-ma).
{º}*(n+6)-me}
mn – 1
The two values of BF being equated, and Art. 6 applied,

there results
– 1 m–1
p = 1 – 2–7,
mn – l' p = 2–
mn – l'
Ex. 6..] : VLCTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION. 13
whence 1-2-tº-l;
p Tn – 1
AF AE
i.e. +... = −.---
BD
or A.F. B.D. C E = AE. C.D. B.F.
Ex. 6. When, instead of as in Ex. 4, where D, E, F are points

taken within BC, CA, AB at distances equal to half those lines
respectively, they are points taken in BC, CA, AB produced, at
the same distances respectively from C, A, and B; to find the inter
8èctions. -
Let the points of intersection be respectively G, G., G,..
Retaining the notation of Ex. 4, we have

BD = 30, CE = 38;
and ... BG, - whº
=w (20 + 38)........................... (1),
and BG, = BD + DG,
= 3a + 3/DA
=3a + y (CA – CD)

=3a + y (28 – a);
... 22 = 3-y, 32 = 29, and 2-};
... line EG, = } EB.
|
Similarly line FG, - FC,
- 1
line DG, = 7 DA,
and from equation (1) BG, = (2a+38).

But BG, - BA + AG, - 2a+28+ AG, ;
2
... 46,-7(23–6);
hence line AG, = ; line DA
= 2DG,
and similarly of the others.
Ex. 7. The middle points of the lines which join the points of
bisection of the opposite sides of a quadrilateral coincide, whether
the four sides of the quadrilateral be in the same plane or not.
Let ABCD be a quadrilateral; E, H, G, F the middle points of
AB, BC, CD, DA; X the middle point of E.G.
Let vector AB = a, AC = 8, AD = Y, D & Cº.
then AE + EG = AD + DG gives
1 1 F H
ga+EG =y+;(3–7),
- A. JE B
and Ax-Akrºg
- = 1 (a + 8+)),
which being symmetrical is a, B, y in the same as the vector to

the middle point of HF.
A is called (Art. 14) the mean point of ABCD.
Ex. 8. The point of bisection of the line which joins the middle
points of the diagonals of a quadrilateral (plane or not) is the mean
point. - -
Ex.9.] VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION. I5.
Let P, Q be the middle points of AC, D C

BD, R that of PQ. -
NP
Retaining the notation of the last ex- 23.8
AP-36, A. B
40-45 ſo-crº-º-º: Y),

is 40-$45+AD).
Similarly ; (AP+ AQ)
AR =
=}(-6+3) -
i.e. R is the same point as X in the last example; and is therefore

the mean point of ABCD.
Ex. 9. AD is drawn bisecting B0 in D and is produced to any
point E.; AB, CE produced meet in P; A0, BE in Q; PQ is
parallel to BC.
Let AB = a, AC = 8, - Q
AP = aca, AQ = y/3, C
- 1
... no-5- AD=AB+jºc, .A.
…' 1 JB
=3(a+8) P
and AB is a multiple of AD = 2 (a + 3) say.

Then CP=p0E gives aca–B = p {z (a + 8)–3},
... (Art. 6) a = p&, –1 = p&–p;
... p = a + 1.
Similarly BQ = qBE gives y?– a = q (2 (a +3)- a),
- Ay= q2, -1 = qz–1,
... q =y+ 1,
16 - QUATERNIONS, [CHAP. II.
and since z =*="we have

P q
a = y, p = q :
... PQ = y/8 – aca. = a (3–0) = 2 BC,

hence the line PQ is parallel to BC.
The method pursued in this example leads to the solution of all
similar problems. It consists, as we have already stated, in reach
ing the points P and Q respectively by two different routes, viz.
through C and through E for P; through B and through E for Q
—and comparing the results.
Cor. 1. PE : EC :: p – 1 : 1 :: * : 1 : AP : AB.
Cor. 2. AE : AD :: 22 : 1 :: 2a: ; a + 1
:: 2 (p − 1) : p
:: 2PE : PC,
... A D : DE :: PE + EC : PE – EC.
Ex. 10. If DEF be drawn cutting the sides of a triangle; then

will AD. B.F. CE = AE. C.F. B.D.
Let BD = a, DA = pa, AE = 8, EC= q8, –4

then BC = BA + A C = (1 +p) a + (1 + q)/3, D
and CF is a multiple of BC. E’
Let CF = a, BC
- = a ((1+p) a + (1 + q) 8}. P C F
But CF = CE + EF
= — EC + EF
= -q,3+ y (pa + 8);

... equating, we have a (1 +p)=yp, a (1 + q)=–g + y,
whence z=(I + æ).pq,
-
l6.
CF T BF
BC; BO' AD CE.
BD'AE?
, , AD. B.F. CE = AE. CF, BD,

Ex. 11.] VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION. 17
Ex. 11. If from any point within a parallelogram, parallels

be drawn to the sides, the corresponding diagonals of the two
parallelograms thus formed, and of the original parallelogram,

shall meet in the same point.
Let PQ, RS meet in T;
join TO, O.D.
Let OA = a, OB = B, 00 = ma, OS = n/8,
then QP=QC+CP= n/3+(1-m)a, SR = SC + CR = ma + (1—n)8,

and T0= TQ–09 = a (né+ (1 – m) a) –ma,
also TO= TS-OS = y (ma + (1–n)/3}-m/3,
equating, there results
wn = y (1 – n) — n; *(l-m)-m-ym;
e QC = 777,
* * T 1 – m — nº
77.070, 770%
and T0=H.H. (a+8)= H,00;

hence (Art. 4) TO, OD are in the same straight line.
CoR. TO : TD :: mn : (1 –m) (1 — m) :: OSCQ : CRDP.
Ex. 12. The points of bisection of the three diagonals of a com
plete quadrilateral are in a straight line. -
T. Q. 2
P, Q, R the middle points of the
diagonals of the complete quadrila
teral ABCD, are in a straight line.
Let AB = a, AD = 3,
AE = ma, AF'- m/3;
... BF = m/3—a and BC = a (n3—a),
ED = 8–ma and CD = y (8–ma).
Now BC + CD = BD = AD – AB A
gives a (n3—a)+y (8-ma)= {3—a,

whence wn + y = 1, 2 + my = 1,
ac = m–1
T mm – 1 °
1 1 m– 1
_1 m (n-1) a + n (m - 1)/3
T2 mn – 1 - 2
1
AQ=3(a+8),
AR = #ºn. + m3),
•". 40-AP-gº-nºn-1)-(-1)}
AR-AP-sº-p {(m–1) a + (n − 1)/3},
or vector PR is a multiple of vector PQ, and therefore they are in
the same straight line.
CoR. Line PQ : PR :: 1 : mm
:: A.B. AD : AE . AF
:: triangle ABD : triangle AEF.
We shall presently exemplify a very elegant method due to
Sir W. Hamilton of proving three points to be in the same
straight line.
ART. 8] VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION. 19
8. It is often convenient to take a vector of the length of the

unit, and to express the vector under consideration as a numerical
multiple of this unit. Of course it is not necessary that the unit
should have any specified value; all that is required is that when
once assumed for any given problem, it must remain unchanged
throughout the discussion of that problem.
If the line AB be supposed to be a units in length, and the
wnit vector along AB be designated by a, then will vector AB ke
aa (Art. 3).
Sir William Hamilton has termed the length of the line in
such cases, the TENSOR of the vector; so that the vector AB is the
product of the tensor AB and the unit vector along AB. Thus if,
as in the examples worked under the last article, we designate the
vector AB by a, we may write a = T'a Ua, where Ta is an abbre
viation for ‘Tensor of the vector a ; Ua for “unit vector along a'.
EXAMPLES.
Ex. 1. If the vertical angle of a triangle be bisected by a
straight line which also cuts the base, the segments at the base shall
have the same ratio that the other sides of the triangle have to one
another.
Take unit vectors along AB, AC, which A.
call a, B respectively: construct a rhombus P Q
APQR on them and draw its diagonal AR.
Then since the diagonals of a rhombus bi- B
_2^*
D C
sect its angles, it is clear that the vector
AD which bisects the angle A is a multiple of AR the diagonal
vector of the rhombus.
Now AR = AP + PR = AP + AQ= a + 8,
..'. AD = a (a + 3).
Now vector AB = ca, AC=b|3; using c, b as in ordinary
geometry for the lengths of AB, 40.
Pſence BD = AD–AB = a (a + 8) – ca,
and BD = y BC = y (AC – AB)
= y (58 – ca),
Equating, a – c = -\ſc, a = 'yb;
C
- - 3/~ b Ie,
and BD : DC : y : 1 – y
:: c : b
:: BA : A C.
CoR. If a, 8 are unit vectors from A, and if 8 be another
vector from A such that 8 = a (a + 3); then 8 bisects the angle
between a and 8.
Ex. 2. The three bisectors of the angles of a triangle meet in a
point.
Let AD, BE bisect A, B and meet in G, CG bisects C.
Let units along AB, AC, BC be a, 8, y, then as in the last
example, -
AG = a (a + 8), BG = y (– a +y).
But a y = b|3–ca,
•". no-y(-,+**), Q
and CG = AG – AC
= a (a + 8) – b8,
also CG = BG – BC,
=y(-a ºr “)-5-ca.
- QC = C
- =-y-ay" c,
2-b-º- y
bc.
whence *To It, Ic'
and C6 = a +b r. ſea-(a+b)}
-
b
==# (-ay-aft)
= p(y + 8),
hence CG bisects the angle C (Cor. Ex. 1).
ART. 9] VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION. 21
9. If a, 3, y are non-parallel vectors in the same plane, it is

always possible to find numerical values of a, b, c so that aa + b8
+cy shall = 0.
For a triangle can be constructed whose sides shall be parallel
respectively to a, 8, y.
Now if the vectors corresponding to those sides taken in order
be aa, b8, cy respectively, we shall have, by going round the
triangle,
aa + b|3+ cy- 0.
10. If a, 8, y are three vectors neither parallel nor in the
same plane, it is impossible to find numerical values of a, b, c, not
equal to zero, which shall render aa +b/3+ cy-0.
For (Art. 5) aa + b3 can be represented by a third vector in
the plane which contains two lines parallel respectively to a, 8.
Now cy is not in that plane, therefore (Art. 6) their sum cannot
equal 0.
It follows that if aa +b/8+ cy = 0 and a, 3, y are not parallel
vectors, they are in the same plane.
11. There is but one way of making the sum of multiples
of a, 8, y (as in Art. 9) equal to 0.
Let - aa + b|34-cy = 0,
and also - pa + q8+ ry = 0.
By eliminating y we get
(ar – cp) a + (br— cq)/3 = 0;
... (Art. 6) ar = cp, br= cq,
or a b : c :: p : q : r,
so that the second equation is simply a multiple of the first.
12. If a, 3, y are coinitial, coplanar vectors terminating in
a straight line, then the same values of a, b, c which render
aa + b8+ cy - 0 will also render a + b + c = 0.
Let vector OA = a, OB = 8, 00 = y, ABC
being a straight line; then C
AB = B — a, B
AC = y – a.
But AC is a multiple of AB,
or y – a = p (3 – a),
i. e. (p − 1) a -p6+ y = 0.
But (p − 1) — p + 1 = 0;
and as p-1, -p, + 1 correspond to a, b, c and satisfy the con
dition required, the proposition is proved generally (Art. 11).
13. Conversely, if a, B, y are coinitial coplanar vectors, and if
both aa + b|3+ cy – 0 and a + b + c = 0, then do a, B, y terminate
in a straight line.
For ay + by + cy = 0;
therefore by subtraction
a (y-a) + b (y – 3) = 0,
i.e. y—a is a multiple of y–8, and therefore (Art. 4) in the same
straight line with it: i.e. AC is in the same straight line with
BC. (See Tait's Quaternions, $ 30.)
ExAMPLEs.
Ex. 1. If two triangles are so situated that the lines which

join corresponding angles meet in a point, then pairs of correspond
ing sides being produced will meet in a straight line.
ABC, A'B'C' are the triangles; P
O the point in which A'A, B'B, C'C'

meet ; P, Q, R the points in which
BC, B"C", &c. meet : PQR is a
straight line.
Let OA = a, OB = B, OC = y,
OA' = "ma, OB' m3, 00/=py,
F
then BA = a – 3,
and BR = a (a — 8);
B'A' = ma — m/3,
and B'ſ = y (ma — m/3).
Now BB'- BR-B'R gives

(n − 1)/3 = a (a – 9) – y (ma—m/3);
... n – l = — a + ny, 0 = a – my,
and 2--"(*=9,
772 – 72,
whence on-on. BR-8-tº-6)

_n(n-1)8–m (n-1)a.
700 - 70
Similarly, or-º-º-º-º: 2
oq_*(p= 1)4-p(n-1)},
p— m
... (m-r)(p−1) or +(n-p)(n-1) OP
And also + (p-m) (n – 1)) OQ
-
Q = 0.
(m–n) (p-1)+(n-p) (m. –1)+(p-m) (n − 1) = 0,

whence (Art. 13) P, Q, R are in the same straight line.
Ex. 2. If a quadrilateral be divided into two quadrilaterals
by any cutting line, the centres of the three shall lie in a straight line.
Let P,Q, Q,P, be the quadrilateral divided into two by the
O Ö Qz Qs
line P.Q. Let the diagonals of P,Q,Q,P, meet in R, ; and so of

the others: 18, R, R, are the centres.
Produce P, P, Q, Q, to meet in O. Let unit vectors along
OP, OQ be denoted by a, B; and put
OP, - m,a, OP, = m,a, OP, = m,a ;
OQ, = n,8, OQ, = n,8, OQ, = n,8;
then OR, = OP, + P, R, + m, a + æ (n,6–m,a),
and OR,+09, + Q, R, = n,8+y (m,a — m/3).
Equating, we have
m, -ma = m,3), and n, c = n, -n, y;
*...
• ...
ac =
wu - -
(m, - m.) 721 »
7m,”, - mºve
and OR, _*,”, (n, -n,) a + n,n, (m, -m.)

77,72. - 770,72,
[8
1 1 2 *>
Similarly,
OR = mºm, (n, - º: t: (m, - m.) 6 2
21 v2 3 vs.
OR, - m, m, (n, - n,) a + n,n, (m, - m.) B ;

mºna – mºn,
... (m,n, – m,n) m,n, OR, + (m,n, - m,n) m,n, 0.R.
+ (m,n, – m,n) my, OR, +0.
And also
(m,n, – m,n) m,n, + (m,n, -mºns) m,”,

- + (m,ns-min) m,n, =0,
whence (Art. 13) R, R., R., are in the same straight line.
CoR. R., R., R, will pass through 0 provided the coefficients
of a and 8 in the three vectors have the same proportion, i.e.
provided
1 1 . 1 1 .. 1 1 . 1 1
m, Tºm, m, Tm, “n, Tn, n, Tn.
Ex. 3. If AD, BE, CF be drawn cutting one another at any
point G within a triangle, then FD, DE, EF shall meet the third
sides of the triangle produced in points which lie in a straight line.
Also the produced sides of the triangle shall be cut harmo
nically.
Ex. 3..] VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION.
If, as in Ex. 5, Art. 7, we put
DC = a, CE = 3, BC = ma, CA = m/3,
N
we get, as in that example,

AF : BF :: n – 1 : m – 1 ;
m–1
- - BF=###(ma + nā),
m–1
DM = a, FD, compared with

DM = D0–MC = a –yS,
gives *(n-1)
m + n(n-3)
–2 1 • *;III-3-y;
a (n-1)n
. … -- “-
9 = n. L2.
and Blſ–BC-MC-ma-..."gg.
- m –1
Again, FE-FA +4E=#3 (ma-(m-2)6].
And EL = a FE, compared with
EL = CL–CE=ya – 3,
-
gives 9 __ ºn
* m_2?
BL = (y1 m) a = nº º Ol.
Thirdly, DN-acDE = a (a + 8), compared with

DV= BN – BD = y (ma + m3)-(m – 1)a,
- m–1
gives - m = n2
m– 1
and BN = m-n (ma + m3).
Now (m – 1)(n − 2) BM+ (m—n) BN

– (m-2) (n-1) BL = 0.
Also (m—1) (n − 2) + (m – n) — (m-2) (n − 1) = 0;
therefore BM, BN, BL are in a straight line (Art. 13).
Further, CL = ** CD,
777,
BL =#5 BD;
... CL : CD :: BL : BD,
and BL is cut harmonically.
Ex. 4. The point of intersection of bisectors of the sides of a

triangle from the opposite angles, the point of intersection of per
pendiculars on the sides from the opposite angles, and the point of
intersection of perpendiculars on the sides from their middle points
lie in a straight line which is trisected by the first of these points.
1". Let unit vector CB = a, unit vector CA = S,
then Ex. 4, Art I, co-ſa, ºft).

ART. 14.] VECTOR ADDITION AND suPTRACTION. 27
2". Let AH, BK perpendiculars on the A.
sides intersect in 0,
then HA =b9–ba cos C,
\ K
=b (8– a cos C),

KB = a (a-B cos C).
2°N
As H C
Now CO = CA + A0, and also = CB+ B0 gives

b3+yb (8 – aa cos C) = aa + æa (a – 3 cos C),
". Q.00 = b cos C — a
- sin” O’ ”
and
co-º-asso). (a-bºos.
3". Let perpendiculars from D and E (Ex. 4, Art. 7) meet
in X,
then DX is a multiple of H.A.
... CX = CD + DX = CE + EX gives
****@-awo- b3+2 (a — 8 cos C),
_b– a cos C
T 2 sin” O’ ”
and - or. (a-bcos ()ºf ſº-acos() 8,

2 sin” O'
- ... 2CX + CO – 3CG = 0,

and also 2 + 1 – 3 = 0,
... X, O, G are in a straight line.
Also CO – CG = 2 (CG – CX),
or vector G0 = 2 vector YG,
- ... GO = 26A,
and G trisects XO.
14. The vector to the mean point of any polygon is the mean
of the vectors to the angles of the polygon.
1". Let 0 be any point; then in the figure of Ex. 4, Art. 7
we have, calling 0A, a, OB, 8 and OC, y,
OG = a + AG = 8 + BG = y + CG
-(+5+)+(46. ngºco)
1
= (a+3+3);
because Ag+ H6+cc- (AD+ he cr)
{(AB+AC) + (BA + BC) + (CA + CB)}
:
2". If OA, OB, OC, OD be a, B, y, 8, in the figure of Ex. 7,
Art. 7, we have
ox-olſ. Hy-oh (or-on)

1 I
=3(OF-01)=;(a+8+y+8).
3". In the more general case we may define the mean point in a
manner analogous to that adopted in mechanics to define the centre
of inertia of equal masses placed at the angular points of the figure.
Thus, if we take any rectangular axes OX,0Y, and designate by a, B
unit vectors parallel to these axes; and by pop, &c. the vectors to the
different points; and if we write w, y, ; a , y, &c. for the Cartesian
co-ordinates of the different points referred to those axes; and
define the mean point as the centre of inertia of equal masses
placed at the angular points; the Cartesian co-ordinates of that
point will be
w = * **, *:::
772. 3.
y–% tº tº
Tº
2
and its vector p = 2a+ y&.

Now p, = 2,2 + y,8, p. = a,a + y,8, &c.
. . P. tºt: - ***, *::: a 1%+%t :::g

770, 770, 777,
- aca + y&,
= p.
CoR. 1. (p, -p) + (p,-p) + (p,-p)+ &c = 0,

i.e. the sum of the vectors of all the points, drawn from the mean
point, = 0.
The extension of the same theorem to three dimensions is
obvious.
CoR. 2. If we have another system of n points whose vectors

are or, or, &c. then the vector to the mean point is
_0 + o-, + ...
- 72, -
If now t be the mean point of the whole system, we have

--" + p, + ... + o-, + o-, + ...
- 770 -- 70 y
Or (m+ n) t—mp—no = 0,
hence (13) t, p, a terminate in a right line; or the general mean

point is situated on the right line which connects the two partial
mean points.
*
ADDITIONAL ExAMPLES TO CHAP. II.
1. If P, Q, R, S be points taken in the sides AB, BC, CD,

DA of a parallelogram, so that AP : AB :: BQ : BC, &c., PQRS
will form a parallelogram.
2. If the points be taken so that AP=CF, BQ = DS, the
Same is true.
3. The mean point of PQRS is in both cases the same as that

of ABCD. -
4. If PQ'R'S' be another parallelogram described as in Ex. 1,
the intersections of PQ, PQ', &c. shall be in the angular points of a
parallelogram EFGHI constructed from PQRS as P'Q'R'S' is con
structed from ABC.D.
5. The quadrilateral formed by bisecting the sides of a quadri

lateral and joining the successive points of bisection is a parallelo
gram, with the same mean point.
6. If the same be true of any other equable division such as
trisection, the original quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
7. If any line pass through the mean point of a number of
points, the sum of the perpendiculars on this line from the differ
ent points, measured in the same direction, is zero.
8. From a point E in the common base AB of the two
triangles ABC, ABD, straight lines are drawn parallel to AC, AD,
meeting BC, BD at F, G; shew that FG is parallel to CD.
9. From any point in the base of a triangle, straight lines are
drawn parallel to the sides: shew that the intersections of the
diagonals of every parallelogram so formed lie in a straight line.
10. If the sides of a triangle be produced, the bisectors of the
external angles meet the opposite sides in three points which lie
in a straight line.
11. If straight lines bisect the interior and exterior angles
at A of the triangle ABC in D and E respectively; prove that BD,
BC, BE form an harmonical progression.
12. The diagonals of a parallelepiped bisect one another.
13. The mean point of a tetrahedron is the mean point
of the tetrahedron formed by joining the mean points of the
triangular faces; and also those of the edges,
14. If the figure of Ex. 11, Art. 7 be that of a gauche quad
rilateral (a term employed by Chasles to signify that the triangles
AOD, BOD are not in the same plane), the lines QP, D0, RS will
Ex. 15.] veCTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION. 31
meet in a point, provided

4 ºn 98 and 42 a Pº
PD = "SF" do = "Rh.
15. If through any point within the triangle ABC, three
straight lines MN, PQ, RS be drawn respectively parallel to the
sides AB, AC, BC; then will
My + PQ, RS 2 -
AB " Ao ‘ BC, ~ *
16. ABCD is a parallelogram; E, the point of bisection of
AB; prove that AC, DE being joined will trisect each other.
17. ABCD is a parallelogram; PQ any line parallel to DC;
PD, QC meet in S, PA, QB in R; prove that AD is parallel to
R.S.
CHAPTER III.
VECTOR MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION.
15. WE trust we have made the reader understand by what we

stated in our Introductory Chapter, that, whilst we retain for
‘multiplication’ all its old properties, so far as it relates to ordi
nary algebraical quantities, we are at liberty to attach to it any
signification we please when we speak of the multiplication of a
vector by or into another vector. Of course the interpretation of our
results will depend on the definition, and may in some points differ
from the interpretation of the results of multiplication of numerical
quantities.
It is necessary to start with one limitation. Whereas in
Algebra we are accustomed to use at random the phrases “multiply
by’ and ‘multiply into” as tantamount to the same thing, it is now
impossible to do so. We must select one to the exclusion of the
other. The phrase selected is “multiply into’; thus we shall un
derstand that the first written symbol in a sequence is the operator
on that which follows: in other words that aſ shall read ‘a into
B', and denote a operating on B.
16. As in the Cartesian Geometry, so
here we indicate the position of a point in
space by its relation to three axes, mutually
at right angles, which we designate the axes
of a., 3), and 2 respectively. For graphic
representation the axes of a; and y are
drawn in the plane of the paper whilst that
of 2 being perpendicular to that plane is
drawn in perspective only. As in ordinary
ART. 17.] VECTOR MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION. 33
geometry we assume that when vectors measured forwards are

represented by positive symbols, vectors measured backwards will
be represented by the corresponding negative symbols. In the
figure before us, the positive directions are forwards, upwards
and outwards; the corresponding negative directions, backwards,
downwards and inwards. -
With respect to vector rotation we assume that, looked at in

perspective in the figure before us, it is negative when in the
direction of the motion of the hands of a watch, positive when in
the contrary direction. In other words, we assume, as is done in
modern works on Dynamics, that rotation is positive when it
takes place from y to 2, 2 to ac, a to y : negative when it takes
place in the contrary directions (see Tait, Art. 65).
Unit vectors at right angles to each other.
17. DEFINITION. If i, j, k be unit vectors along Oa, Oy, Oz

respectively, the result of the multiplication of i into j or if is
defined to be the turning of j through a right angle in the plane
perpendicular to i and in the positive direction ; in other words,
the operation of i on j turns it round so as to make it coincide
with k ; and therefore briefly if = k.
To be consistent it is requisite to admit that if i instead of
operating on j had operated on any other unit vector perpendicular
to i in the plane of y2, it would have turned it through a right angle
in the same direction, so that ik can be nothing else than —j.
Extending to other unit vectors the definition which we have
illustrated by referring to i, it is evident that j operating on k
must bring it round to i, or jk = i.
Again, always remembering that the positive directions of
rotation are y to 2, 2 to ac, a to y, we must have ki = j.
18. As we have stated, we retain in connection with this
definition the old laws of numerical multiplication, whenever
numerical quantities are mixed up with vector operations; thus
2i. 3) = 6ij. Further, there can be no reason whatever, but the
contrary, why the laws of addition and subtraction should undergo
T. Q. 3
34 QUATERNIONS. [CHAP. III.
any modification when the operations are subject to this new
definition; we must clearly have
i (j + k) = iſ + ik.
Finally, as we are to regard the operations of this new de
finition as operations of multiplication—magnitude and motion
of rotation being united in one vector symbol as multiplier,
just as magnitude and motion of translation were united in
one vector symbol in the last chapter—we are bound to retain
all the laws of algebraic multiplication so far as they do not
give results inconsistent with each other. In no other way can
the conclusions be made to compare with those deduced from
the corresponding operations in the previous science. Thus we
retain what Sir William Hamilton terms the associative law of
multiplication : the law which assumes that it is indifferent in
what way operations are grouped, provided the order be not
changed; the law which makes it indifferent whether we consider
abc to be a x be or ab x c. This law is assumed to be applicable to
multiplication in its new aspect (for example that ifk = iſ . k), and
being assumed it limits the science to certain boundaries, and,
along with other assumed laws, furnishes the key to the interpreta
tion of results.
The law is by no means a necessary law. Some new forms of
the science may possibly modify it hereafter. In the meantime
the assumption of the law fixes the limits of the science.
The commutative law of multiplication under which order may
be deranged, which is assumed as the groundwork of common
algebra (we say assumed advisedly) is now no longer tenable. And
this being the case it is found that the science of Quaternions
breaks down one of the barriers imposed by this law and expands
itself into a new field.
ij is not equal to ji, it is clearly impossible it should be.

A simple inspection of the figure, and a moment's consideration
of the definition, will make this plain. The definition imposes on i
as an operator on j the duty of turning j through a right angle as
if by a left-handed turn with a cork-screw handle, thus throwing
j wip from the plane ay; when, on the other hand, j is the operator
ART. 19.] veCTOR MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION. 35
and i the vector operated on, a similar left-handed turn will bring
* down from the plane of acy. In fact j = k, ji = -k, and so
{j=-ji.
19. We go on to obtain one or two results of the application
of the associative law.
1. Since ij = k, we have i. if = ik = —j.

Now by the law in question,
i. if = ii.j= *.j;
or ** = — 1.
Our first result is that the square of the unit vector along Oa.
is – l ; and as Oa, may have any direction whatever, we have, gene
rally, the square of a unit vector = — 1. In other words, the
repetition of the operation of turning through a right angle reverses
a vector.
2. Again, ijk = i.jk = i. i = i+=–1.

Similarly it may be proved that
.jki = kij = – 1,
or no change is produced in the product so long as direct cyclical
order is maintained.
3. But ikj= i. Kj = i. — i = —iº- + 1 ;
‘. .jk = – ikj,
or a derangement of cyclical order changes the sign of the product.
This last conclusion is also manifest from Art. 18.
Vectors generally not at right angles to each other.
20. We have already (Art. 8) laid down the principle of
separation of the vector into the product of tensor and unit
vector; and we apply this to multiplication by the considerations
given in Art. 18, from which it follows at once that if a be a
vector along Oz containing a units, 8 a vector along Oy con
taining 5 units,
a = ai, 8–bj, and aft = abīj.
3–2
36 - QUATERNIONS. [CHAP. III.
In the same way
a’ = ai. ai = a'i" = — a”,
or the square of a vector is the square of the corresponding line
with the negative sign.
Seeing therefore the facility with which we can introduce
tensors whenever wanted, we may direct our principal attention,
as far as multiplication is concerned, to unit vectors.
21. We proceed then next to find the product aff, when a
and 8 are vectors not at right angles to one another.
1. Let a, B be unit vectors. C
Let OA = a, OB = B.
Take 00 = y, a unit vector perpen- JN A.
dicular to OB and in the plane BOA.

Take also D0 or DO produced = e, a unit 0 M B
vector perpendicular to the plane BOA.

OC,T)raw AM,
and let theAM
angleperpendicular to OB,
BOA = 6; then I)
vector OA = OM + MA = OM+ ON (Art. 1)

= part of OB + part of OC (Art. 3).
Now it is evident that OM as a line is that part of OB which
is represented by the multiplier cos 6, or OM = OB cos 6, and
similarly that ON= 00 sin 6: consequently (Art. 3) the same
applies to them as vectors; i. e.
vector OM = 8 cos 0, vector ON=ysin 6;
... a = 8 cos 0+ y sin 6,
and aff - (8 cos 0+y sin 6)/3
= 3” cos 0 + y& sin 6.
But B*=–1 (19. 1),
y3 = e (17);
[Observe that y, 8 and e of the present Article correspond
to j, i and —k of Art. 17.]
... a6 = — cos 0+ e sin 6.
2. If a, B are not unit vectors, but contain Ta and T8 units

respectively, we have at once, by the principle laid down in
Art. 20, -
aft - TaTS (—cos 0+ e sin 6).

3. It thus appears that the product of two vectors a, B not
at right angles to each other consists of two distinct parts, a
numerical quantity and a vector perpendicular to the plane of
a, B. The former of these Sir William Hamilton terms the scALAR
part, the latter the VECTOR part. We may now write
aſ? = Sağ + Vaft,
where S is read scalar, V vector: and we find
ſa/2 =–TaTS cos 6,
Wag=TaTS e sin 6.
4. The coefficient of e in Vaft is the area of the parallelogram
whose sides are equal and parallel to the lines of which a, 6 are
the vectors.
22. To obtain Ba we have, a and 8 being unit vectors,

a = 8 cos 0+y sin 6;
... 8a = 8(8 cos 0+y sin 6)
= 8* cos 0+ By sin 6
=– cos 0–e sin 6 (Art. 19. 1 and 18);
therefore generally
Ba = TaT3(-cos 0–e sin 6).
It is scarcely necessary to remark that whilst y operating on
B turns it inwards from OB to DO produced, B operating on y
turns it outwards from 00 to 0D, causing it to become – e.
We have therefore
1. Saff - SBa.
2. Wag =– V8a.
3. aft + 8a = 2Sağ.
4. a6 – 8a = 2 Waff,
5. (a + 8)* = (a+ 3) (a +3)
= a + aſ + 8a + 8°
= a +2Sağ4-8°.
6. (a – 3) = a”–2Sag +8°.
7. If a, 3 are at right angles to each other, Sağ= 0, and
conversely.
8. Wag is a vector in the direction perpendicular to the
plane which passes through a, B.
9. a. 3% = a&. 8a because 6° is a scalar;
... a '3" = (Sag + Vag) (Sağ– Wag)
= (Sag)”—(Waff)".
Note: a*3° must not be confounded with (ag)’.
23. Before proceeding further it is desirable we should work
out a few simple Examples.
Ex. 1. To express the cosine of an angle of a triangle in terms
of the sides.
Let ABC be a triangle; and retaining the usual notation of
Trigonometry, let
CB = a, CA = {};
then (vector AB) = (a — 8)"
= a – 2Sağ4-8° (22.6),
or, changing all the signs to pass from vectors to lines (20) and
applying 21. 3,
c” = a” – 2ab cos 0 + bº.
Ex. 2. To express the relations between the sides and opposite

angles of a triangle.
Tet CB = a, CA = B, BA = y.
Then CB+ BA = CA gives
a + y = B,
a = 8-y;
... a' = a (8–7) = a&– ay.
Take the vectors of each side,
Now Va’ = 0, for a*=— a” has no vector part,
... Wag = Way;
i. e. (21. 3) abe sin C = ace sin B,
or b sin C = c sin B;
i.e. b : c : sin B : sin C.
Ex. 3. The sum of the squares of the diagonals of a paral
lelogram is equal to the sum of the squares of the sides.
Retaining the notation and figure of Ex. 1, Art. 7,
CB = a + 8,
DA = a – 8;
... CB’-- DA*= 2a" +23°,
and, changing all the signs, we get (20) for the corresponding
lines,
CB* + DA* = 20 A* + 2A B*
= CA* + A B* + BD” + DC”.
Ex. 4. Parallelograms upon the same base and between the

same parallels are equal.
It is necessary to remind the reader of what we have already
stated, that examples such as this are given for illustration only.
We assume that the area of the parallelogram is the product of
two adjacent sides and the sine of the contained angle.
Adopting the figure of Euclid I. 35 and writing TV3a as the
tensor multiplier of V3a so as to drop the vector e on both sides;
we have, calling BA, a ; BC, 3;
BE = BA + AE
= a + æft ;
. V. B (a + æg) = V (BC. B.E),
i.e. V8a = V (BC. B.E),
remembering that aff” has no vector part.
Hence T. V3a – T (BC. B.E),
i.e. BC. BA sin ABC = BC. BE sin EBC (21.3),
which proves the proposition. -
Ex. 5. On the sides AB, AC of a triangle are constructed any two
parallelograms ABDE, ACFG : the sides DE, FG are produced to
meet in H. Prove that the sum of the areas of the parallelograms
ABDE, ACFG is equal to the area of the parallelogram whose
adjacent sides are respectively equal and parallel to BC and AH.
Let BA = a, AE = 3, AC = y, GA = 8,
then AH = 8+ aca, and A H = — 8-yy;
... VaAH = Wag and VyAH =– Wy8
= Vöy (22, 2),
hence V(a +y) AH = Wag + Vöy,
i.e. (21.4), the parallelogram whose sides are parallel and equal to
BC, AH, equals the two parallelograms whose sides are parallel
and equal to BA, AE; GA, AC respectively.
[The reader is requested to notice that the order GA, AC is the
same as the order BA, AE, and BA, AH : so that the vector e
is common to all.]
Ex. 6. If O be any point whatever either in the plane of the
triangle ABC or out of that plane, the squares of the sides of the
triangle fall short of three times the squares of the distances of the
angular points from 0, by the square of three times the distance of
the mean point from 0.
Let OA = a, OB = B, OC = y,
then (Art. 14), o6-(4-6-7),

Or a” + 3°4-y” + 2S (aft + By + ya) = 906”.
Now AB = 8–a, BC = y–B, CA = a – ),
... AB"4 BC” + CA* = 2 (a” +8°,+ y^) – 2S (aft + By 4 ya)
= 3 (a” +8°,+ y”)–906",
and the lines
A B** BC*4. CA* = 3 (OA* + O.B'4. OC’) — (306).

Ex. 7. The sum of the squares of the distances of any point O
from the angular points of the triangle exceeds the sum of the
squares of its distances from the middle points of the sides by the
sum of the squares of half the sides.
Retaining the notation of the last example, and the figure of
Ex. 4, Art. 7,
1
oD=3(8+7), or-6-2). or- (a + 8);
... 4 (OD* + O.E*+ OF") = 2 (a” + 3 +y") + 2S (aft + By + ya)

= a +8°,+y+90G"
= 4 (a’4-6-4-yl)-(AB’4 BC*-CA’);
A B* + BC” + CA.”
... as lines OD*-i- OE* + O.F.” + 4 = OA*-i- OB*-- 00°.
Ex. 8. The squares of the sides of any quadrilateral exceed the

squares of the diagonals by four times the square of the line which
joins the middle points of the diagonals.
Retaining the figure and notation of Ex. 8, Art. 7, we have
squares of sides as vectors
=a^+(8– a)*4 (y – 8)*4-y”
- = 2 (a^+8°,+ y”)-2S (ag +8)),
and squares of diagonals - * ---
= 3°4-(y – a)”
= a + 3 + y”–2Say;
therefore the former sum exceeds the latter by
a” +8°,+ y”–2Sag – 2S8) + 2Say
= (a+ y–B)” -
a+y 6\”
=4(*.*- #)
= 4 (09–OP)*
= 4PQ”.
Therefore as lines the same is true.
Note. The points A, B, C, D may be in different planes.

Ex. 9. Four times the squares of the distances of any point what
ever from the angular points of a quadrilateral are equal to the sum
of the squares of the sides, the squares of the diagonals and the
square of four times the distance of the point from the mean point of
the figure.
With the notation of Art. 14, and the figure of Ex. 7, Art. 7,
we have
squares of the sides + squares of the diagonals

=(8- a)' + (y–8)*4-(6-y)* + (a – 8)"+(y – a)* +(8–6)"
= 3 (a” +8°,+ y^+8°)-2S (aft + ay + ač + 8 y + 38 + y^).
Now (Art. 14) (a + 8 + y +8)'-(40X)”;
... (40X) + squares of sides + squares of diagonals
= 4 (OA*4 OB" + OC*4 OD").
Ex. 10. The lines which join the mean points of three equila
teral triangles described outwards on the three sides of any triangle
form an equilateral triangle whose mean point is the same as that of
the given triangle.
Let P, Q, R be the mean points of the equilateral triangles on
BC, CA, AB; PD = a, DC = 8, CE=y, EQ=8; and let the sides
of the triangle ABC be 2a, 2b, 2c.
... PQ’= (a+8+y+8)”

= a + 3 + y^+8°,+2Sag+2Say + 2Saë
+2S3) + 2S83 +2Syö.
Changing all the signs and observing that

Sağ–0, Say = — absin C, &c.
we have (writing the results in the same order),
a” b”
line PQ’ = 3- + a + b + 33 + 0
* * absing: a co-c-3also cº-ºw in C 4-0

V3 3 V3
-: (a^+ b”—ab cosC)+ 3. ab sin C.
= *, ,(a, +, b, , +2)+...,
, , , ” area of ABC,
which being symmetrical in a, b, c proves that PQR is equilateral.

Again, G being the mean point of ABC,
PG-PD+D6-2+...+. 3 *
2 2
... PG’ = a” + ; : * **sag + say: $6.

- - , a , a” .4b* ... 4 - 4
and line PG'=s * g + 9 +gºing-jºo
-******). 2 area ABC :
9 3 V3 2
... PG = QG = RG ;
and G is the mean point of the equilateral triangle PQR.
Ex. 11. In any quadrilateral prism, the sum
of the squares of the edges exceeds the sum of the s|U
squares of the diagonals by eight times the square
of the straight line which joins the points of inter
section of the two pairs of diagonals. B Al
Let OA = a, OB = B, OC = y, OD=8; JZ
C
sum of squares of edges =
2 {a” + 6°4 (y—a) + (y – 3) # 23°)
= 2 (24°4-28°4-2)”.4-28°–2Say–2S3)},
sum of squares of diagonals
=(6+ y)* +(8–7) + (6+ a -8)”-- (8+ 8- a)
= 2 (a” +8°,+y+28°–2Sağ).
- 1 1
Also 2 OG = 2 (8+y)
=vector to the point of bisection of

CD, and therefore to the point of intersection of OG, CD,
and vector from 0 to the point of bisection of AF, as also to that
of BE, and therefore to the intersection of AF, BE
=}6+2+5),
hence vector which joins the points of intersection of diagonals
I
- 2 (a + 8–y),
eight times square of this vector
= 2 (a” + 3 + y^+2Sağ–2Say–2S3)),
which, added to the sum of the squares of the diagonals, makes up
the sum of the squares of the edges.
24, DEFINITION. We define the quotient or fraction , where º

a and 8 are unit vectors, to be such that when it operates on a it
produces 8 or B. a = 8. This form of the definition enables us to
strike out a by a dash made in the direction of ordinary writing,
thus 4. a = 8, º is therefore that multiplier which, operating on a,
or on 8 cos 0+y sin 6 (21), produces 8.
Now cos 0+ e sin 6 operating on 8 cos 0 + y sin 6 produces
B cos”6 + (y--eff) sin 6 cos 0+ ey sin” 6.
But a glance at the figure (Art. 21) will shew that
eſ? = — y,
and ey = 3;
... cos 0+ e sin 6 operating on 8 cos 0 + y sin 6 produces B;

hence É- cos 0+ e sin 6.
It may be worth while to exhibit another demonstration of
this proposition: thus
#.26-6.6 (by the associative law)=–1. (19. 1).
(21.1)}, (-co. 64 sino)--1.
i.e.
Now (cos 0+ e sin 6) (—cos 0+e sin 6)

= — cos” 6 — sin” 6
= –1 ;
..". *-coso...ine.
0.
COR -
É--8.0y 22)
0. -
25, 1. DEFINITION. Still retaining a, B as unit vectors, since

8 operating on a causes it to become 8, it may be defined as a VERSOR
0.
acting as if its axis were along OD (Fig. Art.21). By comparing the

result of that article with the definitions of Art. 17, it is clear that
8 or cos 0+ e sin 6 is an operator of the same character as — k or e
0.
(as we have now called the corresponding unit vector); with this
difference only, that whereas – k or e as an operator would turn a
through a right angle, cos 0+ e sin 6 turns it, in the same direction,
only through the angle 6: cos 0+ e sin 6 is then the versor through
the angle 6.
2. If a, B are not unit vectors, the considerations already
advanced render it evident that
B T3
O. =# (cos 0+ sin 6)
J. Ol
Now TB is itself of the nature of a tensor, for it is a numerical

T'u.
B
quantity, hence a is the product of a tensor and a versor.
26. By comparing the last Article with Art. 22 it appears
that generally the product or quotient of two vectors may be
expressed as the product of a tensor and a versor. This product
Sir W. Hamilton names a QUATERNION.
CoR. It is evident that a quaternion is also the sum of a
scalar and a vector.
27. (1) If a, B, y are unit vectors in the same plane, e a

unit vector perpendicular to that plane ; we
3
have seen that 0.
operating on a turns it
round about e as an axis to bring it into the
position 3. If now % be a second operator
B Te
about the same axis in the same direction
acting on 8, it will bring it into the position y. But it is evident
that 7 acting on a would at once have brought it into the posi
0.
tion y. This is equivalent to the fact that %. f . ; or in

- an
other form (Art. 24) that
(cos q + e sin (b) (cos 0+ e sin 6) = cos(94 q)+e sin (94-3).
From this it is evident that the results of Demoivre's Theorem
apply to the form cos 0+ e sin 6.
Further, it is evident that since cos 0+ e sin 6 operating with e
as its axis, turns a vector through the angle 6, whilst e itself acting
in the same direction turns it through a right angle, cos 0+ e sin 6
is part of the operation designated by e, viz. that part which bears
to the whole the proportion that 6 bears to a right angle.
(2) Remembering then that the operations are of the nature
of multiplication, it becomes evident that cos 6 + e sin 6 as an
# *
operator may be abbreviated by e2 or e".
And since
(cos 0+ e sin () (cos 4 + · sin (b) = cos (94 b) + e sin (94-3),

we shall have
* *
e" . e." = €7
2014)y
or the law of indices is applicable to this operator.

(3) Now we have already seen (19. 1) that e” = –1 ;
... et = + 1.
Conversely, if e” = + e, n must be an odd number; if e" = – 1,
n must be an odd multiple of 2; and if e”= + 1, n must be an even
multiple of 2.
(4) When a, 8 are not units, the introduction of the corre.
sponding tensor can be at once effected.
We conclude that a quaternion may be expressed as the power
of a vector, to which the algebraic definition of an index is
applicable.
28. Reciprocals of quaternions—unit vectors.
1. Since a. a = a” = -1,
and ... a- (Def Art. 2)

=— a . a ;
-
‘. . =– a, or aT'-- a ;
O.
or the reciprocal of a unit vector is a unit vector in the opposite

direction.
- 1 I
2. Again, a. * a (– 6)=1 =; as
or a vector is commutative with its reciprocal.
3. If q be a versor (ºy cos 0+ e sin 6, or £) 2
; .. q = 1 (Def extended).
Now B–,
... = q :.
= qa, by operating on a.
a 1
Also — - —
8 gº -
O = ; |3, by operating on 8,
I
and £-wa-a-;6;
1 1
... q
g. Q = 1 = Q
−. Q,
or q and . are commutative. ~
This is perhaps better demonstrated by observing that

8. a 8 1 ;
a 8 (3
or that if = cos 0 + e sin 6,

O. -
then must
cº-ºwing:
factors which are from their very nature commutative.
When the versors are not units the tensors can be introduced
as mere multipliers without affecting the versor conclusions.
29. We present one or two examples of quaternion division.

Ex. 1. To express sin (64 b) and cos (6+ $) in terms of sines
and cosines of 6 and ºp.
o, B, ) being unit vectors in the same plane (Fig. Art. 27), we
have -
= cos 0+ e sin 6,
= cos (p + e sin #,
. =cos(94%)+, sin(0+3)
Y
Á B.
But
O.
‘. cos (94 b) + e sin (64 b)=(cos 0+ e sin 6) (cos $4 e sin $);

whence multiplying out and equating, we have
sin (6++) = sin 6 cos 4 + cos 6 sin b,
cos (94 b) = cos 6 cos q – sin 6 sin ºb.
CoR. If the action of the versors be in opposite directions,
B lying beyond y, we have (Art. 28)
:-º-º-º-º:
But B = cos q + e sin ºp,
y
,-coº--sing:
.*.
a
—
a B QºlveS
= −. -
.
yTB y * -
cos (0–3)—e sin (0–$) = (cos 0–e sin 6) (cos $4 e sin b),
whence sin (0–$)=sin 6 cos 4 – cos 6 sin b,
cos (0–$)=cos 6 cos q + sin 6 sin ºb.
Ex. 2. To find the cosine of the angle of a spherical triangle
in terms of the sides.
Let a, 8, y be unit vectors OA, OB, 00 not in the same .
plane, then
A.
B_3, a
y T a y’ C
i.e. taking the scalars of each side, -
cºa-cººrs.(ºr). 0 B
Now S yB V* is sinc sin bx cosine of the angle between

a y
perpendiculars to the planes AB, AC, and is therefore
- sin b sin c cos A ;
... cos a = cosc cost + sinc sin b cos 4.
T. Q. 4.
50 - QUATERNIONS. [CHAP. III.
The reader will observe that in accordance with the results of
Art. 21, the sign of the term involving cos A is +, seeing that it is
in fact – cosine (supplement of A).
Ex. 3. The angles of a triangle are together equal to two right
angles.
What we shall prove in fact is that the exterior angles formed
by producing the sides in the same direction are equal to four
right angles.
Let unit vectors along BC, CA, AB be a, 8, y; and let the
exterior angles formed by producing BC, CA, AB be 0, b, iſ ;
then
20
et a = 3 (27. 1),
2%
e"/3 = y,
2,
e" y = a ;
24, 29 2%
‘. ." . et a = e− 8 = y,
2, 24, 20 2.
and e" . e." .. et a = sº y = a,
2, 24, 20
so that e" .. et . e." = 1,
Or
*****) = 1 (27.2).
€ºr
Hence (27.3), : (6+ 4 + i) is an even multiple of 2. The

first value is 4;
... 6 + p + q = 2m,
or the exterior angles of a triangle are equal to four right angles.
It will be seen that the demonstration here given is of the
nature of that given by Prof. Thomson in the Notes to his Euclid.
ART. 29.] VRCTOR MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION. 51
Ex. 4. In the figure of Euclid I. 47 the three lines AL, BK,

CF meet in a point.
Let BC = a, CA = 3, AB = y; the sides being as usual denoted
by a, b, c.
Let i be the vector which turns another negatively through a
right angle in the plane of the paper, so that
BD = ia, CK = ig, AG = ty.
If BA, AL meet in O,
BO = 2EK = a (a + ig),
and BO = BA + AO = BA + y BD
= — y + yia ;
‘. a' (a + ig)=– y + yia,
a Sa (a + ig)=–Say,
2 =— Say accos B
Tº Sa (a+ iº) Ta’ + absin C
c”
Taº I be’
and acSap = ySiaſ};
- b bc
*... ?/ = - 2 = —g-z-
9 * : * = a + be,
which being symmetrical in b and c shews that CF, AL intersect
in the same point in which BK, AL intersect.
- J3O cº
CoR. Since JKT a’- bc 2
We h
have CO b” 2.
OF Taº-lºbe
l
allSO 40
BD Ta’ be
+ be .*
.401
BD + HQ 100 º'+'t
BK. "CF Ta' Ibobe 1*
Ex. 5. If ABCD be a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle ;
AB = a, BC = 8, CD = y, DA = 3;
Ta T3T.
then - - affy - *#17 8.
Let unit vectors along AB, BC, CD, DA be aſ, 3', y', 8' ; and
let the exterior angles at B and D be 0 and q respectively; then
a'8'y' = (–cos 0+ e sin 6) y' (21. 1)
= (cos q + e sin (b) Y.
= 8 (25. 1);
therefore, introducing the tensors,
ſ Ta T3T.
afty - ** 8.
Conjugate Quaternions.
30. If we designate by q the expression – cos 0+ e sin 6, we
have seen that it may be regarded as a versor through an angle 6
in a certain direction. Now if we write – 6 in place of 6 in this
expression it assumes the form – cos 0– e sin 6, which must on
the same hypotheses be regarded a versor through the angle 6 in
the contrary direction.
When the quaternion is completed by the introduction of a
tensor TQ, if we retain the same tensor to both forms of the
versor, we have Sir W. Hamilton's conjugate quaternion defined
thus: The conjugate of a quaternion q, written Kq, has the same
tensor, plane and angle as q has, only the angle is taken in the
reverse way. -
The analogy between q and Kg is precisely the same as that

which exists between the two forms
R (cos $4 J-I sin ºb) and R (cos º-J-1 sin ºp);

and as the product of the latter form is R', so the multiplication
of the former produces (TA).
If we put q = Sq + Va,
we shall have Kq = Sq – Va,
and * q}{q = (Sq)*4. (TV)*,
for (VQ) =–(TV), Art. 20.
It is almost self-evident that, since the change of order of
multiplication of two vectors produces no other change than that
of the sign of the vector part of the product (22),
K (qr) = Krka,
q and r occurring in a changed order.
The following is a demonstration.
I,et q = T4 (– cos 0 + a sin 6),
T = Tr(– cos q + 3 sin $), -
a and B being unit vectors; then

qr = Tº Tr (cos 0 cos 4–a sin 6 cos $–8 cos 6 sin &
+ aſ sin 6 sin q.),
Krk q = TºTr (– cos 4–8 sin $) (– cos 0– a sin ºb)
= TºTr (cos 0 cos q + a sin 6 cos 4 + 8 cos 6 sin ºf
+ 8a sin 6 sin q.).
Now observing that 8a has the same scalar part with aff, but
the vector part with a contrary sign, we see that the two ex
pressions for qr and for Krkg likewise have the same scalar
part, but that their vector parts have contrary signs.
Hence K (qr) = Krka.
(See Tait, § 79 et sq.)
31. We propose, in this Article, to give and interpret one or
two formulae, relating to three or more vectors, which are indis
pensable to our progress, reserving to a separate Chapter the
demonstration and application of other formulae, the value of
which the reader can hardly as yet be expected to understand.
1. To express S. a6) geometrically.
First suppose a, 3, y to be unit vectors 0A, 0B, 00.
Let AOB = 0, and the angle which OC makes with the plane
AOB = %; then since
aft – — cos 0+ e sin 6 (Art. 21),
where e is perpendicular to the plane AOB,
S. affy = S (— cos 0 + e sin 6) y
= Sey sin 6.
Now Sey = — cos. angle between e and y C
= — sin. angle between plane AOB

and OC
= — sin ºf ;
... S. affy =– sin q sin 6. 0 A
Next if a, B, y are not units, but have re

spectively the lengths Ta, T3, Ty, or a, b, c ;
we shall have
S. a6.) =– abc sin 6 sin ºb.

But absin 6 is the area of the parallelogram of which the
adjacent sides are a, b ; and c sin q is the perpendicular from C on
the plane of the parallelogram;
... — S. a6.) = absin 6. c sin ºp
= volume of parallelepiped of which three con
terminous edges are OA, OB, OC.
2. From the nature of the case, no change of order amongst
the vectors a, B, y can make any change in the value (apart from
the sign) of the scalar of the product of the three vectors; for it
will in every case produce, the volume of the same parallelepiped.
‘. S. affy = + S. yag ==S. ay6, &c.
CoR. 1. The volume of the triangular pyramid, of which OA,
;
OB, OC are conterminous edges is — S. affy.
CoR. 2. If a, B, y are in the same plane, q = 0;

‘. S. a6.) = 0.
Conversely, if S. a6.) = 0, none of the vectors a, B, y being
themselves 0, we must have either 0 = 0 or p = 0; hence in either
case the three vectors are co-planar.
3. Since Vag – y (21. 3), a vector perpendicular to the plane
OAB (Fig. of formula 2); WBy = a, a vector perpendicular to
the plane OBC; and since Y, aſ are both perpendicular to 0B,
the line along which is the vector 3; OB is perpendicular to the
plane which passes through y, aſ, and therefore (21. 3) is in the
direction of Vya'; hence
V(Vag V8) = Vya' = m/3,
or the vector of the product of two resultant vectors, one of the
constituents of each of which is the same vector, is a multiple of
that vector.
4. If OA = a, OB = 8, OD = 8, OE = e ; and if the planes

OAB, ODE intersect in OP; it follows, as in (3), that, Wag and
Vöe being both perpendicular to OP, -
V(Waff Vös) is along OP and is therefore =n0B.

5. Connection between the representation of the position of a
point by a vector and its representation by Cartesian co-ordinates.
If a, y, z be the perpendicular distances of a point P in space
from the planes of y2, zac, acy respectively (fig. of Art. 16); i, j, k
unit vectors in the directions of ac, V, 2 ; then aci is the vector of
which the line is a (Art. 3); consequently 0.M along Oa, MN
parallel to Oy and NP parallel to Oz, being ac, y, z as co-ordinates,
they are aci, Mj, 2k as vectors.
Now vector OP= OM+ MW+ NP,
and is therefore p = 2i + yj + zk.
The same method of representation is evidently applicable
when the planes of reference are not mutually at right angles.
If a, y, z be the co-ordinates of Preferred to oblique co-ordinates;
a, B, y unit vectors parallel respectively to a, y, z; then
vector OP= 2a + y& + 2y.
CoR. When ac, y, z are at right angles to one another
p = aci + yj + zk
gives Sip = — ac, Sjp = — y, Skp=–2 ;
... (Sip)*4 (Sjp)*4 (Skp) = a + y” + 2*
= OP”.
Ex. To find the volume of the pyramid of which the vertex is

a given point and the base the triangle formed by joining three
given points in the rectangular co-ordinate axes.
Let A, B, C be the three given points;
line OA = a, OB = b, 00 = c ;
ac, y, z the co-ordinates of the given point P,
then vector OA = ai, OB =bj, 00 = cl, ;
and OP= aci + yj + zk;
... PA = 04 – OP=-((2-a) i + yj + zk},
PB =–{2i + (y–b).j + zk},
PC =–{2i + yj + (2 – c) k}.
Now the volume of the pyramid PABC is
– sopa Ph. Po) (31.2. Cor 1)

- -#s. {(a - a) i+ yj + zk}{2i + (y–b).j + zk}{2i + yö4-(2-c)}}.
Multiplying out and observing that only terms which involve
all of the three vectors i, j, k produce a scalar in the product,
we get
(+ or –) vol.-- (s-) (b2+ cy-bc)-cay— baz}
1 2: , 3) , 2.
-;ale (.4%+,-1).
The sign of the result will of course depend on the position
of P.
ADDITIONAL ExAMPLEs To CHAP. III.
1. If in the figure of Euclid I. 47 DF, GH, KE be joined,

the sum of the squares of the joining lines is three times the sum
of the squares of the sides of the triangle.
The same is true whatever be the angle A.
2. Prove that
4AD" (Art. 7, Ex. 4) = 2 (AB"4 AC") — BC’.

3. If P, Q, R, S be points in the sides AB, BC, CD, DA of
a rectangle, such that PQ = RS, prove that
AR” + CS*= AQ” + CP”.
4. The sum of the squares of the three sides of a triangle is
equal to three times the sum of the squares of the lines drawn
from the angles to the mean point of the triangle.
5. In any quadrilateral, the product of the two diagonals and
the cosine of their contained angle is equal to the sum or difference
of the two corresponding products for the pairs of opposite sides.
6. If a, b, c be three conterminous edges of a rectangular
parallelepiped; prove that four times the square of the area of
the triangle which joins their extremities is
= a”b” + bºo” + cºa”.
7. If two pairs of opposite edges of a tetrahedron be respect

ively at right angles, the third pair will be also at right angles.
8. Given that each edge of a tetrahedron is equal to the edge
opposite to it. Prove that the lines which join the points of
bisection of opposite edges are at right angles to those edges.
9. If from the vertex O of a tetrahedron OABC the straight
line OD be drawn to the base making equal angles with the
faces OAB, OAC, OBC; prove that the triangles OAB, OAC, 0BC
are to one another as the triangles DAB, DAC, DBC.
CHAPTER IV.
THE STRAIGHT LINE AND PLANE.
32, EQUATIONs of a straight line.

1. Let 3 be a vector (unit or otherwise) parallel to or along
the straight line; a the vector to a given D A P
point A in the line, p that to any point what
ever P in the line, starting from the same 2
origin 0; then AP is a vector parallel to 8 0
- a:3, say,
and OP = OA + AP
gives p = a + æð (1)
as the equation of the line.
2. Another form in which the equation of a straight line
may be expressed is this : let OA = a, OB = B be the vectors to
two given points in the line; then
AB = 8 – a and AP = a (8– a);
‘. p = a + æ (8 – a) (2).
Of course the 8 of No. 2 is not that of No. 1. The first form
of the equation supposes the direction of the line and the position
of one point in it to be given, the second form supposes two points
in it to be given.
3. A third form may be exhibited in which the perpendicular
on the line from the origin is given.
ART. 34.] THE STRAIGHT LINE AND PLANE. 59
Let OD perpendicular to AP = 6; then

- DP = p – 8 and Sö(p – 8) = 0,
because 0D is perpendicular to AP (22.7);
i. e. Söp = 0 (3),
where C is a constant.
(Note. In addition to this we must have the equation of the

plane of the paper, in which p is tacitly supposed to lie. This
may be written as Sep = 0.)
33. Equation of a plane.
Let P be any point in the plane, OD perpendicular to the
plane; and let
OD = 8, OP = p ;
then p–8 = 0P,
which is in a direction perpendicular to 0D ;
... Sö (p – 3) = 0,
or Söp = 8*,
-
or St.Ö - 1.
CoR. 1. If Söp=C be the equation of a plane, 8 is a vector
in the direction perpendicular to the plane.
CoR. 2. If the plane pass through 0, p can have the value zero,
... Söp = 0 is the equation.
CoR. 3. Since a vector can be drawn in the plane through D,
parallel to any given vector in or parallel to the plane; if & be
any vector in or parallel to the plane, Sö8 = 0.
34. We proceed to exhibit certain modifications of the equa
tions of a straight line and plane, and one or two results imme
diately deducible from the forms of those equations.
1. To find the equation of a straight line which is perpen
dicular to each of two given straight lines.
Let 3, y be vectors from a given point A in the required line,
and parallel respectively to the given lines.
60 QUATERNIONS. [CHAP. Iv.
If 0A = a as before, then since (22.8) V8) is a vector along
the line whose equation is required; we have
p—a = a V8),
or p = a + æV8),
as the equation of the line.
2. To find the length of the perpendicular from the origin on
a given line.
Equation (1) of Art. 32 is
p = a + æð.
If now p = 0D = 3;
we get Sö” = Söa,
Or – OD*= Sôa ;
Sög
e - oD=-º,--Savà,
Uö being the unit vector perpendicular to the line.
CoR. The same result is true of a plane.
3. To find the length of the perpendicular from a given point
on a given plane.
Let Sap = C be the equation of the plane, y the vector to the
given point.
Then if the vector perpendicular be aca (33. Cor. 1),
p = y + aca
gives Say + aca” = C,
and the vector perpendicular is
aca = — a T' (C–Say) ;
the square of which with a — sign is the square of the perpendi
cular.
4. To find the length of the common perpendicular to each

of two given straight lines.
º
Let 3, 8, be unit vectors along the lines; a, a, vectors to

given points in the lines;
p = a + æð,
p, = a, + 2,3,
the vectors to the extremities of the common perpendicular 8.
Then since 8 is perpendicular to both lines, it is perpendicular
to the plane which passes through two straight lines drawn pa- "
rallel to them through a given point;
... (21. 3) 8 = y V88.
But 8 = p – p, = a + æð– a – 2,8,
hence S. 888, = S. (a – a,) B3, ;
i. e. S (yW88, . B3) = S. (a – a.) 38,
or y(VB8,)*= S. (a – a.)/38,
because SV88, S88, -0;
_ S. (a-a)/88,
..". 3/ = ( V83.)” 2
whence 8 = y W88, is known.

5. To find the equation of a plane which passes through three
given points.
Let a, B, y be the vectors of the points.
Then p – a, a -3, 3- y are in the same plane.
... (Art. 31.2. Cor. 2) S. (p – a) (a-B) (8–7) = 0,
Or Sp (Waft + V8y + Vya)–S. affy = 0.
is the equation required.
CoR. Wag + V8) + Vya is a vector in the direction perpen
dicular to the plane; therefore (No. 3) the perpendicular vector
from the origin
= S. affy. (Waft + Wºy + Vya)".
6. To find the equation of a plane which shall pass through
a given point and be parallel to each of two given straight lines.
Let y be the vector to the given point, p = a + aff, p = a, + æ,8,
the lines; then if lines be drawn in the required plane parallel to
each of the given straight lines—these lines as vectors will be
|3, 8, ; also p-y is a vector line in the plane;
... S. (88, (p-y) = 0 (31. 2. Cor. 2),
which is the equation required.
7. To find the equation of a plane which shall pass through
two given points and be perpendicular to a given plane.
Let a, B be the vectors to the given points, Söp = C the equa
tion of the plane; then the three lines p – a, a -8, 8 are vectors
in the plane ;
... S. (p – a) (a – B) 3–0,
or S. p (a — 8) 8 + S. agö = 0.
8. To find the condition that four points shall be in the same
plane.
1. Let 0A, OB, OC, OD or a, B, y, 8 be the vectors to the
four points; then 8 - a, 6–3, 6–7 are vectors in the same plane;
... S. (6-a)(6–8)(6- y) = 0 (31. 2. Cor. 2),
or S. 88) +S. ašy +S. agö = S. a6.) (1).
2. Another form of the condition is to be obtained by as
suming that
d3+ cy--b6+ aa = 0 (2),
and substituting in equation (1) the value of 8 deduced from
this equation. The result is
ad"1%.d", 6.aſ + 1 = 0,
or a + b + c + d = 0 (3).
Equation (1), or the concurrence of equations (2) and (3) is the
condition necessary and sufficient for coplanarity. -
9. To find the line of intersection of two planes through the

origin.
Let Sap = 0, S3p = 0 be the planes.

Since every line in the one plane is perpendicular to a ; and
every line in the other perpendicular to 8; the line required is
perpendicular to both a and 8, and is therefore parallel to Waff,
or p = a, Vaft is the equation.
10. The equation of the plane which passes through 0 and
the line of intersection of the planes Sap = a, S8p = b is
Sp(ag-ba)=0.
For 1° it is a plane through 0; 2° if p be such that Sap = a,
then must S3p = b. -
11. To find the equation of the line of intersection of two

planes.
Let p = ma + m/3 + æ Vag
be the equation required.
Then Sap = ma" + n,Sağ,
since Waft is perpendicular to a, and similarly
S3p = mSa/3+ m/3°;
, off-bºaft b5a5–aff (Art. 22.9),
Ta’8°– (Sag)*T (Vag)”
72 = aSağ–ba” aSağ-ba”
T(Saôy-agº TÜVaß)
35. We offer a few simple examples.
Ex. 1. To find the locus of the middle points of all straight
lines which are terminated by two given straight lines.
Let AP, BQ be the two given straight
lines, unit vectors parallel to which are 8, y;
AB the line which is perpendicular to both
AP, BQ.
Let O be the middle point of AB; vector
OA = a ; R the middle point of any line PQ,
vector OR = p ; then
OP= p + RP= a + æð,
09–p +RQ=-a+vy.
But RP+ RQ = 0;
... 2p = 28 + yy;
hence, since aff-0, Say = 0,
Sap = 0 is the equation required; and the locus is a plane passing
through 0 (33. Cor. 2), and perpendicular to OA (33. Cor. 1).
Note that, if 8 || y, we have simply
2p = a-'8;
and, as there is now but one scalar indeterminate, the locus is a
straight line instead of a plane.
Ex. 2. Planes cut off, from the three rectangular co-ordinate
axes, pyramids of equal volume, to find the locus of the feet of per
pendiculars on them from the origin.
Here the axes are given, so that i, j, k are known unit vectors.
Let ai, bj, ch be the portions cut off from the axes by a plane,
the perpendicular on which from the origin is p.
Then p – at is perpendicular to p;
... Sp (p-ai) = 0,
or p = a Sip.
Similarly, p” = b,Sjp,
p” = c Skp.
Hence p" = abc Sip Sjp Skp
= 0 Sip Sjp Skp,
since abc is by the problem constant.
If a, y, z be the co-ordinates of p this equation gives at once
(cº 4-y” + 2*) = Cayz
as the equation required.
Ex. 3. To find the locus of the middle points of straight lines

terminated by two given straight lines and all parallel to a given
plane.
Retaining the figure and notation of Ex. 1, let 8 be the vector
perpendicular to the given plane: we have
2p = a& + yy,
20P = 2a+ aft–yy.
Now SöQP= 0 (33. Cor. 3);
... Sö (20 + æð–yy)=0;
_2Saë + , S63
T Syö Syö'
2Sa8 S38
and *-*.*.*.*.*
= a y + æ (3+by),
2Sağ S38 e -
where a = |Syâ’ b= Syö are constants; (Syð for instance is the

negative of the cosine of the angle between one of the given lines
and the perpendicular to the given plane).
Now 8+ by is a known vector lying between 8 and y; call it
e, and 2p = ay + are is the equation required; which is that of a
straight line, not generally passing through 0 (32. 1).
Ex. 4. OA, OB are two faced lines, which are cut by lines
AB, A'B' so that the area A0B is constant; and also the product
OA, OA' constant. It is required to find the locus of the intersec
tions of AB, A'B'.
Let the unit vectors along 0A, OB be a, 8 respectively.
OA = ma, OA’= m'a,
OB = m/3, OB" = n/8;
then the conditions of the problem are
mn = m/n' = C,
mm' = a.
Now if AB, A'B' intersect in P, and OP = p, we have
p = 0A + AP
= ma + æ (n/8–ma),
p = OA' + A'P
= m'a + æ' (n'8— m/a);
C
or p = ma + æ ;8-ma y
, , , , /0 f
p-mara (.8-mº);
... m. – acm = m/– a 'm',
r
ac QC
m m'’
777,
ac = r
777, -H 7n,
m”
T m” + a '
Oz,
1 – a = 770,"
− +=Cº. ,
777,
and p= m” Ta, (aa- C3),
and the locus required is a straight line, the diagonal of the

parallelogram whose sides are aa, C3.
Ex. 5. To find the locus of a point such that the ratio of its
distances from a given point and a given straight line is constant—
all in one plane.
Let S be the given point, DQ the given
straight line, SP=ePQ the given relation. Q P
Let vector SD = a, SP=p, DQ =y),

y being the unit vector along DQ,
PQ = wa; D S
then To =eZ' (PQ),

gives p” – e’PQ", where PQ is a vector,

= e” (ca.)"
= e”ac"a".
But p + æa = SQ= SD + DQ
= a +3/y;
º ... Sap + aca” = a”, for Say=0;
and a’a‘ = (a”—Sap)";
hence a'p” – e’ (a”—Sap)",
a surface of the second order, whose intersection with the
plane S. ayp = 0 is the required locus.
Ex. 6. The same problem when the points and line are not in
the same plane.
Retaining the same figure and notation, we see that PQ is no
longer a multiple of a ; but
PQ = SQ – SP
= a + yy-p;
... p = e” (a + yy-p)",
and because PQ is perpendicular to DQ
Sy (a + yy–p)=0;
... (y)", i.e.) – y = Syp,
and p’ - e”(a-YSyp-p)",
a surface of the second order.
CoR. If e=1, and the surface be cut by a plane perpendicular

to DQ whose equation is Syp = c, the equation of the section is
a” + c – 2Sap = 0,
another plane, so that the section is a straight line.
Ex. 7. To find the locus of the middle points of lines of given
length terminated by each of two given straight lines.
-
5–3
Retaining the figure and notation of Ex. 1, and calling RP c,
we have
2p = aft + yy (1),
and 2RP= RP-RQ = 2a+ag—yy (2).
From equation (1) we have -
Sap = 0 (22. 7),

2S8p = — a + yS3),
because 3 is a unit vector,
2Syp = ~SBy — y.
The first of these three equations shews that p lies in a plane
through 0 perpendicular to AB (33. Cor. 2).
The second and third equations give
(S3)) – 1 °
_2(Syp + SBySB)
(S3))” – 1
Now (2) gives, by squaring,
–4c = 4a" + æð*4-y”y” – 2ayS8),
in which, if the values of a; and y just obtained be substituted,
there results an equation of the second order in p.
Hence the locus required is a plane curve of the second order,
or a conic section, which by the very nature of the problem must
be finite in extent and therefore an ellipse.
Ex. 8. If a plane be drawn through the points of bisection of
two opposite edges of a tetrahedron it will bisect the tetrahedron.
Let D, E be the middle points of OB,
AC: DFEG the cutting plane: 0A, OB, C
OC = a, B, y respectively.
OG = my, AF = n (8–0). F.
The portion ODGEA consists of three

tetrahedra whose common vertex is 0, and 4
bases the triangles AEF, EFG, FGD.
Now or=#6-9), 0
1
op=38,
OG = my,
OF = a + n (8–0);
and 6 times the volume cut off
=s...}(…) (a + n (3- a)}

jº) my (a + n (8–a)}
+ S.
+s, a nº-º my #6 (61.2. Cor 1)

=}{n+n+(l —n) m}S. ay8
I
=;(n+m).S. ay8.
But since E, G, D, F are in one plane, and
2m (1–n) OE – (1—n) OG + 2mn0I) – moſ'= 0,
we must have (34.8)
2m (1 – n) — (1 – m) + 2mn – m = 0;
... m + n = 1;
and 6 times the whole volume cut off
I
2 S. ay8
_ 2! of 6 times the whole volume,

hence the plane bisects the tetrahedron.
CoR. The plane cuts other two edges at F and G, so that
4ſ. 106 - 1
AB " OUT “
ADDITIONAL ExAMPLEs To CHAP. IV.
1. Straight lines are drawn terminated by two given straight

lines, to find the locus of a point in them whose distances from
the extremities have a given ratio.
2. Two lines and a point S are given, not in one plane; find
the locus of a point P such that a perpendicular from it on one
of the given lines intersects the other, and the portion of the
perpendicular between the point of section and P bears to SP
a constant ratio. Prove that the locus of P is a surface of the
second order.
3. Prove that the section of this surface by a plane perpen

dicular to the line to which the generating lines are drawn perpen
dicular is a circle.
4. Prove that the locus of a point whose distances from two

given straight lines have a constant ratio is a surface of the second
order.
5. A straight line moves parallel to a fixed plane and is ter

minated by two given straight lines not in one plane; find the
locus of the point which divides the line into parts which have
a constant ratio.
6. Required the locus of a point P such that the sum of the

projections of OP on OA and OB is constant.
7. If the sum of the perpendiculars on two given planes from
the point A is the same as the sum of the perpendiculars from B,
this sum is the same for every point in the line A.B.
8. If the sum of the perpendiculars on two given planes from
each of three points A, B, C (not in the same straight line) be the
same, this sum will remain the same for every point in the plane
ABC. -
9. A solid angle is contained by four plane angles. Through

a given point in one of the edges to draw a plane so that the sec
tion shall be a parallelogram. -
Ex. 10.] THE STRAIGHT LINE AND PLANE. 71
10. Through each of the edges of a tetrahedron a plane is

drawn perpendicular to the opposite face. Prove that these planes
pass through the same straight line.
11. ABC is a triangle formed by joining points in the rect
angular co-ordinates OA, OB, 00; OD is perpendicular to ABC.
Prove that the triangle AOB is a mean proportional between the
triangles ABC, ABD. -
12. WapV8p + (Waff)”- 0 is the equation of a hyperbola in p,

the asymptotes being parallel to a, B.
OHAPTER v.
THE CIRCLE AND SPHERE.
36. Equations of the circle.

Let AD be the diameter of the circle, \
centre C, radius = a, P any point. P

If vector CD = a, CP= p,
we have p’=-a"............ (1). A p
If however AP=p,
CP= p – a,
we have (p- a)' = — a”............ (2).
If O be any point,
OP= p, OC = y, CP= p – y,
we have (p-Y)"=-a"........................ (3).
These are the three forms of the vector equation.
Form (2) may be written
p°–2Sap = 0.
If OC = c, form (3) may be written
p”–2Syp = c – a”.
'-- ExAMPLEs.
37. Ex. 1. The angle in a semicircle is a right angle.

Taking the second form
p” – 2Sap = 0,
we may again write it
Sp(p-2a)=0;
ART. 37.] THE CIRCLE AND SPHERE. 73
therefore p, p – 22 are vectors at right angles to one another.
|- But p-2a is DP;.

- ... DPA is a right angle.
Ex. 2. If through any point 0 within or without a circle, a
straight line be drawn cutting the circle in the points P, Q, the pro
duct OP. OQ is always the same for that point.
The third form of the equation may be written
(Tp)* + 2 ToS) Up + c – a”= 0,
which shews that To has two values corresponding to each value
of Up, the product of which is cº-a". Therefore, &c.
Ex. 3. If two circles cut one another, the straight line which
joins the points of section is perpendicular to the straight line which
joins the centres.
Let 0, C be the centres, P, Q the points of section;
vector OC = a ; a, b the radii;
then (as vectors)
OP’ =– a”,
(OP– a)*=—b";
... SaôP = C, a constant.
Similarly, SaôQ= C, the same constant;
... Sa (OQ – OP) = 0,
or Sapg) = 0,
i.e. PQ is at right angles to OC.
Ex. 4. 0 is a fixed point, AB a given straight line. A point Q
is taken in the line OP drawn to a point P in AB, such that
OP. OQ = k”;
to find the locus of Q.
Let 0A perpendicular to AB be a, vector a ;
OQ = p, OP= ap ;
then T(OP. OQ) = k",
Or ap" – – k”.
74 QUATERNIONS. [CHAP. V.
But Sa (ºp-a)=0;
... a Sap = — a”;
hence p, = k Sap
... &
is the equation of the locus of Q, which is therefore a circle,

passing through O. -
Ex. 5. Straight lines are drawn through a ficed point, to find

the locus of the fect of perpendiculars on them from another fixed
point.
Let 0, A be the points, the lines being drawn through A.
Let 0A = a, and let p = a + æð be the equation of one of the lines
through A, 8 the perpendicular on it from 0.
Then 8 = a + æſø,
and Sö* = Saš,
because 8 is perpendicular to 8;
i.e. 8*—Saô = 0,
the equation of a circle whose diameter is OA.
Ex. 6. A chord QR is drawn parallel to the diameter AB of
a circle : P is any point in AB; to prove that
PQ* + PR* = PA* + PB".
Let co-p, CR-2, PC-a;
then PQ =– (vector PQ)”
- =– (a + p) = -(a” +2Sap + p”),
PR* = -(a +p')”--(a” +2Sap'+p");
... PQ’ + PR*=2PC” + 2AC” – 2 (Sap + Sap').
But S(p + p") (p-p')=0 and p-p-aca,
because QR is parallel to AB;
... Sap + Sap = 0,
and PQ** PR = 2PC-4-2AC"
- = PA* + PB”.
ſ
ART. 37.] THE CIRCLE AND SPHERE, 75
Ex. 7. If three given circles be cut by any other circle, the

chords of section will form a triangle, the loci of the angular points
of which are three straight lines respectively perpendicular to the
lines which join the centres of the given circles; and these three
lines meet in a point.
Let A, B, C be the centres of the three given circles; a, b, c
their radii; a, B, y the vectors to A, B, C from the origin 0;
OA, OB, OC respectively p, q, r ; D the centre of the cutting
circle whose radius is R, OD = s, vector OD = 8, p the vector to
a point of section of circle D with circle A ; then we shall have
(p – a)*=– a”, (p-8)*=— R*,
and ... 2S (6 — a) p = R*— a”— s” +p”.
Now this is satisfied by the values of p to both points of sec
tion; and being the equation of a straight line (32. 3) is the
equation of the line joining the points of section of circle D with
circle A–call it line 1, and so of the others; then
line 1 is 2S (3 – a) p = R*—a"—s” +p",
line 2 is 2S (6–8) p = R*— b”—s” + q’,
line 3 is 2S(8–7) p" = R*– c’ – s” + r".
If 1 and 2 intersect in P whose vector is p, 1 and 3 in Q (p.);
2 and 3 in R (p), we shall have by subtraction
* at P, 2S (a — 8)p, = a” — bº–p’-- q’;
at Q, 2S(y – a) p, -–a'+ cº-p”— r";
at R, 2S (3–7)p, - bº— cº-q*4 r";
therefore (32. 3) the loci of P, Q, R are straight lines, perpen
dicular respectively to AB, AC, BC.
Also at the point of intersection of the first and third of these
lines, we have, by addition, -
2S (a — y) p = a”— cº-pº-r",
which is satisfied by the second: hence the three loci meet in a
point. -
76 QUATERNIONS. [CHAP. v.
Ex. 8. To find the equation of the cissoid.
AQ is a chord in a circle whose diameter is AB, QN perpen
dicular to AB.
AM is taken equal to BMW, and MP is drawn perpendicular
to AB to meet AQ in P; the locus of P is the cissoid.
Let vector AP = T, AC = a, AM = 'ya, AQ= actr;
then y : 1 :: 2–y : a, by the construction;
. .. 2
..". 3/ = 1 +2 -
Now acºr” – 2a:Sam = 0
is the equation of the circle;

- 2, ſam
nº
Also ºr = AM + MP
= ya + y ;
... Satr = ya’,

Satr
$/ = a” ;
hence ( *:::) sº = 2,
+
9
7r
A.
O.
and (*4-2Sat) Sar = 2a”,

is the equation required,
Ex. 9. If ABCD is a parallelogram, and if a circle be de
scribed passing through the point A, and cutting the sides AB, 40
and the diagonal AD in the points F, G, H respectively; then the
Tectangle AD. AH is equal to the sum of the rectangles A.B. AF,
and AC. A.G.
Let AB = a, AC = 8, AD=y
= a + 8;
AF = 2a, AG = y/8, AH = zy;
6 the vector diameter of the circle ; then

aca” – Saô = 0,
3/3°– S/36 = 0,
zy” Sy6 = 0 5
-
whence, since 'y = a + 8,

zy' = a a 4-yº”;
i. e. AD. A H = A.B. AF'-- A.C. A.G.
Ex, 10. What is represented by the equation

p = (a + æð)T'
If a, 8 be not at right angles to one another, we can put
a1 + eg for a, and so choose e that Sa,6 = 0.
w
We shall therefore consider a, 3 as vectors at right angles
- -
to each other, and we may, on account of ac, assume their tensors

equal, and each a unit.
Eſence -
Pi__a + æſ; TIE
(, Iggy a + æð
*:
or, if sin 6 = == 2
V1 + æ"
cos 0--, -,
J1 + 2*
p = — sin 6 (a sin 6 + 3 cos 0),
whence Tp(= r) = sin 6,
a circle of which the diameter is a unit parallel to a and the
origin a point in the circumference; and 8 a tangent vector at
the origin.
Otherwise, Sap = II º'
ac
S8P = I.;
... (Sap) + (S8p)* = Sap,
or — p"= Sap.
Or, again, p' - a + æð;
whence Sap-' = –1,
or V8 (p-'—a)=0,
-1 —
or U. º;" = 1, -
where U stands for the versor of the quaternion ;

all of these being, with the obvious condition S. a6p = 0, varieties
of the form of the equation of a circle, referred to a point in the
circumference, the diameter through which is parallel to a.
Draw any two radii p and p, then we have
2 2
S. Up-U (p--p-')=S. Up-U^*Pi p* *

–s. U-vºtº)”.
PITO
ſ ºp
Now P \PI(p will be rendered a unit if we take a unit
ſ)1
vector along each of the three vectors p, (p − p), and p;

... S. Up"U (p-'-p-') = S. Up Up, U (p − p) Up
= S. Up, U (p-p).
But p,"-p-' = (a, - a) 8;
U (p,"—p') = 3,
and S. Up-' U (p-i-p-') = SéUp-i –– S/3Up.
Hence S. Up, U (p-pi) = – SBUp.
If p be constant whilst p, varies, the right-hand side of this
equation is constant, and the equation shews that the angles in
the same segment of a circle are equal to one another.
Further, the form of the right-hand side of the equation, viz.
– S/3Up, shews that the angle in the segment is equal to the sup
plement of the angle between the chord (p) and the tangent (8).
38. To draw a tangent to a circle.
1. If we assume the first form of the equation, the centre
being the origin, and 'assume also that the tangent is at right
:
angles to the radius drawn to the point of contact; we shall have,

denoting by tra vector to a point in the tangent,
Sp (tr-p) = 0,
for tr—p is along the tangent ;
... Strp = — a”
is the equation required.
2. Without assuming the property of the tangent, we may
obtain it as follows.
Let p' be a point in the circle near to P; then

- S(p” p") 0,
- -
from the equation;

i.e. S (p + p) (p'-p) = 0.
But p + p is the vector which bisects the angle between the
vectors to the points of section, and p’– p is a vector along the
Secant.
Now the equation shews (22. 7) that the former of these lines
is perpendicular to the latter.
As the points of section approach one another, the tangent
approaches the secant, and the bisecting line approaches the radius
to the point of contact: therefore the radius to the point of
contact is perpendicular to the tangent.
39. From a point without a circle two tangents are drawn
to the circle, to find the equation of the chord of contact.
Let 3 be the vector to the given
point,
Stro = — a”
ºr - ^–s
the equation of a tangent ; then since j/SEN
it passes through the given point /2-,
SGp = — a”.
Now this equation is satisfied for both points of contact, and
since it is the equation of a straight line (32. 3) it must be satis
fied for every point in the straight line which passes through those
points: it is therefore the equation of the chord of contact. To
avoid the appearance of limiting p to a point in the circle, we may
write or in place of p; and the equation of the chord of contact
becomes
S8or = — a”.
ExAMPLEs.
40. Ex. 1. If chords be drawn through a given point, and

tangents be drawn at the points of section, the corresponding pairs
of tangents will intersect in a straight line.
Let y be the vector to the given point G, the centre C being
the origin; 3 the vector to 0, the point of intersection of two
tangents at the extremities of a chord through G.; then the equa
tion of the chord of contact is (39)
SBar = — a”,
and as the chord passes through G we have
S3)=– a”,
which, since y is a constant vector, is the equation of a straight
line, the locus of 8. - -
CoR. 1. The straight line is at right angles to CG (32. 3).

CoR. 2. The converse is obviously true, that if through points
in a straight line pairs of tangents be drawn to a circle, the chords
of contact all pass through the same point. -
Ex. 2. Any chord drawn from 0 the point of intersection of

two tangents, is cut harmonically by the circle and the chord of
contact.
Let radius = a, OC = c, OR = p, OS = q, vector OC = a, unit

vector OR = p ; then -
(pp)*–2p Sap = c – a”
is the equation of the circle;
i. e. p + 2pSap + c – a” = 0,
a quadratic equation which gives

the
OT;two values of p, viz. OR and T
.. 1 + 1 2Sap
OF OT-Tº-º: 0
But go = OS = ON + NS,
Saqp = SaôN;
i.e. q Sap = Sa (00 – NC)
= 0 °– SaNC
= – c’-- a” (39);
2 2
hence OST a
2Sap
* T Tai
__l + 1
- OK; T OT”
Ex. 3. If tangents be drawn at the angular points of a triangle

inscribed in a circle, the intersections of these tangents with the
opposite sides of the triangle lie in a straight line.
P -
Let radius = a, OA = a, OB = B, OC = y, then

OP= a + æAP= 3+ y (y – 8).
T. Q. 6
But a is perpendicular to AP;
... Sa’ = Saft +yS (ay—ag),
__ a + Sağ
T Say – Sag'
and op=(** sº E § Saß)Y.
Similarly, 00 = erº-gº- 3.
OR = erº-gºne -
Hence (Say–Sağ)0P+(Sag–S3) 09
+ (S3) — Say) OR = 0,
whilst (Say Sağ) +(Sağ– S3)) +(SBy— Say) = 0.
-
Consequently (Art. 13) P, Q, R are in the same straight line.

CoR. PQ : PR :: SBY-Say :: Sgy–Sag r
:: cos 2B – cos 2A : cos 20–cos 2A

:: sin C sin (B-A) : sin B sin (C–A).
Ex. 4. A fixed circle is cut by a number of circles, all of which
pass through two given points; to prove that the lines of section of
the fixed circle with each circle of the series all pass through a point
whose distances from the two given points are proportional to the
squares of the tangents drawn from those points to the fixed circle.
Tet O be the centre of the
fixed circle whose radius is a,
A, B the given points, vectors
a, B, the origin being 0; OA = b,
OB = c ; C the centre of a circle
which passes through A and B,
radius r, 00 = p, r the vector to
any point in the circumference of
this circle; then the equation of
the circle is (tr-p)"-- r";
hence for the four points A, B, P, Q, we have

a’–2Sap + p = — r",
B”–2S8p +p =– r",
OP” – 2S. OPo +p =– r",
OQ”–2S. 09p + p’=– r*.
From which it follows that
S(OP-09) p = 0........................ (1),

– b + c = a – Bº = 2S(a-A) p.................(2),
2S(OP-a) p = OP”— a”=— a 4-b"...............(3).
Let QP, AB intersect in R, OR = a ; then
Sap = S{OP+ as (OP–09)}p
=S. OPo by (1), -
and Sop = S(a + y (a-b)}p
=Sap+}(-wºº) by (2);
... y(–b’--cº) = 2Sop-2Sap
= 2S(OP—a)p
=– a” +b" by (3),
i.e. y is independent of p and r ; or R is the same point for
every circle:
also or (6'-6")4-(º-a').3
c”—b" 2
and RA : RB :: a-OR : 8–OR :: *— a” : c’ – a

- - :: AT” : BU’.
41. The Sphere.

1. It is clear that there is nothing in the demonstration of
Art. 36 which limits the conclusions to one plane; it follows that
the equations there obtained are also equations of a sphere.
2. Further if we assume that the tangent plane to a sphere
is perpendicular to the radius to the point of contact, the con
clusion in Art. 38 is applicable also,
- 6–2
84 . QUATERNIONS. [CHAP. V.
The equation of the tangent plane to the sphere is therefore
Strp = — a”.
3. Lastly, the results of Art. 39 are also applicable if we
substitute any number of tangent planes passing through a given
point for two tangent lines; the equation of the plane which
passes through the points of contact is therefore
S80 =– a”.
This plane is the polar plane to the point through which the
tangent planes pass. -
CoR. Since the polar plane is perpendicular to the line which

joins the centre with the point through which the tangent planes
pass, the perpendicular CD to it from the centre is along this
line and has therefore the same unit vector with it. The equa
tion above gives in this case
S{00. CD (U3)) = — a ;
... CO.CD = a” (19).
ExAMPLEs.
42. Ex. 1. Every section of a sphere made by a plane is

a circle.
Let p’=-aº be the equation of the sphere, a the vector per
pendicular from the centre on the cutting plane; c the correspond
ing line.
Let p = a + tr;
then the equation becomes
Tr” +2Sam' + a” = — a”.
But Sam = 0;
... it’——(a”—cº)
is the equation of the section, which is therefore a circle, the square
of whose radius is a” – c’.
Ex. 2. To find the curve of intersection of two spheres.

Let the equations be -
p” – 2Sap = C,
p°–2Sap = 0";
ART. 42.] THE CIRCLE AND SPHERE. 85:
... 2S (a' — a) p = C-C",
a plane perpendicular to the line of which the vector is a - a,
i. e. to the line which joins the centres of the two circles.
Hence, by Ex. 1, the curve of intersection is a circle.
Ex. 3. To find the locus of the feet of perpendiculars from the
origin on planes which pass through a given point.
Let a be the vector to the point, 8 perpendicular on a plane
through it ; then -
Sö (p – a) = 0 -
is the equation of that plane; therefore for the foot of the per-,
pendicular - * -,
S(8*— aô) = 0;
Or 8” – Saõ = 0
is true for the foot of every perpendicular and is therefore the

equation of the surface required. Hence it is a sphere whose
diameter is the line joining the origin with the given point.
Ex. 4. Perpendiculars are drawn from a point on the surface
of a sphere to all tangent planes, to find the locus of their extremi
ties. -
Let a be the vector to the given point,

Strp = —aft
the equation of a tangent plane.
Since the perpendicular is parallel to p, its vector is
Tr = a + æp ;
... (r—a)*=2'p'-2'a'
- =– 2: a*;
because both p and a are vector radii.
But Srp =– a gives with ap = tr—a,
Sir (tr—a)=– a'a,
(*—Sat) = a'a'
= — a” x — a'a.”
=– a” (r—a)”.
Ex. 5. If the points from which tangent planes are drawn to
a sphere lie always in a straight line, prove that the planes of sec
tion all pass through a given point.
Let CE be perpendicular to the line in which the point B
lies (41), see fig. of Art. 39,
CE = c, vector CE = 3;
then S38 =– c’
is the equation of the line.
But S80 =– a”
is the plane of contact, which is therefore satisfied by
or = +8
c” y
i. e. the planes all pass through a point G in CE, such that

2 -
OG = : CE,
or C.E. CG = a”.
Ex. 6. If three spheres intersect one another, their three planes

of intersection all pass through the same straight line.
Let a, B, y be the vectors to the centres of the three spheres,
p”–2Sap = a,
p°– 2S8p = b,
p”–2Syp = c,
their three equations;
‘. 2S(a-B) p =b–a,
2S (a — y) p = c-a,
2S(8–7)p = c-b,
are the equations of the three planes of intersection.
Now the line of intersection of the first and second of these
planes is obtained by taking p so as to satisfy both equations,
and therefore their difference
2S (8–7) p = c-b,
ART. 42.] THE CIRCUS AND SPHERE. 87
which, being the third equation, proves that the same value of p
satisfies it also. The three planes consequently all pass through
the same straight line.
Ex. 7. To find the locus of a point, the sum of the squares
of whose distances from a number of given points has a given
value.
'Let p denote the sought point; • B, ... the given ones; then
(p-a)* + (p-A)* + &c. = X(p—a)*=–C.
If there be n given points; this is
np” – 2S. pSa + Xa”= — C,
2 2
Or ( -:) -(...) -*(s-a-c).

72 70, 70,
This is the equation of a sphere, the vector to whose centre is

1
;3(a),
i.e. the centre of inertia of the n points taken as equal.
Transpose the origin to this point, then (36)
X. a = 0,
and - º'--its (a") + C).

Hence, that there may be a real locus, C must be positive
and not less than the sum of the squares of the distances of the
given system of points from their centre of inertia. If C have
its least value, we have of course
p” - 0,
the sphere having shrunk to a point.
ADDITIONAL ExAMPLEs To CHAP. W.
1. If two circles cut one another, and from one of the points
of section diameters be drawn to both circles, their other extre
mities and the other point of section will be in a straight line.
2. If a chord be drawn parallel to the diameter of a circle,
the radii to the points where it meets the circle make equal angles
with the diameter. * -
3. The locus of a point from which two unequal circles sub

tend equal angles is a circle.
4. A line moves so that the sum of the perpendiculars on it
from two given points in its plane is constant. Shew that the
locus of the middle point between the feet of the perpendiculars
is a circle.
5. If 0, 0' be the centres of two circles, the circumference

of the latter of which passes through 0; then the point of inter
section A of the circles being joined with 0' and produced to
meet the circles in C, D, we shall have
AC. AD = 2AO”.
6. If two circles touch one another in 0, and two common

chords be drawn through 0 at right angles to one another, the
sum of their squares is equal to the square of the sum of the
diameters of the circles.
7. A, B, C are three points in the circumference of a circle;

prove that if tangents at B and C meet in D, those at C and A
in E, and those at A and B in F; then AD, B.E, CF will meet
in a point.
8. If A, B, C are three points in the circumference of a
circle, prove that V(A.B. BC. CA) is a vector parallel to the tan
gent at A.
9. A straight line is drawn from a given point 0 to a point
P on a given sphere: a point Q is taken in OP so that
OP. OQ = k”.
Prove that the locus of Q is a sphere.
10. A point moves so that the ratio of its distances from two
given points is constant. Prove that its locus is either a plane
or a sphere,
Ex. 11.] ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES. S9
11. A point moves so that the sum of the squares of its

distances from a number of given points is constant. Prove that
its locus is a sphere.
12. A sphere touches each of two given straight lines which
do not meet ; find the locus of its centre.
CHAPTER WI.
THE ELLIPSE.
43, 1. IF we define a conic section as “the locus of a point

which moves so that its distance from a fixed point bears a con
stant ratio to its distance from a fixed straight line” (Todhunter,
Art. 123), we shall find the equation to be (Ex. 5, Art. 35)
a'p’ - e” (a’– Sap)"........................(1),
where SP=ePQ, vector SD = a, SP=p.
When e is less than 1, the curve is the ellipse, a few of whose
properties we are about to exhibit.
2. SA, SA’ are multiples of a call one of them aca: then,
by equation (1), putting aca for p, we get
a’ =e” (1–2)";
Q P
ART. 43.] THE ELLIPSE. 91
- e
i. e. SA =1. SD,
2e
•. AA’ = SD,
1 — e”
the major axis of the ellipse, which we shall as usual abbreviate

by 2d.
If C be the centre of the ellipse
CS = SA’ – CA'- (*. ‘...) SD = eCA
1 —e
-
1—e
= ae,
and if vector CS be designated by aſ, CP by p', we have

, e”
* = Lº a and p’= p + a';
whence, by substituting in (1), the equation assumes the form

a'p"4 (Sap) =-aº (1-e');
which we may now write, CS being a and CP p,
a'p”-- (Sap)* =– a” (1 – e')..................(2).
3. This equation might have been obtained at once by re
ferring the ellipse to the two foci, as Newton does in the Prin
cipia, Book I. Prop. 11; the definition then becomes
SP+ HP = 2a,
or in vectors, if
CP= p, CS = a,
T(p + a) + T (p – a) = 2a ;
i. e. V-(p-Foy–V-(p-a) = 2a:
hence, squaring,
a V-(p-a) = a + Sap;
i.e. a 'p" -- (Sap)*=— a' (1 – e').
92 QUATERNIONS. [CHAP. VI.
2
If now we write @p for -#; , where hp is a vector

which coincides with p only in the cases in which either a coin
cides with p or when Sap = 0, i.e. in the cases of the principal
axes; the equation of the ellipse becomes
Spºp = 1..............................(3).
The same equation is, of course, applicable to the hyperbola,
e being greater than 1.
44. The following properties of $p will be very frequently
employed. The reader is requested to bear them constantly in
mind.
1. 4 (p + o-) = $p + bor.
2. pap = acqp.
a*Soro + Sao Sa -
a sº--º -
= Spºor.
They need no other demonstration than what results from
simple inspection of the value of $p
- a"p + a Sap
Ta' (I-2)
45. To find the equation of the tangent to the ellipse.
The tangent is defined to be the limit to which the secant
approaches as the points of section approach each other.
Let CP = p, CQ = p, then
vector PQ = C(Q — CP=p' - p = 8 say;
£ is therefore a vector along the secant.
Now Sp'ºp' - S(p + 8) 4 (p + 8)
= S(p + 8) (pp + $6) (44. 1)
= Spºp + Sp$8+S3%p+S348.
ART. 46.] .THE ELLIPSE, 93
But Sp'ºp' - 1 = Spºp ;

..". Spºp/3+ S3%p + S348 = 0,
or (44. 3) 2S8%p + S3%3 = 0.
Now 8%p involves the first power of 8 whilst 848 involves
the second, and the definition requires that the limit of the sum
of the two as 6 gets smaller and smaller should be the first only,
even if that should be zero: i.e. when 8 is along the tangent, we
must have
2S8%p = 0.
Let then T'be any point in the tangent, CT = T, then
tr = p + æð,
and S3%p = 0 gives
S (tr-p) bp = 0;
... Strºbp = Spºp = 1
is the equation of the tangent.
CoR. 1. pp is a vector along the perpendicular to the tangent
(32. 3), that is, bp is a normal vector, or parallel to a normal
vector at the point p. -
(44. CoR. 2. =
3) Spºt The
1. equation of the tangent may also be written
r -
46. We may now exhibit the corresponding equations in

terms of the Cartesian co-ordinates, as some of the results are
best known in that form. -
Let CM = a, MP = y as usual; then, retaining the notation

of Art. 31 with i, j as unit vectors parallel and perpendicular
respectively to CA, :
vector CM = wi, MP= yj, CS = aei ;

... p = wi+ yj,
– a"p + aSap
*=-ºf-5
__a"(1-e') wi-auj
a' (1 – e’) -
%ci yj
TTVº 5* 2
where b’= a” (1 – e”);
and Sºo--sº-w)(;+%
ac" ºy”
=;+%;
a." 2
‘’’ as +%=1
is the Cartesian interpretation of Spºp=1.
Again, if a.', y' be the co-ordinates of T a point in the tangent,
tr = a-'i + yj,
and Sºo--swi-vº (;+%
acc/ f
= +%;
... * , My
... ; +} = 1
is the equation of the tangent.
47. The values of p and hp exhibited in the last Article,
viz. -
p = 2i + $17, *=-(;+% - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1),

enable us to write
iSip , jSjp
$p = j +*#..........…....... (2)
We shall have
$ºp = $ºp = isiºn

0,
jSite
b
--( a; +*#):… (3),

--(**)
$"p = a”isip +b^jSjp, &c.
If, further, we write tºp for -
#)
iSip
-(ºr º),
we shall have
'a-º,--(*
!"p = }} - (. #) + b”
= - $p..................................... (4),
WT'p = -(ai Sip + by Sjp), &c.
p = }"|p
= -(aiSilp + by Sjſp).................... (5).
It is evident that the properties of bp (Art. 44) are applicable
to all these functions.
Now Spºp = 1
gives Sp! (!!p)=–1.
But since "Spha = Sailp,
this becomes Shpilip =–1,
Ol' Tºp = 1;
which shews 1. that p is a unit vector; 2. that the equation of
the ellipse may be expressed in the form of the equation of a
circle, the vector which represents the radius being itself of vari
able length, deformed by the function iſ.
Lastly, Saq6 = 0
gives Sail"B = Slalºg = 0;
therefore ſa, ºff are vectors at right angles to one another.
48. To find the locus of the middle points of parallel chords.

Let all the chords be parallel to the vector 8; it the vector
to the middle point of one of them whose vector length is 22:8;
then
tr + æg, tr—aft
are vectors to points in the ellipse;
... S (ºr + æg) + (T + æð) = 1,
S (tr-w6) # (tr-w6) = 1,
multiplying out, observing that (44. 1),
q, (T + æð) = $tr + 248, &c.,
we get by subtracting,
Srđ8+ S3%tr = 0,
or, (Art. 44.3),
2Srđ8 = 0; .
... Srbſ?–0,
i.e. the locus required is a straight line perpendicular to $3.
Now $8 is the vector perpendicular to the tangent at the
extremity of the diameter 3 (Art. 45. Cor. 1).
Therefore the locus of the middle points of parallel chords is
a diameter parallel to the tangent at the extremity of the diameter
to which the chords are parallel.
CoR. If a be the diameter which bisects all chords parallel
to 3; since
Sapſ? = 0,
we have (Art. 44.3),
S8%a = 0,
which is the equation to the straight line that bisects all chords
parallel to a. Moreover 8 is parallel to the tangent at the ex
tremity of a, for it is perpendicular to the normal ha.
Hence the properties of a with respect to 3 are convertible
with those of 8 with respect to a and the diameters which
satisfy the equation
Saq8 = 0,
are said to be conjugate to one another.
49. Our object being simply to illustrate the process, we shall

set down in this Article a few of the properties of conjugate
diameters without attempting to classify or complete them.
1. If CP, CD are the conjugate semi-diameters a, B; and
if DC be produced to meet the ellipse again in E, and PD, PE
be joined; vector DP= a – 8, vector EP= a + 8.
Now
S(a + 3) # (a – 3) = S (a + 8) (pa — $8)

= Saqba – S348–Saq6+ S3%a (44. 1)
= 0,
because Saqba, S848, each equals 1.
Therefore a + 8, a -8 are parallel to conjugate diameters.
(Art. 48. Cor.)
This is the property of Supplemental Chords.
2. Let two tangents meet in T, CT= ºr, and let the chord
of contact be parallel to 8. If for the present purpose we denote
CN by a, we have
Strip (a + a 3) = 1,
Strºh (a + 2, 3) = 1,
for the two points of contact. -
Subtracting and applying (44.1),

- Strºfl = 0:
hence it and 3 i.e. CT, QR are conjugate.
3. The equation of the chord of contact is Sorºtr = 1.
For Spºr = 1 (45. Cor. 2) is satisfied by the values of p at
Q and at R, and since Spºtr = 1 or Sorqºr = 1 is the equation
of a straight line, it being a constant vector (32. 3) it is the
line Q.R.
4. If QR pass through a fixed point E, the locus of T is
a straight line.
Let q be the vector to the point E, then
Sorºtr = 1;
... Strºpor = 1,
or the locus of T is a straight line perpendicular to bor, i.e.
parallel to the tangent at the point where CE meets the ellipse.
(45. Cor. 1.)
The converse is of course true.
5. Tet us now take

CP= a, CD=8, CN=wa, WQ=y8, CT=za;
then the equation of the tangent becomes
Szaq (a.a 4-yſ}) = 1;
i.e. aczSaqba = 1;
‘.. a z = 1,
or aca. 20 = a”;
geometrically CN. CT= CP*.
6. The equation of the ellipse gives

S (ca +y|3) # (a.a + y&) = 1,
Or a’Saqa + y^S843 + 2a:ySaq6 = 1,
i.e. a' + y^ = 1,
or, since CN is aca, CP = a, &c.,
(#)-(#)-1,
the equation of the ellipse referred to conjugate diameters.
7. a = |*||a = -(aiSila + bi Sja)
g = |*||3=-(aiSig 4-bjSjpg);
... Waff = ab Wij (Sipa Sjºg — SiſºSjpa).
ART. 50.] • THE ELLIPSE, 99
If now we call k the unit vector perpendicular to the plane

of the ellipse, we get
Vij=%.
And, observing that ſha, B are unit vectors at right angles;
if the angle between i and iſ a be 6, that between i and p3
will be : + 6, &c. &c.,
we shall have (21. 3)
Sipa =–cos 6,
Silº – sin 6,
Sjiba = — sin 6,
Sj}} =-cos 0.
... Siya Sjºg-Silº Sja = cos’04 sin” 0–1.
Consequently Waff= abk;
i.e. Ta. T3'sin PCD = ab,
or all parallelograms circumscribing an ellipse are equal.
50. ExAMPLEs.
Ex. 1. To find the length of the perpendicular from the centre
on the tangent.
Let CY the perpendicular, which (Art. 45. Cor. 1) is a vector
along #p, be 24p; then since Y is a point in the tangent,
Strºhp = 1 gives Sacºpºp = 1,
or a (pp)*=1;
... (cºp)” (pp)*= 1,
1
d CY” – T * = T'--
1
==7
-i + #3
(10).
a" b
7–2
Ex. 2. The product of the perpendiculars from the foci on the
tangent is equal to the square of the semi-azis minor.
We have SY the vector perpendicular = wºp, and as Y is a
point in the tangent, and
CY = a + acqp,
S (a + æſhp) bp = 1,
2 (ºp) = 1 - Saºp,
SY = Tacqp 1 – Saqip
ºp = T-ºff.
ºp
Similarly, IIz-z tºp;

$p
... SY. HZ = T 1—S*aqp

(pp)” "
Now (43.2) a p” --Sºap – a” (1 – e’),
- a'p + aSap .
*=-ji=5 2
- a Sºap – a”
... (hp) Twº Iº) '
1 -s (sº-ºººº.
a"
... SY. HZ = a (1–3)=b'.

Ex. 3. The perpendicular from the focus on the tangent in
tersects the tangent in the circumference of the circle described about
the awis major.
Retaining the notation of the last example, we have
CY= a + æºp
a 4.3 p(l-Sağp).
•+-tº
•. CY”= a” + 2Saºp (1 – Saqbp) + (1 – Saſhp)*
(pp)” (ºp)*
=a’ 1 — Sºaqip
=**-Kºy -
=– afte"-a" (1 – e’) (last example)

= — a”,
and the line CY= a.
Ex. 4. To find the locus of T when the perpendicular from

the centre on the chord of contact is constant.
If CT be tr, the equation of QR, the chord of contact, is
Sorqºr = 1 (Art. 49.3),
and the perpendicular (Ex. 1) is Z' * ;
... (#1)*=– c’,

or Sºm. @tr = — cº,
or Srđºr =– c’ (Art. 44.3);
*S*ºr + jSjir
i.e. Sir
a" ; )=c (47.3),
2 2
2
Or —z + H = C
a" 2
an ellipse.
Ex. 5. TQ, TR are two tangents to an ellipse, and CQ, CR'
are drawn to the ellipse parallel respectively to TQ, TR, prove
º that Q'R' is parallel to QR. -
Let CQ = p, CR = p, CT= a, …”
then Sp$a > 1,
Sp'qa = 1.
Now since CQ" is parallel to TQ,
CQ = 279-2 (p-a).
Similarly CR = y (p’—a),
and S. CQ'ºh (CQ) = 1
gives 2'S (p-a) + (p-a) = },
i.e. a' (Saqa – 1) = 1,
and y” (Saba – 1) = 1 ;
..". 3) = 2,
and Q'R' = CR'—CQ'= a (p’—p)
= 20R;
hence Q'R' is parallel to QR.
CoR. QR" : QR* : * : 1
:: 1 : Saqba – 1
--
: 1 ,: a." y”
; +;-1,
where 2, y are the co-ordinates of T.
Ex. 6. If a parallelogram be inscribed in an ellipse, its sides

are parallel to conjugate diameters.
Let PQRS be the parallelogram.
PQ = a, PS = 3,
CP= p, CS = p';
then CQ = p + a, CR = p + a ;
..'. Spºp = 1,
S(p + a) b (p + a) = 1;
wherefore 2Spha + Sapa = 0.
Similarly 2Sp'qa + Saqba = 0;
..". S(p'-p) ſha = 0, by subtraction,
or S3%a = 0,
and (48. Cor.) B, a are parallel to conjugate diameters.
Ex. 1.] THE ELLIPSE. 103.
ADDITIONAL ExAMPLEs To CHAP. VI. .
1. Shew that the locus of the points of bisection of chords to

an ellipse, all of which pass through a given point, is an ellipse.
2. The locus of the middle points of all straight lines of con
stant length terminated by two fixed straight lines, is an ellipse
whose centre bisects the shortest distance between the fixed lines;
and whose axes are equally inclined to them.
3. If chords to an ellipse intersect one another in a given
point, the rectangles by their segments are to one another as the
squares of semi-diameters parallel to them.
4. If PCP, DCD" are conjugate diameters, then PD, PD'
are proportional to the diameters parallel to them.
5. If Q be a point in the focal distance SP of an ellipse, such
that SQ is to SP in a constant ratio, the locus of Q is a similar
ellipse.
6. Diameters which coincide with the diagonals of the paral
lelogram on the axes are equal and conjugate.
7. Also diameters which coincide with the diagonals of any
parallelogram formed by tangents at the extremities of conjugate
diameters are conjugate.
8. The angular points of these parallelograms lie on an ellipse
º similar to the given ellipse and of twice its area.
9. If from the extremities of the axes of an ellipse four pa
rallel lines be drawn, the points in which they cut the curve are
the extremities of conjugate diameters.
10. If from the extremity of each of two semi-diameters
ordinates be drawn to the other, the two triangles so formed will
be equal in area.
11. Also if tangents be drawn from the extremity of each
to meet the other produced, the two triangles so formed will be
equal in area.
12. If on the semi-axes a parallelogram be described, and
about it an ellipse similar and similarly situated to the given
ellipse be constructed, any chord PQR of the larger ellipse, drawn
from the further extremity of the diameter CD of the smaller
ellipse, is bisected by the smaller ellipse at Q.
13. If TP, TQ be tangents to an ellipse, and PCP be the
diameter through P, then PQ is parallel to CT.
CHAPTER VII.
THE PARABOLA AND HYPERBOLA.
51. As already stated, most of the properties of the hyperbola

are the same as the corresponding properties of the ellipse, and
proved by the same process, e being greater than 1. There are,
however, some properties both of it and of the parabola which
may be conveniently developed by a process more analogous to
that of the Cartesian geometry. This process we shall develope
presently. In the meantime we proceed to give a brief outline
of the application to the parabola of the method employed in
the preceding Chapter for the ellipse.
52. If S be the focus of a P
parabola, DQ the directrix, we Q
have SP= PQ, SA = AD = a.
If SP= p, SD = a, we have
(Ex. 5, Art. 35)
a'p’= (a”-Sap)"......... (1). T D| A \ S. N G
– a 'S
If *-*.* e - - - - - (2),
to which the properties of $p in
Art. 44 evidently apply,
the equation becomes
Sp(#p + 2a")=1...........................(3).
If p be another point in the parabola, pſ-p-8, the limit to
which 8 approaches is a vector along the tangent; so that if
ag- it — p, tr. is the vector to a point in the tangent; this gives
S(r-p)(#p + at')=0 ....................... (4);
hence the equation of the tangent becomes
Sir (bp + a ") + Sa'p = 1 ..................... (5).
From (2) it is evident that
Sağp=0 .............................. (6),
so that bp is a vector perpendicular to the axis.
From the same equation
2 -2
Sºo-º-º: 0.
2
_(p – a 'Sap)"
-—º-
= a (hp)"............................ (7).
From (4) the normal vector is
$p + at .............................. (8);
therefore the equation of the normal is
or= p + w($p + at').......................... (9).
Equation (2) when exhibited as
a'qip = p – a 'Sap,
reads by (6), “vector along NP=SP–vector along AN’, which
requires that NP=a^bp ............................ ...(10),
SN= a T'Sap;
i.e. = aSa'p ........................... (11).
For the subtangent AT, put wa for r in (5), and there results
by (6)
a;+ Sa-'p = 1,
I I
whence (* } a=ga-
- a"p;
i.e. vector AT=–vector AM (by 11);

... line AT= AN;
ART. 52.] THE PARABOLA AND HYPERBOLA. 107
and ST= a a gives
ST*=(a — a Sa-'p)"
_(a” – Sap)*
–––
= p" by (1);
... line ST=SP,
whence also the tangent bisects the angle SPQ; and SQ is per
pendicular to and bisected by the tangent.
From (8) y ($p + at’) = PG
= PN + WG
=-aºp + za (by 10);

= — a”, y = za”,
z = -1,
za = — a ;
i. e. NG = — SD,
or line NG = SD,
whence the subnormal is constant.
And vector GP= — y (ºp + a ') = a” (#p 4 o');
... vector SQ = SD + DQ
= SD + WP
= a + adºp
= GP,
and SQGP is a rhombus.
Lastly, }***) =}so

= SY
= SA + A Y;
..". AY -
12 - ºp;
...
or (10) A Y is parallel to, and equal to half of NP.

108 QUATERNIONS. [CHAP. VII.
53. If now we substitute Cartesian coordinates, making
p = 2i + yj, a = – 2a: ;
we shall have
a:
Sa'p=-ji, -
aT'Sap = 2i,
‘bp = — #:
and equation (3) becomes
y” at
4a” a
or y”= 4a (a + 2)
= 4aac' if ac' - AN.
The locus of the middle points of parallel chords is thus

found.
Let the chords be parallel to 8, it the vector of the middle

point of one of the chords,
then tr + æð= p, -
and S(tr + æ8) # (ºr + æg) + 2Sa' (T + 26) = 1;

which, since the term involving a must disappear, gives
Srđ3 + Sa'8= 0,
a straight line perpendicular to $8, i.e. (6) parallel to the axis.
This equation may be written
S8 ($74. a7') = 0,
which shews (8) that the chords are perpendicular to the normal
vector at the point where p = tr, i.e. at the point where the
locus of the chords meets the curve: in other words, the chords
are parallel to the tangent at the extremity of the diameter which
bisects them.
54. ExAMPLES.
Ex. 1. If two chords be drawn always parallel to given lines,
and cut one another at points either within or without the parabola,
the ratio of the rectangles of their segments is always the same

whatever be their point of section.
Let POp, Q0q be the chords drawn through 0, and always
parallel respectively to 8 and y, which we will suppose to be
unit vectors.
Let 3 be the vector to 0,

then p = 8+ aff
gives from equation (3)
S(3+23)(#34 &#42a")=1;
... a'S3+3+S$4.842Sa-'84. Ac = 1,
the product of the two values of a being
S8484. 2Sa-'8–1.
Sgºg T’
... OP. Op : OQ. 04 :: * Syqy
*-
Sºpp
:
a constant ratio whatever be 0.
CoR. Let 6, 6’ be the angles in which 8 and y cut the axis;

then since 3, y are unit vectors, if p be a vector to the parabola,
drawn from Sparallel to POp, which we may now call SP;
p = n/8, bp = { (n3) = nºpſ3 (44. 2),
will give
S. Spºp
S848 - sº - SP* *
in which case $p is a”
5
... a WP . ..., a WP ... ..., : …, 2 // .

... S343 : Sydy :: sin 9; sin ºf, : :: sin”6 : sin”6';
1 1
and, OP. Op : 00.04 :: sin”6 sin”6' "
Ex. 2. Find the locus of the point which divides a system of

Parallel chords into segments whose product is constant.
110 QUATERNIONS. [CHAP. VII. 4.
By the last example, the equation of the locus is

Söö8+ 2Sa-'8–1
Sãº--"
a parabola similar to the given parabola.
Ex. 3. The perpendicular from A on the tangent, and the line
PQ are produced to meet in R; find the locus of R.
By Art. 52, 8, AR = a (pp + at'),
and PR = ya;
". .# * (#64 º’) = p +ya = r.

Operate by Sºp,
and 2 (hp) = Spºp
= a (pp)" (52. 7);
a",
..". Q =
and r=;+*(ºp+ o-')

3
- º: + aºp is the equation required;
and, since S (tr- º). = 0, it is that of a straight line perpendi
cular to the axis, at the distance 3a from S.
Ex. 4. To find the locus of the intersection with the tangent
of the perpendicular on it from the vertex,
If it be the vector perpendicular on the tangent from A,
we have by (52.8)
tr=2 (ºp + at')......................... (1),
and the equation of the tangent gives, putting it + º in place
of r in (52. 5), and multiplying by 2,
2Siripp + 2Sa'ir +2Sa"p = 1 ................ (2),
we have also
Sp (bp + 2a") = 1 ....... - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - (3).
From these three equations we have to eliminate a and p. .

Equation (1) gives
Sam = ac,
which gives ac,
and Strºhp=2 (ºp)",
which substituted in (2) gives
22 ($p)*4-2Sa'ir +2Sa`p = 1.
Also, substituting (52. 7) a” (pp)" for Spºp, equation (3)
gives
a” (pp)**-2Sa`p = 1;
therefore by subtraction
(22– a”) (bp)*4-2Sa'ir = 0,
- i.e. (2Sar—a") (bp)*4-2Sa'ir = 0,
which from (1) becomes, multiplying by S*at,
(2Sar—a)" (r—a "Sat)*4-2S'ar Sa'ir =0.
This equation at once reduces to
2m"Sam — tºa” + Sºat = 0,
an equation which, when 4a is written in place of a, becomes
identical with that obtained in Art. 37. Ex. 8.
The locus is therefore a cissoid, the diameter of the generating
circle being AD.
55. It will probably have suggested itself to the reader, that

there exists a large class of problems to which the processes we
have illustrated are scarcely if at all applicable. Hence there
may have arisen a contrast between the Cartesian Geometry and
Quaternions unfavourable to the latter. To remove this un
favourable impression, all that is required in a reader familiar with
the older Geometry is a little experience in combining the logic
of the new analysis with the forms of the old. He will then see
how simple and direct are the arguments which he can bring
to bear on any individual problem, and consequently how little
the memory is taxed.
We propose in this Article to put the reader in the track
of employing his old forms in conjunction with quaternion
reasonings.
We shall work several examples on the parabola and the
hyperbola. Having applied quaternions pretty fully to the
ellipse in what has preceded, we will limit ourselves to a single
example in this case.
1. The Parabola. If the unit vector along any diameter of
the parabola be a, and the unit vector parallel to the tangent at
its extremity be 8; we may write the equation of the parabola
under the form
p = 2a + y&
**** (1).
For the particular case in which the diameter in question is the
axis, and the tangent at its extremity parallel to the directrix
3/
p=#; a +y} - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2),
where a is AS (Art. 52).
This is the most convenient form when the focus is referred
to.
In other cases a somewhat simpler form may be obtained by

supposing a, or if necessary both a and 8 of equation (1) to
be other than unit vectors.
The equation may then be written under the form

t”
p= 2 a + t|3 --------------------- - - - - - - (3).
To find the equation of the tangent, we have

/g
t r
p' = ; a + '8;
•". º'-p-(e-) ( t’ + t
2 *5).
Now p-p is a vector along the secant; and its limit is a

vector along the tangent: hence any vector along the tangent
is a multiple of ta + 3; and the equation of the tangent may
be written -
r= a +13+2(a +6) … (4).

EXAMPLEs.
Ex. 1. If AP, AQ be chords drawn at right angles to one

another from A ; PM, QM perpendiculars on the azis, then the
latus rectum is a mean proportional between AM and AN; or
between PM and QM.
If PM = y, QM = 'y',
AP = ...
2/*
a+y}, AQ =#:
7/?
a-yg. f
Now S(AP. AQ) = 0 (22.7);

. "W" -,
- - (4a)* 3// 0,
-
or yy' = (4a)”;
therefore also aca' = (4a)”.
Ex. 2. If the rectangle of which AP, AQ are the sides be
completed, the further angle will trace out a parabola similar to
the given parabola, the distance between the two vertices being equal
to twice the latus rectum.
p = AP + AQ
y” + y” /
TT4a a + (y – y ) {3
— ar'Y”
gº a + (y – y) {3+ 8aa.
Ex. 3. The circle described on a focal chord as diameter touches
the directria: ; and the circle described on any other chord does
not reach the directria.
T. Q. 8
114 QUATERNIONS. [CH. VII.
Let PQ be any chord, centre 0,
- - y” - y” z
AP=#, a +y}, AQ =; a +/8.

The equation of the circle with centre 0, radius OP, is
( _*). (**)
or p”—S(AP+ AQ) p + S(AP. AQ) = 0.
At the points in which this circle meets the directrix
p = — aa + 28;
... –a–2°–4* +º1/*

o
+0+0-4-y-0.
A yº/* f
/\2 / 2
or - ---0-9)→ *--(; ; ).
This equation is possible only when
3/y'+ 4a” = 0;
i.e. when the chord is a focal chord. -
In this case the two values of z are equal, each being sy +y'.
2 2
and the directrix is a tangent to the circle.

Ex. 4. Two parabolas have a common focus and axis ; their
vertices are turned in opposite directions. A focal chord cuts
them in PQ, PQ, so that PPSQQ are in order. Prove (1) that
SP. SP’ = SQ.. SQ'; (2) that SP : SQ' is a constant ratio; and
(3) that the tangents at P, P are at right angles to one another.
The equations of the parabolas are
y”
p=-ao +i, a + 3/8,
, , ºf" ...,
p =a'a-; a +y'8,
the focus being the origin.
ART. 55.] THE PARABOLA AND HYPER BOLA. 115
Now since p, p' are in the same straight line when the common
chord is the focal chord, we have
p' =pp;
2'-º'--~...”
a -ia--pati, ,
w = py,
... (yy'— 4aa') (a'y + ay') = 0.
Taking the former factor, we must have y, y' on the same
side of the axis with a constant product; therefore
SP. SP’ = SQ.. SQ'.
The second factor gives SP : SQ' a constant ratio a a'.
Lastly, by Equation (4), the tangent vectors at P and P' are
parallel to
y _ !/
; a +8, # a +8.
Now s(#219)(
y # * *6)=#.
__y – º – 11–0.
=0;
therefore the tangents are at right angles to one another.

Ex. 5. If a triangle be inscribed in a parabola, the three
points in which the sides are met by the tangents at the angles lie
in a straight line.
Let OPQ be the triangle.
Take O as the origin, then
t”
P = 3 a + tº,
t”
p'= ; a + '6,
**
r= a +13+2(a+8)
t’s
º'-3 at B+ w(a +6).
8–2
are the vectors OP, OQ, and the equations of the tangents at P
and Q.
If Q0 meet in A the tangent at P,
oA-a+15+*@*#)
= y00
=y (,* a +, te)
,
;
t” /2
•". 34 tº - 3%
t + æ = t'y,
t”
3/= 2.7L ſº
#2 t”
and 04-#" (ºf) f
** t’
= 2. Tº (2-6).
Similarly if the tangent at Q meets P0 in B,
t” /t
on-gº, (a +6).
If the tangent at 0 meets PQ in C,
OC = OP+ 2 (PQ)
= OP+ 2 (00–012)
t” t” — tº p
– a tº 1-4 2 a (-08}.
Eut 00 = w8;
2 p2 2
‘. . . .';*-0.
t + 2 (t’—t) = v,
Q)
__tt'
T t + tº ’
tº'
and 00-fig6.
2t – t'
Now +, −04– 26'- t t” — tº
t’ OB — tt' 00–0,
26 — ?' 2" – t tº — ?”
and also +++ ------0;
therefore (Art. 13) A, B, C are in a straight line.
2. The ellipse. If a, B are unit vectors along the axes, the
equation of the ellipse may be written
- p = 2a+ y&
5*
where y” = a” (a”—a.") = m (a’—a");
and the equation of the tangent will be readily seen to be

- tr = 2a+y|3+ X(ya-maſ?).
A single example will suffice.
Ex. If tangents be drawn at three points P, Q, R of an
ellipse intersecting in R', Q', P, prove that
PR'. QP’. RQ' = PQ'. QR. R.P.
If 2, y; aſ, y'; a.", y' are respectively the co-ordinates of
P, Q, R.; we shall have
CR = 2a+ y& + X (ya – maſ?)
= a(a +y'8+ X' (y'a — maſ8);
... a + Xy = x + X'y',
y – m \a: = y – my 'a';
... m. Å (2'y—y'a) = ma"+ y”— maca'-yy'
=b’– maa’-yy'.
Hence mX' (cy'—a'y) = b – maa’-yy
=– mix (xy'—a:'y);
... X = — X’,
Y=– Y’ for Q',
Z=– Z for P',
and MY"Z = — X'YZ".
A PR’
Now Y - PQ' y &c.
hence the proposition.

3. The hyperbola. If a, B are unit vectors parallel to the
asymptotes CX, CY, the equation of the hyperbola may be written
p = 2a + y&
O
= 3ca + iſ,
2 2
since sy–º = 0.
If a, 3 be not both units we may write the equation under
the simpler form
B
p=ta +; - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1).
To find the equation of the tangent, we have as usual a vector
parallel to the secant
(-É)
=p' - p = (t’—t)
t’— t
-(#)(x-5),
and a vector parallel to the tangent will be -
to — • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2).
Hence the equation of the tangent is
--a ºr (s-É) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (3).

CoR. It is evident that
ta + H,
B &a — B y
t t
are conjugate semi-diameters.
ExAMPLEs.
Ex. 1. One diagonal of a parallelogram whose sides are the

co-ordinates being the radius vector, the other diagonal is parallel to
the tangent.
We have CN = ta, NQ = #.
CQ = ta + 8 y
and the other diagonal is

to — '
which, equation (2), is parallel to the tangent at Q.

Ex. 2. Any diameter CP bisects all the chords which are pa
rallel to the tangent at P.
Let CP be to + # y
then the tangent at P is parallel to
ta-, ;
... CQ = CM + VQ = X (**) Y(x-3). +
But as Q is a point in the hyperbola, this equation must have

the form
cq=Tar #:
... (X+ Y) t = T,
1 1
(X — Y) * = 7”
and - A*– Yº - 1,
an equation which gives two equal values of Y with opposite
signs, for every value of X.
Hence all chords are bisected.
CoR. X*— Y’= 1 is
%) T (#)
Q V. '-1
CP) – 12
CD being ta-É-Po.
This is the ordinary equation of the hyperbola referred to
conjugate diameters.
Ex. 3. If TQ, T'Q' be two tangents to the hyperbola intersect
ing in R and terminated at T, T', Q, Q by the asymptotes; then
(1) TQ' is parallel to T'Q; (2) area of triangle TRT" = area of
triangle QRQ', and (3) CR bisects TQ' and 7"Q.
The equation of the tangent
--tº
t
a (a-É),
t
gives
CT= 2ta,
(the coefficient of 8 being 0),
co-º,
CT" = 2t'a,
2
CQ’ = # ;
... Q'T'- 2at — º ; (att'— 3),

-
, 2, ...,
QT'-' (au-B);
therefore Q'T' is parallel to QT'.
Again, CR = CQ + QR = CQ + æ (CT-CQ)
28 B
-** 2(t–?).
Also cº-º; + ac'2 (*-ī);
... act = a 't',
l_ a 1 a."
* T : - ;T : .
z---
T t + tº ”
-
2–––.
T t + º' '
and wa'- (1–2) (1–2),

i.e. QR. Q'R = RT. R'T',
and the triangles TRT", QRQ' are equal.
9//
- # (2.1%),
tº + t t
or CR is in the direction of the diagonal of the parallelogram of

which the sides are CT, CQ'; and therefore CR bisects TQ'
and T’’Q.
Ex. 4. If through Q, P, Q' parallels be drawn to CX meeting
CY in E, F, G, CE, CF, CG are in continued proportion. -
cp-arº;
00-m (2-3);
... Co-CV4 Vo
-x(, ) r(s-É). +
122 - QUATERNIONS. [CH. VII.
co-x(, ;) — Y (*-ī),
ce-Cr-r)!},
cF-É, t
co-Crºr)?,
and CE. CG = CF’;
because X*— Y’= 1 (Ex. 2).
Ex. 5. If a chord of a hyperbola be one diagonal of a
parallelogram whose sides are parallel to the asymptotes, the other
diagonal passes through the centre.
Let the chord be PQ ; p, p' the vectors to P and Q; then
op-e-º-º-º- (*#).
Now when one diagonal of a parallelogram is ma + m3, the
other will be ma— m/3.
Therefore in the case before us, the other diagonal is
•G-0–6(;-)
= (t-t') (*#)
-#24 ºr 6 (; +})}
t–t'
=;I, (p+ p^.
And it is therefore in the same straight line with the line
which joins the centre of the hyperbola with the middle point
of PQ; whence the truth of the proposition.
Ex. 6. If two tangents to a hyperbola at the extremities

Q, Q of a diameter, meet a tangent at P in the points T, T';
and if CD, CD' are the semi-diameters conjugate to CP, CQ,
then (1) PT : QT :: PT" : Q'T' : CD : CD';
and (2) PT. PTV = CD2.
If t, t', - t', correspond to P, Q, Q', then
cT-atºr, (at-É)
-*****(*-É),
gives t + act = t + æſt',
1 a 1 aſ
* T :T : T7
— t
w = | ri--2.
Similarly cr-at- + 3/ at-É)
--at-É-y(at-É).
gives t 4 yt = — tº — y't',
1 y 1 , y'
* ~ * *- : * * *
t’ + t
h
Winence 3/ = t’. — t = — m/
Now 2 : y :: æ' : y’
gives PT : QT :: PT : QT'
:: O D : CD'.
And ay = 1
gives P77. PT = O’Dº.
CoR. a: y = 1,
gives QT. QT = CD".
Ex. 7. Straight lines move so that the triangular area which
they cut off from two given straight lines which meet one another
is constant: to find the locus of their ultimate intersections.
Let OAA’, O.BB' be the fixed lines, AB, A'B' two of the moving
lines with the condition that
OA. OB = OA'. OB'.
If a, B be unit vectors along OA, OB,

OA = ta, OB = uſ?; OA' = t'a, OB" = w8,
the point of intersection of AB, AB" gives
p = ta + æ (uſ?– ta)
= t'a + æ (u'8— t'a),

‘. acu = a 'u', .
and t (1–2) = t' (1 – aſ)
-
- (-). QM,
Now tu = t'u' = c because the triangle has a constant area;

t 1 ...
* = IP = 3 ultimately;
I 1 c3
p -
3 to + -3 up
- Qub = - * -3 ––t ’
2 to +
the equation of a hyperbola.
ADDITIONAL ExAMPLEs To CHAP. VII.
1. In the parabola SY”= SP. SA.

2. If the tangent to a parabola cut the directrix in R, SR is
perpendicular to SP.
3. A circle has its centre at the vertex A of a parabola whose
focus is S, and the diameter of the circle is 3A.S. Prove that the
common chord bisects A.S.
4. The tangent at any point of a parabola meets the directrix

and latus rectum in two points equally distant from the focus.
5. The circle described on SP as diameter is touched by the

tangent at the vertex.
6. Parabolas have their axes parallel and all pass through

two given points. Prove that their foci lie in a conic section.
7. Two parabolas have a common directrix. Prove that

their common chord bisects at right angles the line joining their
foci.
8. The portion of any tangent to the parabola between tan

gents which meet in the directrix subtends a right angle at the
focus.
9. If from the point of contact of a tangent to a parabola

a chord be drawn, and another line be drawn parallel to the axis
meeting the chord, tangent and curve; this line will be divided
by them in the same ratio as it divides the chord.
10. The middle points of focal chords describe a parabola
whose latus rectum is half that of the given parabola.
11. PSQ is a focal chord of a parabola : PA, QA meet the
directrix in y, z. Prove that P2, Qy are parallel to the axis.
12. The tangent at D to the conjugate hyperbola is parallel
to CP.
13. The portion of the tangent to a hyperbola which is in

tercepted by the asymptotes is bisected at the point of contact.
14. The locus of a point which divides in a given ratio lines
which cut off equal areas from the space enclosed by two given
straight lines is a hyperbola of which these lines are the asymp
totes.
15. The tangent to a hyperbola at P meets an asymptote

in T, and TQ is drawn to the curve parallel to the other asymp
tote. PQ produced both ways meets the asymptotes in R, R :
RR" is trisected in P, Q.
16. From any point R of an asymptote, RN, RM are drawn

parallel to conjugate diameters intersecting the hyperbola and its
conjugate in P and D. Prove that CP and CD are conjugate.
17. The intercepts on any straight line between the hyper
bola and its asymptotes are equal.
18. If QQ' meet the asymptotes in R, r,
RQ. Q = PO".
- 19. If the tangent at any point meet the asymptotes in X
and Y, the area of the triangle XCY is constant.
CHAPTER VIII.
CENTRAL SURFACES OF THE SECOND ORDER, PARTICULARLY

THE ELLIPSOID AND CONE.
56. The Ellipsoid. In discussing central surfaces of the

second order, we shall speak as if our results were limited to the
ellipsoid. That such limitation is not, in most cases, necessarily
imposed on us, will be apparent to any one who has a slender
acquaintance with ordinary Analytical Geometry. We adopt it
in order that our language may have more precision, and that, fm
some instances, our analysis may have greater simplicity. If the
centre be made the origin it is clear that the scalar equation can
contain no such term as A.Sap, for the definition of a central sur
face requires that the equation shall be satisfied both by + p and
by – p.
If we turn to the equation of the ellipse (Art. 43), we shall
See at once that the equation of the ellipsoid must have the form
ap” + b Sºap +2cSap.S8p + ... = 1.
Now if, as in the Article referred to, we put
$p = ap + ba Sap + c (a S3p + 8Sap) + ...
we shall have
Spºp = ap” + b Sºap +2cSap.S8p + ...
= 1,
the equation required.
It will be seen that, as in Arts. 32, 33, one form of the equa
tion of the straight line was found to coincide exactly with the
equation of a plane, so a form of the equation of the ellipse
coincides exactly with the equation of the ellipsoid.
128 QUATERNIONS. [CH. VIII.
It is evident that the three properties of $p given in Art, 44
are true of ºpp in its present form.
57. To find the equation of the tangent plane.
Let a secant plane pass through the point whose vector is p ;
and let p be the vector to any point of section.
Put p = p + 8, where 8 is a vector along the secant plane;
then Sp'ºp' = S(p + 8) b (p + 8).
Hence, observing that (44)
$ (p + 3) = $p + $3,
and Sp$3 = SBºp,
we have Sp'ºp' = Spºp + 2S8%p + S848;
i.e. 2S8%p + S/348 = 0.
Now (45), as the secant plane approaches the tangent plane,
the sum of these two expressions approaches in value to the first
alone: that is, for the tangent plane, S8%p = 0, where 8 is a vector
along that plane.
If T be the vector to a point in the tangent plane,
T = p + æſø;
... S (it – p) (bp = a S&#p
= 0,
and Strºhp = Spºp
= 1
is the equation of the tangent plane.

CoR. ºbp is a vector perpendicular to the tangent plane at the
extremity of the vector p.
58. If 0Y be perpendicular from the centre 0 on the tangent

plane; then, since bp is a vector perpendicular to that plane,
OY = acqp and Sæ (pp) = 1, giving
1
OY = T' (acq}p) = T ––.
(*)-7.
Sir W. Hamilton terms ºp the vector of proximity.
ART. 61.] CENTRAL SURFACES OF THE SECOND or DER. 129
59. If tangent planes all pass through a fixed point, the
curve of contact is a plane curve.
Let T be the fixed point; vector a ; p the vector to a point of
contact.
Then (Art. 57) Saq p = 1;

i. e. Spºha = 1 (44.3),
which is the equation in p of a plane perpendicular to pa.
Now ha is the normal vector of the point where OT cuts the
ellipsoid;
... the curve of contact lies in a plane parallel to the tangent
plane at the extremity of the diameter drawn to the given point.
The plane of contact is called the polar plane to the point.
60. Tangent planes are all parallel to a given straight line,
to find the curve of contact.
Let a be a vector parallel to the given line; then

tr = p + aca
is a point in the tangent plane;
... S(p + æa) bp = 1;
and Saq p = 0,
or Spºpa = 0,
the equation of a plane through the origin perpendicular to ‘ba :
that is, the curve of contact lies in a plane through the centre
parallel to the tangent plane at the extremity of the diameter
which is parallel to the given line.
61. To find the locus of the middle points of parallel chords.
Let each of the chords be parallel to a, "r the vector to the
middle point of one of them; then trº-aca, tr-2a are points in
the ellipsoid.
From the first,
S(r 4 aca) q, (T + æa) = 1 (Art. 56);
i.e. Srđt + 2a:Strºha + a 'Sudha = 1.
130 QUATERNIONS. [CHAP. VIII.
From the second,
Strºn — 2a:Suſqa + æ"Saqa = 1 ;
subtracting, Sirºha = 0 (1),
i.e. the locus is a plane through the centre perpendicular to ha,
or parallel to the tangent plane at the extremity A of the diameter
which is drawn parallel to a.
If we call this the plane B00, B and C being any points in
which it cuts the ellipsoid; and if 0B =/3, OC = y, we shall have
S8%a = 0, Syda = 0,
and therefore Saq/3 = 0,
or a satisfies the equation Strºhſ} = 0
of the plane which bisects all chords parallel to OB (Equation 1).
Let AOC be this plane which bisects all chords parallel to 0.B.
Then, since 00 or y is a vector in it,
Syd8 = 0, i. e. SBºy=0.
But we have already proved that
Syda = 0, i.e. Sağy = 0,
because y is in the plane B00;
... by equation (1) a, 8 both satisfy the equation of the plane
Strºy = 0, which is the plane bisecting all chords parallel to y;
that plane is therefore the plane AOB: we are thus presented
with three lines 0A, OB, 00 such that all chords parallel to any
one of them are bisected by the diametral plane which passes
through the other two.
We may term these lines conjugate semi-diameters, and the
corresponding diametral planes conjugate diametral planes.
It is evident that the number of conjugate diameters is un
limited.
CoR. We have the following equations:

Saq.3 = 0 = SBqa,
S34 y = 0 = Syd8,
Saq) = 0 = Sypa (2).
ART. 62.] CENTRAL SURFACES OF THE SECOND ORDER. 131
They shew that y is perpendicular to both ºa and $8, and is
therefore a vector perpendicular to their plane; hence, as in 34.4,
y = a Whad'?.
In the same way, since by is perpendicular to both a and 8, we
have
#y = y Vag;
or, neglecting tensors, we have the following vector equalities:
y = Władó, B = Włady, a = Włęby,
$y = Waff, b|3= Way, qa = WBy (3).
Note also
yº"Wag – acWhaqB,
upon which Hamilton founded his solution of linear equations.
62. If as in Art. 47 we write — ºnlp for bp, ºp being still a

vector, the equation of the ellipsoid assumes the form
Soºp)=-1,
i. e. (44) Spilp=–1
(p) = – T (p) = –1 ............. (1),
which, if we put a = hp, becomes Tor = 1, the equation of a sphere.
Hence the ellipsoid can be changed into the sphere and vice
versá, by a linear deformation of each vector, the operator being
the function iſ or its inverse.
The equations
Saq,8 = 0, &c.
now become Sail"B = 0,
i.e. Shailſ?=0, &c., &c.................. (2).
(1) and (2) shew that ſha, h9, by are unit vectors at right angle
to one another.
If we term the sphere Tor = 1 the unit-sphere, we may

enunciate this result by saying that the vectors of the unit-sphere
which correspond to semi-conjugate diameters form a rectangular
system.
9–2
63. Let us now take i, j, k unit vectors along the principal
axes of ac, y, z ; then we shall have
p=wi + yj + zk........................ (1),
... Sip = −a, &c.
so that for the sake of transformations in which it is desirable
that the form of p should be retained, we may write
p = -(iSip +jSjp + kSkp).....................(2);
and as bp is a linear and vector function of p, its vector portions
along the principal axes will be multiples of
iSip, jSjp, kSkp;
we may therefore write
iSip
jSip kSk
$p - º 1% * + - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - (3),
the form a” having been assumed in order to make the equation

Spºp = 1
coincide with the Cartesian equation
a y”
2 + i + .g = 1.
As $p = -lººp ........................... (4),
we require to take ºp so that performing the operation iſ twice

on p shall give the same result (with a — sign) as performing the
operation ºf once.
Now a comparison of equations (2) and (3) will shew that
- - 1 - - - - -
the latter operation introduces a? &c. into p ; it is evident

therefore that the former operation () is to introduce :* Or
__ (i.Sip , jSip , kSkp
ve--(. .*.**) -- - - -- - - - -- - - - - - -- (5).
ART. 64.] CENTRAL SURFACES OF THE SECOND orDER. 133
t may perhaps be worth while to verify this result. We have
Wiſp = — (e.g., §ºp 4. eº)

iSilip , jSjúp , kSk
b C
-s:(e.”
a \ a .*).
*2 Cº.
b C
—iºr.
-(?,*.**)
a” b” c”
= – ºpp.
4'o-ºp = ;S,º .*
Sh sºp
+ kSk
__/iSip +*#
--(. *) .............
, jSjp +---) * * * * * ** (6),
$"p = a’i Sip + bºjSjp+ cºkSkp..... ................ (7),

because pºp"p produces p.
|Tºp =–(aiSip +bjSjp + cKSkp) ............. .....(8),
p = WT'iſp = -(aiSülp +bjSj/p +ckSkip)............... (9).
It is evident that the properties of Art. 44 apply to all these
functions.
64. ExAMPLEs.
Ex. 1. Find the point on an ellipsoid, the tangent plane at

which cuts off equal portions from the axes.
Let a, y, z be the co-ordinates of the point, p the portion cut
off, then
p = 2i + yj + zk.
Now pi, pi, pK are points on the tangent plane;
..'. Spišp = 1,
which gives
pSi º ..)-1, +
Or :=1.
Similarly # = 1,
* – ? – ?–1 –
a T b T c” Tp T.J., IWI. '
Ex. 2. To find the perpendicular from the centre of the
ellipsoid on a tangent plane. -
OY” – (*#): (Art. 58)
..". or. =(Tºp)=-(+)-; + %. 2”: C

(Art. 63, 1.3).
Ex. 3. To find the locus of the points of contact of tangent
planes which make a given angle with the axis of 2.
We have
SkU (bp)=p,
Skºp = p/q\p,
Or :-P
* . (;
/* ; ;
* ; *),
the equation of a cone whose axis is that of z and guiding curve

an ellipse whose semi-axes are a”, b”.
The intersection of this surface with the ellipsoid is the locus
required.
Ex. 4. To find the locus of a point when the perpendicular
from the centre on its polar plane is of constant length.
Let r be the vector to the point, then
Spºr = 1 is the equation of the polar plane (Art. 59),
and T' *
is the length of the perpendicular on it (Art. 58);
... S (br)*=— C*, by the question.
But since (44)
Söör = Strøð,
if 8 be pir,
Sprºtr = Strºbºtr = Strºm ;
... Snºr =– C* is the equation required;
hence the Cartesian equation is (63. 6)
ac" 2 2.”
; +}, + = 0.
Ex. 5. The sum of the squares of three conjugate semi-dia
meters is constant.
Let a, B, y be the semi-diameters; ſa, lºg, by are rectangular

unit vectors (Art. 62).
Now a = -(aiSiya 4 by Sjya # chSkya) (63. 9);
... (T'a)*=—a’= a” (Sipa)" + b (Sjba)* + c (Skila)",
(T3) = a” (Siºg)**b*(Sjpg)” + c (Ski!?)",
(Ty)*= a” (Siſy)" + b (Sjºy)* + c (Skyy)*:
adding, and observing that
(Siya)*4 (Silº)”.4 (Silly) = 1 (31. Cor.),
we get
(Ta)**(T3) + (TY) = a + b + c,
i.e. a” + b” + c” = a” + b + cº.
Ex. 6. The sum of the squares of the three perpendiculars from

the centre on three tangent planes at right angles to one another is
COn 8tant.
We have
p = $"ºp = a'iSidhp +b^jSjöp + cºkSkbp (63. 7),

and $p =–(iSidhp +jSjöp + kSkºp) (63. 2);
... Spºp = 1 = a” (Sibp)"4 b” (Sjöp)" + c (Skºp)*
=(Tºp)"{a” (Si Uöp)*4-b” (SjVöp) + c (Skºſhp)”) ;
hence if p, p', p" be three vectors so that ºp, ºp', ºpp" are at right
angles to each other; that is, so that the tangent planes at their
extremities are at right angles to one another (57. Cor.).
1 1 1
(Tºp) " (Tºp) " (Tºp"),

=a^{(SiO4p)*4. (SiO4p')" - (SiO4p")*}
+b^{(SjVibp)" +...} +...
= a + b + c (31. Cor).
1
But (Tºp)
far-ra, &c. are the perpendiculars
perp from the centre on the
tangent planes at p, p", p" (58). Hence the proposition.
Ex. 7. The sum of the squares of the projections of three con
jugate diameters on any of the principal aces is equal to the square
of that aa'is.
Let a, B, y be conjugate semi-diameters; then, since
a = — (aiSipa +bjSjha +ckSkya) (63. 9),
Sia = a Silpa.
Similarly, Si3 = a Si/8,
Siy = aSily;
... (Sia)” + (Si6)** (Siy)*= a” (Siya)*4 (Silº)”.4 (Silly)*}
= a” (31. Cor.),
because ſa, ºff, by are at right angles to one another (62).
But — Sia is the projection of T'a along the axis of a ; and
similarly of the others. Hence the proposition.
Ex. 8. The sum of the reciprocals of the squares of the three
perpendiculars from the centre on tangent planes at the eactremities
of conjugate diameters is constant.
Let Oy, Oy, Oy, be the perpendiculars.
1
wº--(º) (63)
l
-(sº: ..º.º.
T5.
a.
(63. 3);
1__(Si6)' ... (Sj}) , (Sk8)" ;
Oy, -
a” + b° + C*
1
Oy,”
(St)'
a"
.(Si)'
b”
, (Sky)
cº
. 2
wº-oº-º-;ſº
| | | | | – | ſes.” +(Si3)
...saw +(sº
.. (s.a. sº.
1 1 1
= z* * 5 * * (Ex. 7).
Ex. 9. If through a fixed point within an ellipsoid three
chords be drawn mutually at right angles, the sum of the recipro
cals of the products of their segments will be constant.
Let 6 be the vector to the given point; a, 8, y unit vectors
parallel to three chords at right angles to each other.
Then 6 + æa = p gives
S (6+2a) q (9.4-aca) = 1
a quadratic equation in a, the product of whose roots is
S646 – 1.
Saqa '
... the product of the reciprocals of the segments of the chord is
1 Sadha 1 .
a law,a TS939–1 (Ta)”
and the sum of the reciprocals of the products of the segments is
1 {; .#.;}
S959–1 \(Tay" (TB)'' (T)))'
*_\2 * \2 2
Now since Saqba = (sº

0.
..(Si)',
b
(sº C
(63. 2, 3),
the sum of the reciprocals of the products
- 1 1 *_^2 • adv2 o %
TS936 – 1 |, {soy. (Siby-(sh)
*}{(j)-(º-Gº')
1 1 1 1
"sº-i(; +; + ...) (31. Cor.).
CoR. If 6 be not constant, but S646 be so, i.e. if the given

point be situated on an ellipsoid concentric with and similar to the
given ellipsoid, the same is true.
Ex. 10. If the poles lie in a plane parallel to yz, the polar
planes cut the aasis of a always in the same point.
Let pi be the distance from the origin of the plane in which
the poles lie, 8 any line in that plane, then rapi +8 is the vector
to a pole, and
Spºh (pi +8) = 1 (59)
the equation of the corresponding polar plane.
At the point where this plane cuts the axis of ac,
p = wi;
... Spaciqi + æSiq8 = 1.
Now 8 is a vector in a plane perpendicular to qi,
... Siºbô = Söqi = 0;
and Siqi = constant = n suppose ;
... mp3 = 1,
which shews that a is constant.
Ex. 11. A, B and C are three similar and similarly

situated ellipsoids; A and B are concentric, and C has its centre
on the surface of B. To shew that the tangent plane to B at this
point is parallel to the plane of intersection of A and C.
Let a be the vector to the centre of 0.
Spºp = a the equation of A,
Spºp = 0 ................... B,
S(p-a) $(p – a) = c...... C.
Now at the intersection of A and C, p is the same for both ;
therefore the equation of the plane of intersection is to be found
by subtracting the one from the other.
It is therefore 2Spºha = Saqba + a - c.;
and the equation of the tangent plane to B at the centre of C is
Strºpa = b ;
... both planes are perpendicular to pa, and are consequently
parallel.
Ex. 12. If through a given point chords be drawn to an
ellipsoid, the intersections of pairs of tangent planes at their eac
tremities all lie in a plane parallel to the tangent plane at the
extremity of the diameter which passes through the point.
Let a be the vector to the point; a +2,8, a + æ,8, the vectors
to the points of intersection with the ellipsoid of chords parallel
to B; then
Sirº (a + æ,6) = 1,
Sirº (a + æ,3) = 1,
are the equations of the tangent planes at these points.
At the intersection of these planes r is the same for both ;
‘. subtracting we get
Sirq/3 = 0,
Strºba = 1.
The last equation is that of the line of intersection of the tan
gent planes; and that line is perpendicular to ba, or (57. Cor.)
parallel to the tangent plane at the extremity of the diameter
which passes through the given point.
CoR. Sirdſ?= 0 shews that the line of intersection correspond
ing to any one chord is parallel to the tangent plane at the
extremity of the diameter which is parallel to that chord.
Ex. 13. Two similar and similarly situated ellipsoids are cut
$y a series of ellipsoids similar and similarly situated to the two
given ones ; and in such a manner that the planes of intersection
are at right angles to one another. Shew that the centres of the
cutting ellipscids lie on another ellipsoid.
Let Spºp=1,…, (1),
S(p- a) # (p-a)=0 ..................... (2),
be the given ellipsoids;
S (p-t) # (p-r) = 2, ................... (3),
one of the cutting ellipsoids.
% is the same for all because the ellipsoids are similar.
The plane of intersection of (1) and (3) is found by subtracting
the equations; and is therefore
2Spºr = Strºhm + 1 — 2.
The plane of intersection of (2) and (3) is
2Sp(bir – ba) = Stript – Saqba + C — a.
The former of these planes is perpendicular to ºr and the latter
to bir – ba; and, since by the question, the former is perpen
dicular to the latter, pir is perpendicular to pir – ºpa,
'. Sºt (bir – ba) = 0,
the equation of the locus of the centres of the cutting ellipsoids.
This equation will be reduced to the requisite form by ob
serving that
Sprºtr = Strºbºr = Srđºr
Sqtrºpa = Saqºr;
... S (tr-a) ºr = 0,
the equation of an ellipsoid of which the semi-axes are propor
tional to
a", b’, c' (63.6).
The Cartesian equation is
ac” ºf 2* /a:a::/ 22'
#4%
a” b° +º,
c - ... +%+)-0.
0. b C
Ex. 14. If a tangent plane be drawn to the inner of two
similar concentric and similarly situated ellipsoids the point of
contact is the centre of the elliptic section of the outer ellipsoid.
Let Spºp = 1 be the equation of the inner,
a’Spºp = 1 of the outer ellipsoid.
The tangent plane is Stripp = 1.
Now if a be the vector to the elliptic section measured from
the point of contact, tra p + q is a point in the outer ellipsoid;
... a'S (p + 0.) b (p + or) = 1.
But Sorºp = 0 (57. Cor.);
. a” + a Sorqa = 1,
a”
i-º-; Soqo = 1,
1 — a”
the equation of an ellipse of which the centre is the point of

contact.
Ex. 15. Find the equation of the curve described by a given

point in a line of given length whose eactremities move in fixed
straight lines.
First, let the straight lines lie in one plane.
Let unit vectors parallel to them be a, B.
Let the vectors of the extremities of the moving line be
aca, y0, and its length l. Then the condition is
(yő – wa) = -lº,
Or a" + y^+2a:ySag = 1° (1).
The vector to a point which divides this line in the ratio
e : 1 is
p = a a + e (yſ3-wa)
= 2a (1 – e) + ey8;
... Sap = -(1-e) a + eySağ,
S3p =(1-e) a Sağ-ey;
whence
Sap + SağSBp _S8p +SağSap
* (IEe)(sagii)' "Te (Sog-1)
which values being substituted in equation (1) give the required
equation, viz.:
(Sap+Sa£SB),
(1 —e)”
(SBP-Saſsap)"
e”
Saff
= "(S*ag – 1)".
But p is subject to the additional condition (31. 2. Cor. 2)
S.a6p = 0; and the locus is a plane ellipse.
When the given straight lines are at right angles to one
another, the equation is much simplified, for
Sağ = 0;
and our equations are
a’t y' = 1°,
Sap = -(1-e) a, SBp = – ey;
whence (1(Sap)"
- e)” +
(S80)”
e” -
y,
! y
an ellipse of which the semi-axes are le and l (1 – e).

Generally, if the given lines do not meet, let the origin be
chosen midway along the line perpendicular to both ; then we
have
{y + wa- (-y +y|3)}*=—l”,
y and — y being the vectors perpendicular to the lines,
p =(y 4 a.a) (1–e) + e(–y +y|3).
The first gives
4y” + (xa-y6)*=-l”;
and the second gives, as in the simpler case above,
Sap = -(1-e) a +eySağ,
S8p = (1 — e) wSağ–ey.
-- -

Hence the elimination of a. and y again leads to the equation
of an ellipsoid, the only difference being that l” is diminished by
the square of the shortest distance between the lines; i.e. the
axes are less than in the former case.
In the extreme case, where la 27'y, the equation cannot be

satisfied except by
a = 0, y = 0,
(i.e. the locus is reduced to a single point), unless indeed we have
a = + 8,
for then a: = + y,
and the locus is a straight line parallel to each of the preceding

lines.
65. The come.

1. To find the equation of a cone of revolution whose vertex
is the origin 0.
Let a be a unit vector along the axis 04,
p the vector to a point P on the surface of the cone;
then Sap = — To cos 6,
6 being the angle POA.
But this angle is constant,
... Sºap = cºp” is the equation required.
2. The equation of a cone which has circular sections, but
which is not necessarily a cone of revolution, is thus found.
Take the vertex as the origin, and let one of the circular sec
tions be the intersection of the plane
Sap =-aº............................. (1)
with the sphere p’=SBp............................. (2).
Since these are scalar equations we may multiply them together;
and thus obtain at all the points of the circular section
a'p” + Sap S3p =0 .......................(3).
Now if ap or p' be written in place of p, the equation is not
changed, since p occurs twice on each side. It is therefore the
required equation of the cone.
CoR. 1. Every section by a plane parallel to Sap = — a” is a
circle. -
For the equation of a plane parallel to

Sap = — a”
is Sap = — aa’,
which being substituted in the equation of the cone gives
• ' p’= aS3p,
the equation of a circle. ,
CoR. 2. The plane S8p=-b8 .........................(4)
also gives a circle whose equation is |
a’e”- b{3°Sap ........................... (5).
These two equations give the subcontrary sections.
To deduce the relation between the two sections; let O be the
vertex of the cone, OAB the plane through a, B; AB the line in
which the section cuts this plane, AD that in which the sub
contrary section cuts it ;
OA = p, OB = p, OD = ap'.
r ,, b8* , , ,
We have, by (5), ap”= a” Sap
= — b|3°, by (1),
= S3p, by (4),
=p', by (2);
i. e. OB. OD = OA”,
and the triangles OAB, OAD are similar, or AD cuts 0A at the
same angle that AB cuts O.B.
66. If ‘bp = 2a"p + aSBp + 8Sap,
the equation of the cone is reduced to
Sp$p = 0.
ART. 67] CENTRAL SURFACES OF THE SECOND ORDER. 145
It is evident that all the properties of $p, Art. 44, are appli
cable here.
As in Art. 57, the equation of the tangent plane is

Stripp = 0.
67. ExAMPLEs.
Ex. 1. Tangent planes are drawn to an ellipsoid from a given

external point, to find the cone which has its vertea at the origin,
and which passes through all the points of contact of the tangent
planes with the ellipsoid.
Let a be the vector to the external point, p a point in the
ellipsoid where a tangent plane through a touches it.
Then the equation of the ellipsoid is
- Spºp = 1,
and the equation of the tangent plane
Saq p = 1, i. e. Spºha = 1.
The equation
Spºp = (Sp:pa)",
Or (.
* = (a 4.9%
a:a. *, y* *| 2° + i +. #).
represents a surface passing through the points of contact; and
is the cone required.
Ex. 2. Of a system of three rectangular vectors two are con
ned to given
gºver planes,
p to find the surface traced out by the third.
Let tr, p, or be the three vectors, of which two are confined to
given planes whose equations are
Satr = 0, S8p = 0,
to find the locus of or. *
Since the vectors are at right angles, we have

Srp = 0, Sira = 0, Sap = 0,
and we have five equations from which to eliminate trand p.
Since Sam = 0, Sorr=0,
tr is at right angles to both a and or, and therefore to the plane
ao ; or
tr = acWao.
T. Q. 10
Since S8p = 0, Sap = 0,
p is at right angles to the plane 80 ; therefore
- p = y V8or,
and Tp = a y Vaa V8o.
Now Smp = 0,
therefore S. Wao V8or = 0,
or S (ag-Saa) (Bor-S30)=0,
Or o°Sağ–Sao S60 = 0,
the equation of a cone of the second order, which has circular
sections (65. 2). -
CoR. The circular sections are parallel to the two planes to

which the two vectors are confined.
Ex. 3. The equation p = to 4-w'3+(t+w)') = 0 is that of a

cone of the second order touched by each of the three planes through
OAB, OBC, OCA ; and the section ABC through the extremities of
a, B, y is an ellipse touched at their middle points by AB, BC, CA.
1. If the surface be referred to oblique co-ordinates parallel
to a, 8, y respectively, we shall have
p = a a + y& + 2y,
therefore a = tº, y—w', z = (t+w)",
or 2= (V, + Jy)*= a +y+ 2 May,
which gives (2–2–y)*= 4ay,
a cone of the second order.
2. If t =–w, the equation becomes
p = t” (a + 8),
the equation of a straight line bisecting the base AB, which since
it satisfies the equation relative to t, shews that this line coincides
with the cone in all its length; i.e. the cone is touched in this
line by the plane OAB.
Similarly, by putting t = 0, w = 0 respectively, we can shew
that the cone is touched by the plane B00, C0A in the lines
which bisect AC, CA.
3. Restricting ourselves to the plane ABC, we have the
section of a cone of the second order enclosed by the triangle
ABC, which triangle is itself the section of three planes each of .
which touches the cone.
Ex. 4. The equation p = aa + b8+ cy with the condition

ab 4 bc + ca – 0 is a cone of the second order, and the lines 0A, OB, .
00 coincide throughout their length with the surface. -
1. It is evident that the equation gives

acy + y2 + za: = 0.
2. That if b-0, 6–0, the question is satisfied by
p = aa,
whatever be a, therefore &c.
Ex. 5. Find the locus of a point, the sum of the squares of

whose distances from a number of given planes is constant.
-
&
Let S80, = C, S8 p, = C, &c. be the equations of the given

planes, p the vector to the point under consideration; then a 8,
a 3, &c. will be the perpendiculars on the planes from the point;
provided
- p + a,3, = p, p + æ,3,-p, &c.;
therefore Sö, (p + æ,3) = 0, &c.
and 2,3,” = C, -S8.p, &c.,
a '8,' (C, — S.&p)";
-
i.e. the square of the line perpendicular to the first plane from
the given point -
_/C-Söp)"
-
and, by the question,

-(º),
º). C.—S8.pN* +&c. is constant.
ſº) (º)
The locus is therefore a surface of the second order.
10–2
Ex. 6. The lines which divide proportionally the pairs of
opposite sides of a gauche quadrilateral, are the generating lines
of a hyperbolic paraboloid.
Tet ABCD be the quadrilateral. B Al
AD, BC are divided proportionally

in P and R. R P
Let CA = a, CB = 8, CD = y;
CR = m/3, DP=m DA; C D
i.e. CP— y = m (a — y);
therefore RP=CP-CR = y + m (a – y)— m/3,
p = C(9= CR + pKP
= m/3+ p {y + m (a –Y)— m/3}
=aca + y& + 2y, say;
therefore a = pm, y = m-pm, z=p(1-m);
ac
therefore 7m = a +3/, ***Iy”
2= - ac,
a +y
or (a + 2) (a + y)= x,
the equation referred to oblique co-ordinates parallel to a, 8, y.
PASCAL's HEXAGRAM.
68. Let 0 be the origin, OA, OB, 00, OD, OE five given
vectors lying on the surface of a cone, and terminated in a plane
section of the cone ABCDEF, not passing through O'; OX any
vector lying on the same surface.
Let OA = a, OB = B, OC = y, OD =8, OE = e, OX=p.
The equation
S. V(Vag Vös) V (VByVep) V(V)3Voa)=0 ....... (1)
is the equation of a cone of the second order whose vertex is 0
and vector p along the surface. For
1. It is a cone whose vertex is 0 because it is not altered
by writing ap for p. Also it is of the second order in p, since p
occurs in it twice and twice only.
P
2. All the vectors 0A, OB, OC, OD, OE lie on its surface.
This we shall prove by shewing that if p coincide with any
one of them the equation (1) is satisfied.
If p coincide with a, the last term of the left-hand side of the
equation, viz. Vpa, becomes Vaa = Wa’- 0, and the equation is
satisfied.
If p coincide with 8, the left-hand side of the equation be

COrmes
S. V(Vag V3) V (VByVeg) V(V)3Vga)......... (2).

Now V (VByVeg)=-V(Veð V8)), (22.2), is a vector parallel
to 8 (31. 3), call it m3; and
V. (V(Vag Vös) V(V)3V3a)}= W.{V(Vag Vôe) V(VagWy3)}, (22.2),
= a multiple of Waſ', (31.3),
= n Vaſº, say.
Hence the product of the first and third vectors in expression
(2) becomes
scalar + m VaS,
and the second is m3; therefore expression (2) becomes, by 31.2,
S. (scalar + n Waff) m3
= Smm3Wag
- = 0,
because Vag is a vector perpendicular to B.
Equation (1) is therefore satisfied when p coincides with 8.
If p coincide with y both the second and third vectors are
parallel to 8 (31. 3); therefore their product is a scalar, and equa
tion (1) is satisfied.
The other cases are but repetitions of these.
Hence equation (1) is satisfied if p coincide with any one of
the five vectors a, 6, y, 8, e, i.e. 0A, OB, 00, OD, 0E are vectors
on the surface of the cone.
3. Let F be the point in which 0x cuts the plane ABCDE;

then ABCDEF are the angular points of a hexagon inscribed in
a conic section.
4. Let the planes OAB, ODE intersect in OP; OBC, OEF
in OQ; OCD, OFA in OR; then
V. Vag Vöe =mop, (31.4),
V. V8, Vep = n.09,
W. WyöVoa = poR;
therefore
S. V(Waff Vös) V (VBy Wsp) V(V)3Voa)=mnpS(OP. O.Q. OR);
hence equation (1) gives
S(OP. OQ. OR)=0,
or (31.2. Cor. 2) OP, 09, OR are in the same plane.
Hence PQR, the intersection of this plane with the plane
ABCDEF is a straight line. But P is the point of intersection
of AB, ED, &c. - ->
m
-

Therefore, the opposite sides (1st and 4th, 2nd and 5th, 3rd
and 6th) of a hexagon inscribed in a conic section being produced
meet in the same straight line.
CoR. It is evident that the demonstration applies to any six
points in the conic, whether the lines which join them form a
hexagon or not.
ADDITIONAL ExAMPLEs to CHAP. VIII.

1. Find the locus of a point, the ratio of whose distances
from two given straight lines is constant.
2. Find the locus of a point the square of whose distance
from a given line is proportional to its distance from a given
plane.
3. Prove that the locus of the foot of the perpendicular from
the centre on the tangent plane of an ellipsoid is
(aa)*4 (by)*4 (ex) = ("+y+2')".
4. The sum of the squares of the reciprocals of any three
radii at right angles to one another is constant.
5. If Oyo Oy, Oy, be perpendiculars from the centre on
tangent planes at the extremities of conjugate diameters, and if
Q, Q, Q, be the points where they meet the ellipsoid; then
I I 1 1 1 1
OY.00. “OY.00. “OY.O.O. = a + i + 5.

6. If tangent planes to an ellipsoid be drawn from points in
a plane parallel to that of acy, the curves which contain all the
points of contact will lie in planes which all cut the axis of 2
in the same point.
7. Two similar and similarly situated ellipsoids intersect
in a plane curve whose plane is conjugate to the line which joins
the centres of the ellipsoids.
8. If points be taken in conjugate semi-diameters produced,
at distances from the centre equal to p times those semi-diameters
respectively; the sum of the squares of the reciprocals of the
perpendiculars from the centre on their polar planes is equal to p”
times the sum of the squares of the perpendiculars from the
centre on tangent planes at the extremities of those diameters.
9. If P be a point on the surface of an ellipsoid, PA, PB,
PC any three chords at right angles to each other, the plane
ABC will pass through a fixed point, which is in the normal to
the ellipsoid at P; and distant from P by
2
—º-
l+ l +! 3.
a " i " ..."
where p is the perpendicular from the centre on the tangent

plane at P. -
10. Find the equation of the cone which has its vertex in
a given point, and which touches and envelopes a given ellipsoid,
CHAPTER IX.
FORMUL.AE AND THEIR APPLICATION.
69. PRODUCTs of two or more vectors.

1. Two vectors. The relations which exist between the
scalars and vectors of the product of two vectors have already
been exhibited in Art. 22. We simply extract them:
(a) Sağ = S8a. (5) Wag-- WBa.
(c) aſ +8a–2Sağ. (d) aft–Ba–2 Wag.
These we shall quote as formulae (1).
2. We may here add a single conclusion for quaternion
products.
Any quaternion, such as ag, may be written as the sum of
a scalar and a vector. If therefore q and r be quaternions, we
may write
q = Sq + Vg,
r=Sri Vr;
therefore gr= SqSr-Sq Wr + SrVg + Vº Vr,
and S. gra SqSr 4. S. Vgyr,
V. qr-SqWr + SrVg + W. Vayr,
where S. Vg Wr is the scalar part, and V. Vg Wr the vector part of
the product of the two vectors Vg, Vr.
If now we transpose q and r, and apply (a) and (b) of for
mulae 1, we get
S. qr = S. rq } (2)
W. gr. 4. V. rq = 2 (Sq Wr +SrVg)ſ “” -
154 QUATERNIONS. [CH. IX.
3. Three vectors. By observing that S. ySağ is simply the
scalar of a vector, and is consequently zero, we may insert or
omit such an expression at pleasure. By bearing this in mind
the reader will readily apprehend the demonstrations which
follow, even in cases where we have studied brevity.
S. a6)=S. (Sag + Vag) y
=S. y Waff, (by 1. a),
= S. y (Sag + Waff)
= S. Yağ..............................(3).
Again, S. affy =S. a (S3) + Vºy)
= S(V3). a), (by 1. a),
= S (S3) + VAy) a
= S. Bya....... -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - ....(3).
The formulae marked (3) shew that a change of order amongst
three vectors produces no change in the scalar of their product,
provided the cyclical order remain unchanged.
This conclusion might have been obtained by a different pro
cess, thus:
In (2) let q = aff, r = y, there results at once
S. a6 y=S. yağ.
Again in (2) let q = ya, r = 8, there results
S. yaft = S. Bya.
We have therefore, as before,
S. a6 y = S. yag – S. 8)a.................. (3).
4. S. affy = S. a V8)
=–S. a Wyſł, (by 1. b),
- =-S. ay?........................... (4).
Similarly S. affy =– S. 8ay ...................... (4),
or a cyclical change of order amongst three vectors changes the
sign of the scalar of their product.
.ART. 69.] FORMULE AND THEIR APPLICATION. 155
5. It has already been seen (Art. 31. 1) that — S. affy is the

volume of the parallelepiped of which the three edges which
terminate in the point O are the lines OA, OB, OC whose vectors
are a, B, y respectively.
We may express this volume in the form of a determinant,
thus:
Let a, B, y be replaced by
aci + yj + zk, aft + yj + z/k, a "i + yj + z"k (Art. 31.5);
a, y, z being the rectangular co-ordinates of A, a!, y', 2' those of B,
a!", y”, z" those of C, measured from O as the origin; then
S. a6.) = S. (aci + yj + zk) -
x (a'i + yj + zk)
x (a"i-y"; +2%). . .
Now if we observe first that the scalar part of this product is

confined to those terms in which all the three vectors i, j, k
appear; and secondly that the sign of any term in the product
will by formulae (3) and (4) be — or + according as cyclical order
is or is not retained, we perceive that we have the exact con
ditions which apply to a determinant; therefore
S. affy =-| w, y, z --
a', y', 2' .................. (5).

a!", y”, z"
The volume of the pyramid OABC is one-sixth of the above.
Note relative to the sign of the scalar.

Since ijk = –1 (19), it is clear that if OA, OB, 00 assume the
positions of Oa, Oy, Oz in the figure of Art. 16, S(OA. O.B.OC)
will have a minus sign, whilst the order of the letters A, B, C is
right-handed as seen from 0.
If now we take any pyramid whatever OABC, of which the
vertex is 0, and assume that S(OA. O.B. 00) (which, being pro
portional to the volume of the pyramid, we may designate OABC),
is negative when the order of the letters A, B, C is right-handed
as seen from 0, we shall find the following general law of signs to
hold good whatever be the vertex; viz. the sign of the scalar is
minus or plus according as the order in it of the angles of the base
of the pyramid is right-handed or left-handed as seen from the
vertea.
For example, CABO = S(CA. C.B. CO)

= S (a-Y)(8–7) (–))
= — Sağy
= – OABC,
which is plus because OABC is minus, and the order of the letters
A, B, 0 as seen from C is left-handed.
6. V. affy = W. a (S3) + V8)
= aSBy + W. a V8);
y. YBa = V. (Syð + Vyg) 0.
= aSBy – V. a Wyſł, (1. b),

= aS8) + W. a V8), (1. b),
= W. afty ..............................(6).
7. V. affy = W. (Sag + Waff))
= ySağ– W. YWag;
W. Yağ = W. Y (Sag + Vag)
- ySağ + V. yWag;
therefore V. affy + W. Yağ = 2)Sağ.................. (7).
8. 27. a78) = W. a (3y—yg), (1. d),
= V. affy + W. Yag—(W. ay6 + W. Yağ)
= V (affy + Bay) — V(ay8+yag), (by 6),
= W. (ag + Ba) y – V. (ay + ya) 8
=2)Sağ–28Say, (1.c);
therefore V. a V8) =ySağ–8Say........... (8).e e o 'º e º e -
ART. 69.] FORMULAE AND THEIR APPLICATION. 157
9. We have, by (8),
V. a V8) =ySağ–8Say,
W. B.Vya = a&gy-ySağ,
W. Y Vag = 3Say – a S3);
therefore, by addition,
W. (a WBy + 3Wya + y Vag)=0 ............... (9).
10. V. affy = W. a (S3) + V8))
= aS8) + W. a V8),
which, by (8), = aSBy–BSay 4 ySağ............. (10).
Another proof of this important formula is found in the
identity
$65,176)--ſº-º-º-y)+;7(6-8),
which, by (4) and (6), is the theorem itself.
11. If in (8) we write Vag in place of a, we get

V. Vag V8) =yS(Wag. 6)–3S(Vag.)
= y.S. ag&– BSağy
= -88. affy...........................(11).
12. Four vectors. If in (8) we write Wač in place of a, we
obtain
V(VaëW3)) = yS. aš8–8S. ašy............. (12).
13. By (12) we have
V(VByVaë)=8S. Bya – a S. By8.
But V(VByVaS)=– V(VaôV8)).
Hence, by adding the above result to (12), we get
8S. Bya—aS. gy3+ yS. a68–8S. ašy = 0,
which, by (3) and (4), if we adopt alphabetical order, may be
written
aS. By 8–8S. ay3+ yS. agö–8S. a6.) = 0...... (13),

or SS. afly = aS. By8 BS. ay8 + yS. aftö
- (13),
-----------
158 ... " QUATERNIONS. [CH. IX.
or, again, if we adopt cyclical order,
aS. Byö–8S. a6.) + yS. 8ag-B.S. yòa,
or, finally, 8S. affy = a&. Byö–8S. yòa + yS. 8aſ?......... (13).
This equation expresses a vector in terms of three other
vectors. The following equation expresses it in terms of the
vectors which result from their products two and two.
14. V(yðað) may be written, first as V (y.8ag), and secondly
as V(yö. ag), and the results compared. These forms give re
spectively -
V(y. Sağ)= W.) (S. 8ag + W. Sağ)

=yS. aftö4. W. y(6Sağ– aS884. BSSa), by (3) and (10),
=yS. a66+ WyöSağ– Vyasög + VygSöa;
V(y8 . a6)= W. (Syö + Vyô) (Sag + Vag)
= Waff.Syð4 VyšSag + W. WyöWag
= Waff.Sy3+ VyšSag – V. Vag Vy8
= Waſsy; + VyāSag–8S. affy tyS. a68, by (12).
The two expressions being equated, and the common terms
deleted, there results
es. 26,-rafts; + Vºsas. Pºsés.........(1)
15. S. agyö = S. (S. affy + V. affy) 8
= S. (V. affy) 8
= S. (a SBy–8Say + ySağ) 8, by (10), -
= SağSyö–SayS884-SaôS8) ..............(15).
16. S (Waſ Wyö)=S. (aft–Sag) (y&-Syö)
= S. affyö–SağSy8
= SaôS8y–SayS38, by (15).........(16).
17. S. affy} = S. (Vagy) 8
~ S. 8Wagy
= S. 8affy........................(17). . .
ART.70.] FoEMULE AND THEIR APPLICATION. 159
18. Five vectors. As we do not purpose to exhibit any

applications of the relations which exist among five or more
vectors, we shall confine ourselves to simply writing down the two
following expressions.
S. affyös =–S. e8/8a,
V. affyöe = W. e8/8a..................... (18).
70. Many of these formulae might have been proved differ
ently, and some of them more directly, by assuming for instance
that a, 3, y are not in the same plane. In this case any other
vector 8 may be expressed in terms of a, B, y, by the equation
8 = 2a+y|3+ zy, (31. 5);
therefore S. Byö= a-S. Bya = a-S. affy, (3),
S. y?a=yS. yſła =-yS. affy, (4),
S. 8a0 = zS. ya?= zS. a6), (3);
therefore 8S. affy = 2a:S. affy +y|3S. affy + 2yS. affy
= a S. Byö–8S. yöa + yS. Sağ
which is formula 13.
71. ExAMPLEs.
Ex. 1. To express the relation between the sides of a spherical
triangle and the angles opposite to them.
Retaining the notation and figure of Ex. 2, Art. 29, we shall
have
WagWBy=y sin c. a sin a,
where y, aſ are unit vectors perpendicular respectively to the
planes OAB, OBC.
Therefore V. Wag VBy = sinc sin a. 3 sin B.
Also –8S. a6.) = 3 sinc sin b, (31. 1),
where 4 is the angle between 00 and the plane OAB.
Now these results are equal (formula 11), therefore
sin # = sin a sin B.
Similarly sin q = sin b sin A ;
therefore sin a sin B = sin b sin A,
Or sin a sin b :: sin A : sin B.
Ex. 2. To find the condition that the perpendiculars from the

angles of a tetrahedron on the opposite faces shall intersect one
another. -
Let 0A, OB, OC be the edges of the tetrahedron (Fig. of Art.

31), a, B, y the corresponding vectors.
Vector perpendiculars from A and B on the opposite faces are
V8), Vya respectively (22.8). If these perpendiculars intersect
in G, the three points A, B, G will be in one plane, whence
S. (8–2) V8y Vya = 0, (31. 2. Cor. 2),
i. e. S. (8— a) V. V8, Vya = 0.
Now V. V8, Vya = — yS. Bya (Formula 11),
therefore S. (8–a) V. VBy Vya = — (S3) — Say).S. Bya.
Hence S8) = Say.
Now BC*-- OA*=(y – B)+ a”
=a^+ 8°4. y”–2S3)
= a +3°4-y’–2Say
= (y-a)* +8°
= AO” + OB".
Consequently the condition that all three perpendiculars shall

meet in a point is that the sum of the squares of each pair of
opposite edges shall be the same.
CoR. Conversely, if the sum of the squares of each pair of
opposite edges is the same, the perpendiculars from the angles on
the opposite faces will meet in a point.
Ex. 3. If P be a point in the face ABC of a tetrahedron,
from which are drawn Pa, Pb, Pc, respectively parallel to OA,
OB, 00 to meet the opposite faces OBC, OCA, OAB in a, b, c,
then will
s Po, P5 Po
ai + of +2.3 = 1.
ART. 71.] FoRMULE AND THEIR APPLICATION. 161
Retaining the notation of the last examples, let OP=8,

Pa = — wa, Pb = — y!8, Pe = — zy; then
Oa = 8 – aca, Ob = 8 – y8, Oc = 3–2).
Now because P, A, B, C are in the same plane
S. (6- a)(a – 8) (8–7) = 0,
i. e. - S. 8 (ag + 8) + ya)=S. a6) ................ (1);
and because 0, a, B, C are in the same plane
S. (6-aca) 8) = 0,
i.e. a Sağy = S. 88)........................(2);
also because 0, A, b, C are in the same plane
S. (6-y6) ya = 0,
i. e. 4)S. Bya =S. 3)a,
or, by formula 3, 9.S. afty = S. 3)a........................ (3);
lastly, because 0, A, B, c are in the same plane
S. (8–2)) aft = 0,
i. e. 2S. ya? = S. 8aft,
Or 2.S. a6) = S. 8aſ?........................(4).
Adding (2), (3), and (4) there results
(2+y+2)S. affy = S. 88) + S. 3)a + S. 8ag
= S. affy, by (1),
therefore a + y + z= 1 :
h
ence
Pa. , Ph , Pe. = 1
OA " OB " OC T *
CoR. 1. If P be in the plane ABC produced below the plane

OBC, Pa as a vector will have the same sign as 04 has ; hence
in this case we shall have -
Pa Pb ** – 1
T OA " OB " OC
162 - QUATERNIONS. - [CH. Ix.
CoR. 2. If P be outside both the planes OBC, OCA ; we
shall have
Pa Pb Pc
-oA - on too - 1.
Ex. 4. Any point Q is joined to the angular points A, B, C, 0
of a tetrahedron, and the joining lines, produced if necessary,
meet the opposite faces in a, b, c, o, to prove that . .
Qa , Qb Qc Qo
Aa " £5” &c." Öo
regard being had to the signs of Aa, Bb, &c., as in the last example.
Let QA = a, QB = {3, QC = y, Q0 = 8; Qa = aa, Qb =b9, Qc = cy,
Qo = d8 : then since a, b, c, o are points in the planes BCO, ACO,
ABO, ABC, we have, as in the last example,
a.S. a (3y + yò + 88) = S. Byö,
&c. &c.
i.e. aS. (affy + ayā + ab}) – S. Gyö = 0 ............ (1),

bS. (8ay + 8,64 Böa) – S. ay8 = 0 ............(2),
cS. (yag + y& + y^a) — S. aftö = 0 ............ (3),
dS. (8ag +88) +8)a) – S. affy = 0 ............ (4).
Now, if we write
S. afty = a, S. ay3 = y, S. a68 = 2, S. Byö = w;
and apply the formulae 3 and 4, we get
aac + ay + az – w = 0,
– ba: — y – be + bu = 0,
ca: + cy + 2 — cu = 0,
– a – dy— dz + du = 0,
which give a – 1 QC + d_ w = 0,
d– 1
cº, b
a Ty+ Hue O,
ART. 71.] FORMULE AND THEIR APPLICATION, 163
:*iv-, *, *-*.
and, therefore, #Tº sº, at = 0,
i. e. ++++,+,+,+,+,-,
or 9° 1%.
Aa Bb
, 9°
CC
4.99
Oo
— 1.
Ex. 5. If two tetrahedra ABCD, A'B'C'D' are so situated tha;
the straight lines AA’, BB, CC, DD’ all meet in a point, the lines
of intersection of the planes of corresponding faces shall all lie in
the same plane.
Let A'A, B/B, CC, D'D meet in 0.
OA = a, OB = 3, OC = y, OD=8,
OA' = ma, OB = n/3, OC" =py, OD = q8.
The equation of the plane ABC is (34.5)
Sp(Wag + Vºy | Vya)=S. a6),
and that of A'B'C' becomes, after dividing both sides by mnp,
1 1 -- 1
Sp (; Wagº; WBy 4. Pya)=S. affy.
The vector line of intersection of the two planes is (34.9)
V.(reg. "Byrºſ; rag: ré, tº ſº),

p 772, 70,
i.e. by formula (11), omitting the common factor S. a6),
(-; •+(-; 5 (;-)

:-)-(-) mT n)?"
From this expression the vectors of the intersections of the
other planes may at once be written down.
11–2
164 -
QUATERNIONS. [CH. IX.
That of ABD, A'B'D' is
(-)-(–)-(-)º
that of ACD, A'C'D' is
1
q q m. m p
and that of BCD, B'C'D'
(-)5-(-)-(–):
Now to prove that any three of these lines lie in the same
plane, all that is necessary is to prove (31. 2. Cor. 2) that the
scalar of the product of their vectors equals 0.
If we take the vectors of the first three, we may write them
under the form
aa +b/3+ cy, a'a + b B+ cé, a'a + bºy – bø,

respectively; so that the scalar of their product is
S. (aa + b3+ cy)(a'a + b B+ ca) (a"a + bºy—b%).
Now the coefficient of every different scalar in this product is
separately equal to 0. That of S. affy for instance is, omitting
the common factor b%
(-)
:-)(-)
(-)-(–
-(–)(-
)(-)-(–)(-;
-),
in which every term vanishes.
That again of S. Byö is
—bcb’ + cöb,
which is 0; and so of the rest.
Hence the intersections, two and two, of the first three pairs
of planes lie in the same plane; and the same may be proved in
like manner of any other three: whence the truth of the pro
position
Ex. 6. CP, CD are conjugate semi-diameters of an ellipse,
ART. 71.] FORMULE AND THEIR APPLICATION, 165
as also CP, CD'; PP, DD’ are joined; to prove that the area of
the triangle PCP equals that of the triangle DCD".
Let a, 3, aſ, 8' be the vectors CP, CD, CP, CD'; k a unit
vector perpendicular to the plane of the ellipse.
Since
a = ||.T'ha = -(aiSila + bySja), &c., &c. (47. 5),

therefore Vaa' = W. (aiSila +bjSjya) (aiSiya' + bi Sja')
=abk (SipaSjúa' – Sjya Silpa')
= abkS. kV (laya"). (Formula 16.)
Similarly. W88 – abkS. kW (lºg).
Now ||a, lºg are unit vectors at right angles to one another;
as are also pa', pſ3'; therefore the angle between ſpa and la' is
the same as that between pſ3 and p3".
PIence S. kW (Jaya') = S. kV|(}{3/8),
and Vaa' = W88,
i.e. area of triangle PCP’ = that of triangle DCD".

Ex. 7. If a parallelepiped be constructed on the semi-con
jugate diameters of an ellipsoid, the sum of the squares of the areas
of the faces of the parallelepiped is equal to the sum of the squares
of the faces of the rectangular parallelepiped constructed on the
semi-axes.
By 63.9, a = -(aiSila + by Sjha + cKSkila)

B =–(aiSilºé +bjSj}{3+ckSky3);
therefore Wag-abk (Sipa Sjºg-SilºéSjya)
+ acj (Sila Sky3 – SiléSkiba)
+bci (Sjya Sky3–Sji/BSkya).
Now SiyaSj/9–SillºSjya = SVijV/3/a, Formula (16),
= — Skyy, (Art. 17);
therefore Waff=-(abkSkly + acjSjºy + beiSiſy),
Vya = -(abkSky3+ acjSj}} + beiSil/3),
V8) = -(abkSkila + acjSjpa + beiSiya).
If now we square and add these expressions, observing that
because ſpa, b}, by are unit vectors at right angles to one another,
(Siºu)" -- (Si!?)*4 (Siſy)*= 1,
we shall have
(Waff) + (Way)" + (V8)*=–{(ab)'4-(ac) + (bc)"),

which (21.4) is the proposition to be proved.
Ex. 8. To find the locus of the intersections of tangent planes
at the extremities of conjugate diameters of an ellipsoid.
Let T be the vector to the point of intersection of tangent
planes at the extremities of a, B, y : then
Sirºha = 1, (57),
gives Sir!"a =–1,
Ol' Sympa = -1,
Spril 8=–1,
Syrily=-1.
From these three equations we extricate ºr by means of for
mula (14), which gives
|TS/all/?ily = Wihail/3Syrily + WilbºySpiriya
+ Vºya Syril 8;
therefore WT = Wipailſ? + Wil/3/y + Vºyºla
> Wy + \a 4- ||3,
(ht)*=—(1 + 1 + 1)
=-3,
* , y' ... 2 – 1;
ãº º 35 ° 3. T
an ellipsoid similar to the given ellipsoid,
ART. 71.] ForMULE AND THEIR APPLICATION. 167
Ex. 9. If O, A, B, C, D, E are any six points in space, OX

any given direction, OA’, O.B', 00, OD', OE' the projections
of 0A, OB, OC, OD, OE on OX; BCDE, CDEA, DEAB, EABC,
ABCD the volumes of the pyramids whose vertices are B, C, D, E, A,
with a positive or negative sign in accordance with the law given
in the note to 69. 5; then
OA'. BCDE + O.B'. CDEA + 00'. DEAB + O.D.'. EABC
+ O.E.". ABCD = 0.
Let OA, OB, OC, OD, OE be a, B, y, 8, e respectively.

Write for a S(y – 3)(6–8)(e–6) its value
a (S. yoe – S. Śeſ + S. effy – S. Byö),
and similar expressions for BS (a — y)(3–7)(e–y), &c., and there
will result, by addition,
aS(y – 8)(6–8)(e–B) + BS (a — y)(3–7)(e–y)
+ yS (a – 3) (8–6) (e–8)+88 (a — e) (8–e) (y—e)
+ eS (3– a) (y – a) (6- a) = 0,
i.e. retaining the notation adopted in the Note referred to,
OA. BCDE + O.B. CDEA + OC. DEAB + O.D. EABO
+ O.E. ABCD = 0.
Now let T be a vector along OX; then the operation by S. r

on the above expression gives the result required.
In some of the examples which follow, we will endeavour to
show how a problem should not, as well as how it should, be
attacked.
Ex. 10. Given any three planes, and the direction of the vector
perpendicular to a fourth, to find its length so that they may meet
&n one point.
Let Sap = a, S3p = b, Syp = c be the three, and let 8 be the
vector perpendicular to the new plane. Then, if its equation be
Söp = d,
we must find the value of d that these four equations may all be
satisfied by one value of p.
Formula (14) gives
pS. afty = Waff.Syp + WSySap + Vyasgp
= c Wag + a V8) + b Wya,
by the equations of the first three. Operate by S.8, and use the
fourth equation, and we have the required value
dS. afty = a S.By3+b.S. ya3+ c.S. agö.
Ex. 11. The sum of the (vector) areas of the faces of any
tetrahedron, and therefore of any polyhedron, is zero.
Take one corner as origin, and let a, 3, 'y be the vectors of
the other three. Then the vector areas of the three faces meeting
in the origin are
1 1 I
2 Waff, 2 V8), 2 Wya, respectively.
That of the fourth may be expressed in any of the forms

1 1 1
3 W(y-o)(3-2), ; W (2-6) ()-8), V(8–3)(a-3).
But all of these have the common value
; FG%-6, -º),
which is obviously the sum of the three other vector-areas taken
negatively. Hence the proposition, which is an elementary one in
Hydrostatics.
Now any polyhedron may be cut up by planes into tetrahedra,
and the faces exposed by such treatment have vector-areas equal
and opposite in sign. Hence the extension.
Ex. 12. If the pressure be uniform throughout a fluid mass,
an immersed tetrahedron (and therefore any polyhedron) experiences
no couple tending to make it rotate.
This is supplementary to the last example. The pressures on
the faces are fully expressed by the vector areas above given, and
their points of application are the centres of inertia of the areas

of the faces. The coordinates of these points are
1 1 1 1
à (a+8), ; (8+7), ... (y: a) à (a +3+3),
and the sum of the couples is
I
6 V.{Wag. (a+8)+ V8y.(8+ y)+Vya. (y-- a)
+ V (YB+8a + ay). (a + 8 + y)}
-- "(refly rºyal Pºp)=0.

by applying formula (9).
Ex. 13. What are the conditions that the three planes
Sap = a, S3p = b, Syp = c,
shall intersect in a straight line 2
There are many ways of attacking such a question, so we will
give a few for practice. -
(a) pS. affy = Waff.Syp + VSySap + Vyasſºp

= c Waft + a V8) + b Wya
by the given equations. But this gives a single definite value
of p unless both sides vanish, so that the conditions are
S. affy =0,
and e Vag + a V8y + b Wya = 0,
which includes the preceding.
(b) S(la— m/3) p = al—bm
is the equation of any plane passing through the intersection of
the first two given planes. Hence, if the three intersect in a
straight line there must be values of l, m such that
la — m/3 = y,
la – mb = c.
The first of these gives, as before,

S. a6.) = 0,
170 QUATERNIONS. [CH. IX,
and it also gives
Vya = m Vag, V8) = -l Wag,
so that if we multiply the second by Waff,
la Vag – mb Wag – c Waff
becomes – a V8) – b Wya = c Waff;
the second condition of (a).
(c) Again, suppose p to be given by the first two in the form
p = pa + q8 + æ Vaſº,
we find a = pa” + q Saft, because Sa Vag = 0,
b = p,Sag + q8°;
therefore
p a”, Sağ = a a, Sağ * a”, a +a: Waff,

Sağ, AE’ b, 3” Sağ, b
so that the third equation gives, operating by S.Y,
c a”, Sağ = Say a, Sağ + S3y a”, a + æS. a6).
Sağ, B* b, 3” Sağ, b
Now a determinate value of a would mean intersection in one
point only ; so, as before,
- S. affy = 0,
c(a^6*—S’aé) = a (8°Say–SağS8))—b (SağSay – a 'S3).
The latter may be written
S. a [c (ag”—BSağ)—a (yſ?”—BS3)) – b (a S8) — ySağ)] = 0.
Now S. a (ag” – 8Sağ) = Sa (8.8a–8S3a)
= S. a (8 V8a)
= — S. a (3 Vag) =– S (aſ Waff).
Similarly, S. a (Y9°–3S3)) = S(ag V8)),
and S. a (a Sgy—ySağ)=S. a. (V. B.Vya), (formula 8),
- =S(aſ Wya).
The equation now becomes
S. a6 (c Wag + a V8) + b Wya) = 0.
ART. 71.] FORMULE AND THEIR APPLICATION. 171
Now since S. afty = 0, a, B, y are vectors in the same plane;

therefore y may be written ma + ng,
and c Waft + a V8) + Vya
assumes the form e Waff, which, unless e = 0, gives
S(ag Vag) = 0,
or Wag is in the same plane with a, 8; but it is also perpendicular
to the plane, which is absurd; therefore e = 0, or
c Waft + a V8) + b Wya = 0;
thus the third and prolix method leads to the same conclusion as
the first.
Ex. 14. Find the surface traced out by a straight line which
remains always perpendicular to a given line while intersecting
each of two faced lines.
Let the equations of the fixed lines be
w = a + æg, ar, - a, + æ,8.
Then if p be the vector of the new line in any position
p = a + y (or, – ar)
=(1 —y) (a + æð) + y (a, + æ,6).
This is not, as yet, the equation required. For it involves
essentially three independent constants, a, a, y; and may there
fore in general be made to represent any point whatever of
infinite space. The reader may easily see this if he reflects that
two lines which are not parallel must appear, from every point of
space, to intersect one another. We have still to introduce the
condition that the new line is perpendicular to a fixed vector,
'y suppose, which gives
S.Y (ºr, – ar) = 0 = S.) [(a, - a) + æ,8, — aft].
This gives a, in terms of a, so that there are now but two
indeterminates in the equation for p, which therefore represents
a surface, which, it is not difficult to see, is one of the second
order.
Ex. 15. Find the condition that the equation
S. pºpp = 1
may represent a surface of revolution.
The expression ºp here stands for something more general than
that employed in Chap. VIII. above, in fact it may be written
$p = a Sap + 8S3, p + y Sylp,
where a, a, B, 8, y, y, are any six vectors whatever. This will
be more carefully examined in the next chapter.
If the surface be one of revolution then, since it is central
and of the second degree, it is obvious that any sphere whose
centre is at the origin will cut it in two equal circles in planes
perpendicular to the axis, and that these will be equidistant from
the origin. Hence, if r be the radius of one of these circles, e the
vector to its centre, p the vector to any point in its circumference,
it is evident that we have the following equation
Spºp — 1 – C (p’--r")=(Sep)”—e",
where 0 and e are constants. This, being an identity, gives
1 — e” + Crº- 0
- Spºp–Cp*= º º
The form of these equations shows that C is an absolute con

stant, while r and e are related to one another by the first; and
the second gives
$p = Cp + Sep.
This shows simply that S. epipp = 0,
i. e. e., p, and $p are coplanar, i. e. all the normals pass through a
given straight line ; or that the expression .
Wpºp,
whatever be p, expresses always a vector parallel to a particular
plane.
Ex. 16. If three mutually perpendicular vectors be drawn
from a point to a plane, the sum of the reciprocals of the squares
of their lengths is independent of their directions, -
ART. 71.] ForMULE AND THEIR APPLICATION. 173
Let Sep = 1
be the equation of the plane, and let a, B, y be any set of
mutually perpendicular unit-vectors. Then, if aca, yſ, zy be
points in the plane, we have
a:Sae = 1, ySBe = 1, zSye = 1,
whence – e = a&ae + 3S3s + ySye (63. 2)= . + ! Ž.
Taking the tensor, we have
1 + 1.
Te” =
. +
*" º'
Ex. 17. Find the equation of the straight line which meets,
at right angles, two given straight lines.
Let w = a + æð, w = a, + æ,81,
be the two lines; then the equation of the required line must be
of the form
w = a, + æ, V831,
and nothing is undetermined but a,.
Since the first and third equations denote lines having one
point in common, we have
S.B.VB8, (a – a,) = 0.
Similarly S./3, WSB, (a, -a,)=0.
Let a, = y/3+ y,8,
(it is obviously superfluous to add a term in W88), then
S. a6 V88, -y,T"W88,
S. a6, V88, - – y!"V88,
and, finally,
z-ſºº (escarás-ºs.ºrse)--.755,
Ex. 18. If Tp = Ta = T8 = 1, and S.a6p = 0, show that
s.vo-oº-º-º/º-sº
Interpret this theorem geometrically.
We have, from the given equations, the following, which are
equivalent to them, -
p” = a” = 8* = –1
º
Hence – a '-y' + 2a:ySaff=-1,
-
U (p —
- – 1) a + y&
__J(2–1)-2(xy-y)Sağ-y”
(*-1)***
(p-a)
wo-3--tºº-ºº
(p-A) Jay-2 (gy-2) Sag + (y-1)”
S. U (p – a) U (p – 6)
- —a (2–1)+[æy + (2–1) (y-1)]Sağ-y(y – 1) -
Ja’4-y’–22+1 –2(xy-y) Saff Vaº-y’-2y+1–2(xy-2)Sag

- * +y-(z+ y-1) Sağ-1
M2-2a. F29,Sağ V2–29 F 22 Saff
= (2 + y – 1) (1 – Sağ)
2 V(I-a-v) (I-Saë)+ay I – (Sap)";
_2 + y – 1 w/ 1 — Sab
- 2 1 – 2–y + æy (1 + Sağ)
-**{=} \ſ1-2-y-31(2xv+2+y'-1)
~ T2
— Sab-
a + y – 1 w/ 1 — Saff
- J2 1–2 (2 + y) + æ" + y^+2ay
--M. (1 — Sağ).
Of course there are far simpler solutions. Thus, for instance,
the given equations show that p, q, B are radii of some unit
circle. Hence the expression is the cosine of the supplement of
the angle between two chords of a circle drawn from the same
point in the circumference. This is obviously half the angle
ART. 71.] FoRMULE AND THEIR APPLICATION. 175
subtended at the centre by radii drawn to the other ends of the

chords. The cosine of this angle is
— Sap,
and therefore the cosine of its half is
w/: (1 – Sağ).
Ex. 19. Find the relative position, at any instant, of two
points, which are moving wniformly in straight lines.
If a', 3’ be their vector velocities, t the time elapsed since
their vectors were a, B, their relative vector is
p = a + ta' – 8–t|3'
= (a – 8)+t (a' – 8'),
so that relatively to one another the motion is rectilinear, and
the vector velocity is
a'—B'.
To find the time at which the mutual distance is least.
Here we may write
p = y + t3,
To" = — yº–2tSy8–t'8"
-º-y-r(.º).
As the last term is positive, this is least when it vanishes,
i.e. when
t =–S.)8".
This gives p = y–8Sy8T'
= y VöT'y,
the vector perpendicular drawn to the relative path; as is, of
course, self-evident.
Ex. 20. Find the locus of a given point in a line of given
length, when the eatremities of the line move in circles in one plane.
(Watt's Parallel Motion.)
176 QUATERNIONS. [CH. Ix.
Let or and r be the vectors of the ends of the line, drawn
from the centres a, B of the circles. Then if p be the vector of
the required point
p = (a+ or) (1 – e) + e (8+7),
subject to the conditions
{a + o- (8+1)} = -lº,
Sya = 0, Syr- 0,
or” - - a’, T” =- b”.
From these equations or and t must be eliminated. We leave

the work to the reader. There is obviously an equation of con
dition
S.) (8–a)=0.
Ex. 21. Classify the curves represented by an equation of
the form
pT
_ a + æſ; + æy
a H. bac H. ca.”
where a, B, y are given vectors, and a, b, c given scalars.

In the first place we remark that a* in the numerator merely
adds a constant vector to the value of p, unless c = 0.
Thus, if c do not vanish, the equation may be written with

a change of a and 8, and in general a change of origin,
a + æð
PT a L barcº
and this again, by change of 2 and of a and 8, as
a + æg
a + c2 .
It is obvious that this represents a plane curve,
Also - Sap T a”
S8p + zSağ
Sağ-28’’
ART. 71.] FoEMULAE AND THEIR APPLICATION. 177
Hence both numerator and denominator of a are of the first

degree in Sap, S3p; and therefore
- a” + acSag
Sap T a + cz”
gives an equation of the third degree in p by the elimination of a.

When we have Sağ = 0,
Sap = 0. :º >
Sºo-yº,
whence i.
QC = 2 -
and a (Sap) +c . (S3p)*= a Sap,

,
a conic section.
If c = 0, then with a change of a, a, 8, y, the equation may be

written
0.
P=a. + 3 + æy,
a hyperbola—so long at least as b does not also vanish.

If b and c both vanish, the equation is obviously that of a
parabola. -
If a and b both vanish, whilst c has a real value, we have

again a parabola.
If a vanish while b and c have real values, we have again
a hyperbola.
Ex. 22. Find the locus of a point at which a given finite
straight line subtends a given angle.
T. Q. - - - 12
178. QUATERNIONS. [CHAP. IX.
Take the middle point of the line as origin, and let + a be the
vectors of its ends. At p it subtends an angle whose cosine is
—SU (p – a) U (p + a).
This, equated to a constant, gives the locus required. We
may write the equation
a’—p’= cT' (p – a) T(p + a).
This is, obviously, a surface of the fourth order; a ring or
tore formed by the rotation of a circle about a chord. When
c = 0, i.e. when the angle is a right angle, the two sheets of this
surface close up into the sphere
p” a”.
-
A plane section (in the plane a, 8 (suppose) where T8 = Ta

and Sağ = 0) gives
p = 2a + y&
{a” (1–2")—y'aº)" – c’ {(x-1)*4-y’}{(a + 1) + y”; a”,
Or {1–(*+ y”)}* = c^{(a + y^+1)*–4a:"),
or, finally, 1 – (c 4-y’) = + 2cy
JTE.'
which, of course, denotes two equal circles intersecting at the
ends of the fixed line.
ADDITIONAL ExAMPLEs To CHAP. IX.
Prove that S. (a + 3)(3+y) (y-- a) = 2S. affy.

S. Wag V8 y Vya = – (Sağy)".
S. V(Vag V8) V(V8, Vya) V (Vya Vag)=– (S. a6).
i S(V8y Wya)=y"Sağ–S3ySya.
a'8')"—(Waffy)”—(Sağy)"
= a” (S8))”.4-6' (Sya)*4 y” (Sag)’ – (Sağy)"
–2SağSBySya.
7. S(y)". a6)) = y'Sag.

8. (agy)*= a 3°y” +2a3yS. affy.
9. S(Waffy WBya Vyag)=4SağSBySya.S. affy.
10. The expression -
Waff Vyš + WayV83 + Vaš WBy

denotes a vector. What vector
(Tait's Quaternions. Miscellaneous Ex. 1.)
11. SapS. Byö–S3p.S. ySa+ SypS.8ag–SöpS. affy = 0.
12. (ağy)* 24'6"y + a” (8) + 3*(ay)*+ y”(aft)*–4aySaff S8).
–
(Hamilton, Elements, p. 346.)

13. With the notation of the Note, Art. 69. 5, we shall
have
DABC = OABC – OBOD + OODA – ODAB.
14. When A, B, C, D are in the same plane,

a. BCD – 8. CDA +y. DAB –8. ABC = 0,
where BCD, &c. are the areas of the triangles.
15. 6.W. a6) + a V. Byö4-8.V. Yôa + y V. Sağ = 4S. a6 y8.
12–2
CHAPTER X.
VECTOR EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST DEGREE.
WITH the object of giving the student an idea of one of the

physical applications of Quaternions, we will treat the solution of
linear and vector equations from an elementary kinematical point
of view.
DEF. Homogeneous Strain is such that portions of a body,

originally equal, similar, and similarly placed, remain after the
strain equal, similar, and similarly placed. -
Thus straight lines remain straight lines, parallel lines remain

parallel, equal parallel lines remain equal, planes remain planes,
parallel planes remain parallel, and equal areas on parallel planes
remain equal. Also the volumes of all portions of the body are
increased or diminished in the same proportion, as is easily seen by
supposing the body originally divided into small equal cubes by
series of planes perpendicular to each other.
It is thus obvious that a homogeneous strain is entirely deter
mined if we know into what vectors three given (non-coplanar)
vectors are changed by it. Thus if a, 3, y become a', 6', y re
spectively, any other vector which may be expressed as
1
S. By" Byp +
p = +, −3- (a S. Byp + 8S. yap +
8S. yap yS. a
+ yS. agp)
is changed to
r I / f /
p -sºº's. Bergs, ºpºs. 25).

CHAP. x] vector EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST DEGREE, 181
No needful generality is lost, while much simplification is
gained, by taking a, B, y as unit vectors at right angles to one
another. We thus have
p = -(a Sap + 8'SBp +YSyp).

Comparing these expressions we see that Homogeneous Strain
alters a vector into a definite linear and vector function of its
original value.
In abbreviated notation, we may write (as in Art. 63, though
our symbol, as will soon be seen, is more general than that there
employed)
ºp=–(a Sap + 8'S3p + YSyp),
where 4, itself depends upon nine independent constants involved
in the three equations
ºba = a -
$8 = 8') . -
by = y'
For aſ, B', y may of course be expressed in terms of a, 8, y:
and, as they are quite independent of one another, the nine co
efficients in the following equations may have absolutely any
values whatever; -
‘ba = a' = Aa + c2 + bºy

$3= 8 = ca. 4 BB + ay}..................... (a).
$y = y' = ba + a'8+ Cy
In discussing the particular form of $ which occurs in the
treatment of central surfaces of the second order we found, Art. 44,
that it possessed the property
S. gºp = S. pºor .................. ......(b),
whatever vectors are represented by p and g. Remembering that
a, B, y form a rectangular unit system, we find from (a)
S. Bºba = – c \
S. apg=-c'ſ'
with other similar pairs; so that our new value of $ satisfies (b)
if, and only if, we have in (a)
a=a
b=b'? ............................... (c).
c=c
The physical meaning of this condition will be seen imme

diately.
But, although (b) is not generally true, we have
S. or bp =– (Sa'o Sap + S3'o S3p + Syo Syp)
=–S. p (aSa'a + 3S3'a + ySYo),
where the expression in brackets is a linear and vector function
of or, depending upon the same nine scalars as those in ºp; and
which we may therefore express by $', so that
$o = -(aSa'a' + 3S3'o +ySy'o)............... (d).
And with this we have obviously
S. oºp =S. pº'o ........................(e),
which is the general relation, of which (b) is a mere particular
CaSe.
By putting a, B, y in succession for or in (d) and referring to

(a) we have
$'a = Aa + c 3 + º
$8= ca 4 BB+ ay}..................... (f).
$'y = b a + aft + Cy
Comparing (f) with (a) we see that
‘bp = $p,
whatever be p, provided the conditions (c) be fulfilled. This agrees
with the result already obtained.
Either of the functions 4 and $', thus defined together, is
called the Conjugate of the other: and when they are equal (i.e.
when (c) is satisfied) q is called a Self-Conjugate function. As we ** ".
X.] VECTOR EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST DEGREE. 183
employed it in Chap. VI, § was self-conjugate; and, even had it

not been so, it was involved (as we shall presently see) in such a
manner that its non-conjugate part was necessarily absent.
We may now write, as before,
$p = -(a'Sap + 8'S3p + y Syp),
$p = -(aSa'p + 8S8'p + ySyp).
From these we have by subtraction,
($ – $') p = {p-ºp = a Sap – a'Sap + 8S3p–8'S3p + ySyp—y'Syp
= V. Vaa' p + V. V88' p + W. Wyy'p -
=2W. ºp ...................................... • e - - - -- - - - -- - (g);

if we agree to write -
2e = Y(aa' + 83' + yy)..................... (h).

We may now express that q is self-conjugate by writing
e = 0,
the physical interpretation of which equation is of the highest
importance, as will soon appear.
If we form by means of (a) the value of eas in (h) we get
2e = (cy-b'8) + (aa-cy)+(b|3—a'a)
=(a-a') a + (5–b)(3+(c-c)),
which obviously cannot vanish unless (as before) the three con
ditions (c) are satisfied.
By adding the values of bp and $p above we obtain
($ + $)p=#p + $p =–(aSa'p+ a'Sap + 8S8'p+8’SBp-ySYp+YSyp)
= — V (apa' + Bpſ?' + ypy) —p (Saa’ + SB3' + Syy).
As we have (by 69. 6) -
V. apa' = W. a'pa, &c.

this new function of p is self-conjugate; as will easily be seen by
putting it for $ in (b) and remembering that (by 69. 17) we have
sº S. orapa' = S. pa'aa = S. paga', &c., &c.
w
Hence we may write
(#4 #) p = 2*p ........................(i),
where the bar over ºf signifies that it is self-conjugate, and the
factor 2 is introduced for convenience.
From (g) and (i) we have
$p = ~p + Yip) ...................... ..(j).
$p = ~p – Vep
If instead of bp in any of the above investigations we write
(# 4 g) p, it is obvious that $p becomes (6'4 g) p : and the only
change in the coefficients in (a) and (f) is the addition of g to
each of the main series A, B, C. - -
We now come to Hamilton's grand proposition with regard to

linear and vector functions. If q be such that, in general, the
vectors • .
p, $p, $ºp
(where $ºp is an abbreviation for q (bp) are not in one plane, then
any fourth vector such as ºp (a contraction for 4 ($ (pp))) can be
expressed in terms of them as in 31. 5.
Thus $ºp = m, hºp – m, hp 4 mp ..................(%),
where m, m, m, are scalars whose values will be found immedi
ately. That they are independent of p is obvious, for we may put
a, B, y in succession for p and thus obtain three equations of the
form
$"a = m, bºa — m, ſha + 'ma........ - - - -- - - - - - - (),
from which their values can be found. Conversely, if quantities
m, m, m, can be found which satisfy (l), we may reproduce (k) by
putting -
p = 2a+ y3+ 2y
and adding together the three expressions () multiplied by ar, y, z
respectively. For it is obvious from the expression for q that -
w$p = 4 (ap), 24'p = 4" (cp), &c.,

whatever scalar be represented by 2.
X.] VECTOR EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST DEGREE. i85
If p, qp, and pºp are in the same plane, then applying the
strain q again we find ºpp, qºp, q}"p in one plane; and thus equa
tion (k) holds for this case also. And it of course holds if bp is
parallel to p, for then pºp and pºp are also parallel to p.
We will prove that scalars can be found which satisfy the
three equations () (equivalent to nine scalar equations, of which,
however, six depend upon the other three) by actually determining
their values.
The volume of the parallelepiped whose three conterminous

edges are A, p, v is (31. 1)
- S. Apºv.
After the strain its volume is
S. Abºv,
so that the ratio sº dp ºv
- S. Apºv
is the same whatever vectors A, p, v may be; and depends there
fore on the constants of 4 alone. We may therefore assume
and by inspection of (k) we find - --
2 3
S. bNºbu by S. *pººp-, ...
- -
• * * * -- - - - (m),
S. Nºw T. S. pºpºp -
which gives the physical meaning of this constant in (%). As we

may put if we please -
X = a,
we see by (a) that

º
w = y,
n = S.
—u—badó (by = A, c, b’ y
S. opy
- - c', B, Q,
- - - - - - b, aſ, C
- *
186 QUATERNIONS. - [CHAP.
which is the expression for the ratio in which the volume of each
portion has been increased. This is unchanged by putting $' for
ºb, for it becomes, by (f),
m = | A, c', b
c, B, aſ
b', a, C
Recurring to (m) we may write it by (e) as
S. A$"Wippºv = mS. AVuv,
from which, as A is absolutely any vector, we have
Or
$’Wºpºv = ...}
$ Vºſpºv = m Wuyſ “”
(n)
º
In passing we may notice that (n) gives us the complete solution

of a linear and vector equation such as
$o = 8,
where 8 and q are given and o is to be found. We have in fact
only to take any two vectors u and v which are perpendicular to
8, and such that
Vuv = 8,
and we have for the unknown vector
1 ºr , ,
- * = n Wh'uq'v,
which can be calculated, as % is given.
If in (n) we put $ 4-g for $ we must do so for the value of m
in (m). Calling the latter M, we have
M. S. (b+9)^(8*g), (34 g)"
g- y
S. Apºv
= 770 +
S. Aquqv + S. pubv$X + S. v.p.Adu.
9 S. Apºv
+ , S. Apºv + S. v\pp + S. pºvdA
9 S. Apºv
+g".............................................. (o),
and by (n) (4 +g) V ($' + g) p. ($' +g) v = M, . Wuv .........(p),
Or M, = m + p.g. + p.g"+g”
wº-ºº-ºº-yº”
From the latter of these equations it is obvious that
Wº'u v + Wuq'v
must be a linear and vector function of Wuy, since all the other
terms of the equation are such functions.
As practice in the use of these functions we will solve a
problem of a little greater generality. The vectors
Wuw, Vºu v, and Wuq'v
are not generally coplanar. In terms of these (31. 5), let us
express ºf Vuv.
Let $ Vuv = a-Wuv + y Vip'uv + 2 Vuq'v.
Operate by S.A, S.p., S. v successively, then
S. pºvº'A = a-S. Apºv 4 yS. vX$p + zS. Apºv,
S. pºvº'u = yS. vuò'u,
S. pivºv = zS. vuq'v.
The two last equations give (by 69.4)
Sy––1, z=-1,
and therefore the first gives
ac = S. pºv$'A + S. v\ºu + S. Apºv
S. Muv
= p, by (q).
Hence, finally,
$Wuv = p, Wuv – Wºu v — Wuſh'v............... (r).
Substituting this in (q), and putting or for Wuv, which is any
vector whatever, we have
($ 4-g)[mºb" +g (p,-4) + g’] g = (m+kg+p,g"+g") or,
or, multiplying out,
(m-gº" + p.g4–g'$ +gmº"+g'$ +g'u, +g") or
= (m+ pig + p.g"+g") or ;
188 - QUATERNIONS. - [CHAP.
that is (-$4 p.44 mº') g = p,q,
Or ($” pºp" + pº
- - m) or = 0.
Comparing this with (k) we see that
792 - S. Apºv + S. vXdu + S. pºvdA
a = Pºs = S. Apºv
• - - - - ....(s),
S. Aquidv + S. pºvěx + S. v$\bp.
l m, = p, -
- S. Apºv
and thus the determination is complete.
We may write (k), if we please, in the form
m$"p=m\p-m,ºp 4 $'p, ............... (k’),
which gives another, and more direct, solution of the equation
(above mentioned)
ºpo = 8.
Physically, the result we have arrived at is the solution of
the problem, “By adding together scalar multiples of any vector
of a body, of the corresponding vector of the same strained homo
geneously, and of that of the same twice over strained, to repre
sent the state of the body which would be produced by supposing
the strain to be reversed' or inverted.”
These properties of the function ºf are sufficient for many
applications, and we proceed to give a few. . .

I. Homogeneous strain converts an originally spherical por
tion of a body into an ellipsoid. . .. . ..
For if p be a radius of the sphere, a the vector into which

it is changed by the strain, we have -
or = hp,
and Tp = C,
from which we obtain -
T$-'or = C,
Or S. $"ord'or = — C*,
or, finally, S. orq-ºo: = — C*.
X.] vector EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST DEGREE. 180
This is the equation of a central surface of the second degree;
and, therefore, of course, from the nature of the problem, an
ellipsoid. -
II. To find the vectors whose direction is unchanged by the

strain.
Here ºp must be parallel to p or

ºp=gp.
This gives $ºp = g’p, &c.,
so that by (k) we have
- g’– m,0°,+ m, g – m = 0.
This must have one real root, and may have three. Suppose g, to
be a root, then
$p – gift = 0,
and therefore, whatever be \, .
SAbp –g,SAp=0,
Or S. p (‘b’A – g, \) = 0.
Thus it appears that the operator $'-g, cuts off from any vector
A the part which is parallel to the required value of p, and there
fore that we have
p|MV. ($' –g,) A (#'-g) p.

|{m\}'-g' (m, - $)+g,”) {, }
where & is absolutely any vector whatever. This may be written as
p1;-(n-p) tº
| $*-m,5°4 mid-m -
% - 9,
The same result may more easily be obtained thus.
The expression -
($"—m,5° 4 m.p. – m) p = 0,
being true for all vectors whatever, may be written j
($-g) ($-9) ($-9) p = 0,

and it is obvious that each of these factors deprives p of the por
tion corresponding to it: i.e. $–g, applied to p cuts off the part
parallel to the root of
($-9.) or =0, &c., &c.
so that the operator ($-g,) ($ –g,) when applied to a vector
leaves only that part of it which is parallel to or where
($-g) or = 0.
III. Thus it appears that there is always one vector, and
that there may be three vectors, whose direction is unchanged by
the strain. When there are three they are perpendicular to each
other, if the strain be pure.
For, in this case, the roots of
M, - 0
are real. Let them be such that
($-gi) p. = 0
($ –g.) p, =0 ,
($-g,)p, =0
then - 9,9,Spºp, = Shpºp,
= Spºp,
(because, by hypothesis, the strain is pure)
=9, Spip,
for $p, =9,p, and $ºp, -g,'p.'
Hence, except in the particular case of
91 = 92,
we must have
Spip, =0,
whence the proposition.
When g, and g, are equal, p, and p, are each perpendicular
to ps, but any vector in their plane satisfies
$o – go = 0.
When all three roots are equal, every vector satisfies

$or—gio = 0.
IV. Thus we see that when the strain is unaccompanied by
rotation the three values of g are real. But we must take care to
notice that the converse does not hold. If they be real and differ
ent, there are three vectors at right angles to one another which
are the only lines in the body whose directions remain unchanged.
When two are equal, every vector parallel to a given plane, and
all vectors perpendicular to it, are unchanged in direction. When
all three are equal no vector has its direction changed.
V. There is, however, a peculiarity to be noticed, which dis
tinguishes physical strain from the results of our mathematical
analysis. When one or more of the values of g has a negative
sign, we cannot interpret physically the result without introducing
the idea of a rotation through two right angles. For we cannot
conceive a pure strain which shall, as it were, pull the parts of an
originally spherical portion of the body through the centre of the
sphere, and so form an ellipsoid by turning a part of the body out
side in.
VI. This will appear more clearly if we take the case of a

rigid body, for here we must have, whatever vectors be repre
sented by p and or, -
Tºp = To }
()
Spg=S. $ppoſ “V”
i.e. the lengths of vectors, and their inclinations to one another,
are unaltered. In this case, therefore, the strain can be nothing
but a rotation. It is easy to see that the second of these equa
tions includes the first ; so that if, for variety, we take $ as
represented in equations (a), and write
p = 2a + y& + 2y,
a = {a + m3+ £y,
we have, for all values of the six scalars ac, y, z, º, m, , the follow
ing identity:
192 - QUATERNIONS. - [CHAP.
— (a): + ym + zé) = S. (ca' + y& + 2y) (Ša' + 78 + £y)
= a acé + Bºyn + y”z.
+(ºn 4 ye)Sa'gi (984&n)S3%+(−84 wº).Sya'.
This necessitates
- o”=6”-y”=–1
Sa'8'=SS'y Sya’ – - o! - - - - - - '• • * * * * * * * * * * (u), -
i.e. the vectors a', 6', Y form, like a, 8, y, a rectangular unit

system. And it is evident that any and every such system satis
fies the given conditions.
VII. It may be interesting to form, for this particular case,
the equation giving the values of g. We have
if S. (b+9)a(b+g)8(b+9)Y
g T ºy
S. affy
_S. (a' +ga)(3'4 g6)(Y+gy)
S. affy
= 1 –gS (aft'y'-a'8y + a'8%)
—g’S (affy'-- aft'y + a'8y) + g”.
Recollecting that a, B, y; a!, B, Y are systems of rectangular
unit vectors, we find that this may be written
M, - 1-(g +9°) S(aa’-88-yy) +g"
=(g + 1)|g°–g {1 + S (aa' + 33' + yy)} + 1].
Hence the roots of -
M, = 0
are in this case; first and always,
91 = - 1,
which refers to the axis about which the rotation takes place:
secondly, the roots of . *
g” – g {1 + S(aa' + 83' + yy)} + 1 = 0. 4
Now the roots of this equation are imaginary so long as the

coefficient of the first power of g lies between the limits + 2.
| Also the values of the several quantities Saa', S88, Syy can
never exceed the limits + 1. When the system a, B, y coincides
X.] VECTOR EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST DEGREE, 193
with aſ, B', 'y', the value of each of the scalars is – 1, and the
coefficient of the first power of g is + 2. When two of them are
equal to +1 and the third to — 1 we have the coefficient of the first
power of g = – 2. These are the only two cases in which the
three values of g are all real. -
In the first, all three values of g are equal to — 1, i. e.

$p = p
for all values of p, and there is no rotation whatever. In the
second case there is a rotation through two right angles about
the axis of the – 1 value of g.
VIII. It is an exceedingly remarkable fact that, however a

body may be homogeneously strained, there is always at least one
vector whose direction remains unchanged. The proof is simply
based on the fact that the strain-function depends on a cubic equa
tion (with real coefficients) which must have at least one real root.
IX. As an illustration of what precedes (though one which
must be approached cautiously), suppose a body to be strained so
that three vectors, a”, 8", y' (not coplanar, and not necessarily
at right angles to one another), preserve their parallelism, be
coming ea", e.8", ey". Then we have
ºpp.S a"8"y" ea"S. B"y"p + e,8"S. y"a"p + ey"S. a"3"p.
e –
By the formulae (m, s) we have

S. ba"q3"q, f
7m, = S(a"q6"dy" +§§ +y"&a"38") e,éa 4- e.e. + ele,
a_S("B"&Y' 48"Yº-Yo"#8")
2 S a"8"y" e
e, + e, + es;
so that we have by (k)

($ — e.) (q – e.) (q – e.) p = 0.
Though the values of g are here all real, we must not rashly
adopt the conclusions of (Iv.), for we must remember that a”, 8", Y'
do not, like a, B, y, necessarily form a rectangular system.
T. Q. 13
In this case we have
$pS. a” 8"Y" = e, V8”y"Sa"p + e,Vy"a"S3"p +e, Va"8"Sy"p.

So that, by (h),
2e = W. (e,g." V8'‘Y” + e,8"Vy"a" + ey" Va'3")
(e, -e, a"Sg"y" + e, -e, g” y'a" + e, -e, y"Sa'8").
-
This vanishes, or the strain is pure, if either

1. a"8" Sg"y" Sy"a" 0,
- F - -
i.e. if a”, 8", y' are rectangular, in which case e, , e, e, may have
any values; or
2. e. = e, = e, in which case
q'pS a"8"y" 6, {V8"y"Sa"p + Vy"o"SS"p + Va"8"Sy"p}
e :
= epS. a."8"y" by (69. 14),

so that
f
$p = €ip = {p
for every vector: a general uniform dilatation unaccompanied by
change of direction.
-
/
3. e, = e, and a ' and 3" both perpendicular to y'.
From what precedes it is evident that for the complete study
of a strain we must endeavour to distinguish in each case between
the pure strain and the merely rotational part. If a strain be
capable of being decomposed into 1st a pure strain, 2nd a rotation,
it is obvious that the vectors which in the altered state of the
body become the axes of the strain-ellipsoid (1) must have been
originally at right angles to one another.
The equation of the strain-ellipsoid is
Sp$ºp = — cº,
and in this it is obvious that $" is self-conjugate, or at least is to
be treated as such: for a non-conjugate term in prºp would be (g)
of the form Wep,
and would therefore not appear in the equation.
Hence, as in Chap. VI, pºp is the normal to the ellipsoid at p,
X.] VECTOR EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST DEGREE, 195
the bar above being used to shew that the non-conjugate term has
been omitted.
Now (k') m$" = m, -m.4 + $",

whence
- mº"- (m-m; 4 40-m,4 b,

Or
m***=(m,”— mm)-(m,m, -m) q + m,5°.

Now, by (j)
$p = p + Vep,
$'p =(5+ W.) (ºp + Vip)
=ºp + V. cºp + $Vep 4: V. Vep,
whence ºp=ºp + W. e Vep,
and therefore finally
mºp =(mº-mm)p-(m,m,-m)ºp-mºb,
=(m,”—mm,)p-(m,m,-m) pp.4-mi (ºp + W. e.Vep),
which must be = m^hp, -
if p is an axis of the strain-ellipsoid.

We have to shew that, if p, and p, are two of the three vectors
which satisfy this equation, we have not only
Spip, - 0,
but also .. S. #'pºp'p,-0.
By the help of the expressions above this is easily effected.
But the result is much more easily obtained as an immediate con
sequence of a somewhat different mode of treating the question,
one which we will now give:–
If q be any quaternion, the operator q ( ) q" turns the vector,
quaternion, or body operated on round an acis perpendicular to the
plane of q and through an angle equal to double that of q.
The proof of this extremely important proposition is very
simple; but we refer the reader to Hamilton's Lectures, § 282,

13–2
Elements, $179 (1), or Tait, § 353. It is obvious that the tensor
of q may be taken to be unity, i.e. q may be considered as a
mere versor, because the value of its tensor does not affect that of
the operator.
A very simple but important example of this proposition is
given by supposing q and r to be both vectors, a and 8 let us say.
Then
affa'
is the result of turning 8 conically through 2 right angles about
a, i.e. if a be the normal to a reflecting surface and 8 the incident
ray, - aga' is the reflected ray.
Now let the strain # be effected by (1) a pure strain a (self.
conjugate of course) followed by the rotation q ( ) q-". We have,
for all values of p, -
bp=q (ºp) q"...........................(v).

whence $p = a (q'pg).
We may of course put, as in Chap. VI,
aſp = eaSap+e,8S3p +e,ySyp,
where a, 8, y form a rectangular system. Hence
$p =eqaq"Sap +e,484 S8p + e.gyq"Syp.
Here the axes are parallel to
qaq’, q8q.", gyg",
and we have
S. gag"q84"–S. gagg"—Sag–0, &c.

So far the matter is nearly self-evident, but we now come to
the important question of the separation of the pure strain from
the rotation. By the formulae above we see that
$ºp==Tºpa
= aſq-" (qāpg") q
= ~ *p,
so that we have in symbols, for the determination of aſ, the
equation
$º-a".
To solve this equation we employ expressions like (%). $4.

being a known function, let us call it o, and form its equation as
o°– m,0°,+ m,0-m = 0.
Also suppose that the corresponding equation in aſ is
a" – gº + gas – g = 0,
where g, g, g, are unknown scalars. By the help of the given
relation ar" = 0,
we may modify this last equation as follows:

aſo –g,0+gº – g = 0,
whence ºf = 9 * g.o.
2
91 + 0
i.e. 3 is given definitely in terms of the known function o, as

soon as the quantities g are found. But our given equation
zy” = 0
may now be written
g+ º)
— j = 0,
91 + (o
Or w”—(g,”— 2g) o'+(g,”–2gg.) 0–g’=0.
As this is an equation between 0 and constants it must be
equivalent to that already given : so that, comparing coefficients,
we have
9.. - 29, = m,
g” - 299, = m, ,
9 =m;
from which, by elimination of g and g, we have

**)
g,” Tº ) = m. -- 2a.
2 Vm 2 91
The solution of the problem is therefore reduced to that of this
biquadratic equation; for, when g, is found, g, is given linearly
in terms of it.
It is to be observed that in the operations above we have not

been particular as to the arrangement of factors. This is due to
the fact that any functions of the same operator are commutative
in their application.
Iſaving thus found the pure part of the strain we have at once
the rotation, for (v) gives
‘pay"p = qpq ',
or, as it may more expressively be written,
q, -
Jº = q ( ) q".
If instead of (v) we write

$p = 0 (rpr'')...........................(v),
we assume that the rotation takes place first, and is succeeded by
the pure strain. This form gives
$p = r" (op)r,
and $$p = ~p,
whence o is found as above. And then (v.) gives
º'+ = r( ) r".
Thus, to recapitulate, a strain q is equivalent to the pure
strain Jºº, followed by the rotational strain ºw or to the
.. 1 -
rotational strain Jº $ followed by the pure strain Vipºp'.
This leads us, as an example, to find the condition that a given

strain is rotational only, i. e. that a quaternion q can be found
such that
q = q ( ) q".
Here we have $' = QT' ( ) q,
Or $'- $7' ...............................(w).
But nº'-mi-mºh-ºh",
Or mºb' = m, -m, p + q", }
whose conjugate is mq = m, -myºp' - p”,
and the elimination of $' between these two equations gives
1. 6.
m*-m-ºn-mº). (m-mº).
0 = | (mºm, -mm, m, + m,”) = | (mºm, -mm, m, + m,”)
—(m”—mm,” + 2m, m,) { —(m”— mm, 4-2m, m, -m) #
—(mm, -2m, - m,”) ºp” +(2m, + m,”—mm, -m) @”
–2m,º —m,?"
+ $”
by using the expression for $* from the cubic in $.
Now this last expression can be nothing else than the cubic
in q itself, else q, would have two different sets of constants in the
form (k), which is absurd, as these constants, from the mode in
which they are determined, can have but single values. Thus we
have, by comparing coefficients,
m,” = 2m, + m,”— mm, -m.
- *—
mºm, = m”— mm, 4-2m,m,
– on*
mm, = m^m, -mm, m, + m,
2 -
2
*}
The first gives
- ºn 1 = ?????2,
by the help of which the second and third each become

m”— m = 0.
The value
m=0
is to be rejected, as otherwise we should have been working with

non-existent terms, and m as the ratio of the volumes of two tetra
hedra is positive, so that finally
m = 1,
771 = 77b2,
and the cubic for a rotational strain is, therefore,
$”— m,º 4 m, b – l =0,
or (q – 1){}^+ (1 – m) b + 1} = 0,
where m, is left undetermined.
By comparison with the result of (VII.) we see that in the
notation there employed
m, = — S(aa' + 83' + yy). -
The student will perhaps here require to be reminded that

in the section just referred to we employed the positive sign in
operators such as q +g. In the one case the coefficients in the
cubic are all positive, in the other they are alternately posi
tive and negative. The example we have given is a particularly
valuable one, as it gives a glimpse of the extent to which the
separation of symbols can be safely carried in dealing with these
questions.
DEF. A simple shear is a homogeneous strain in which all
planes parallel to a fixed plane are displaced in the same direction
parallel to that plane, and therefore through spaces proportional
to their distances from that plane.
Let a be normal to the plane, B the direction of displacement,
the former being considered as an unit-vector, and the tensor of
the latter being the displacement of points at unit distance from
the plane.
We obviously have, by the definition,
Sağ–0.
Now if p be the vector of any point, drawn from an origin in
the fixed plane, the distance of the point from the plane is
– Sap.
Hence, if o be the vector of the point after the shear,
o = bp = p-ſ}Sap.
This gives
$'p = p – aSBp,
which may be written as
= p – T8. aS. Uſ?p,
so that the conjugate of a simple shear is another simple shear
equal to the former. But the direction of displacement in each
shear is perpendicular to the unaltered planes in the other.
The equation for q is easily found (by calculating m, m1, m,

from (m, s)) to be
- $”–34°4-34 – 1 = 0.
Putting $% = }, we easily find (with b = T8)
!”—(3+ b”) /*4 (3 + bº) || –1 = 0.
Solving by the process lately described, we find
*— - 2
(-;-) = 3+b^+ 2g.

If b = 2, this gives g = 1, and the farther equation
g” +g,” – 13g, — 21 = 0,
of which g. = – 3 is a root, so that
g,” – 29,-7 = 0,
and g, - 1 + 2 J2.
We leave to the student the selection (by trial) of the proper
root, and the formation of the complete expressions for the pure
and rotational parts of the strain in this simple and yet very
interesting case.
As a simple example of the case in which two of the roots of
the cubic are unreal, take the vector function when the strain is
equivalent to a rotation 6 about the unit vector a ; the others of
the rectangular system being 8, y.
Here we have, obviously,
‘ha = a,
$8=8 cos 0+ y sin 6,
$y = y cos 0–8 sin 6,
whence at once
– $p = a Sap+(8 cos 0+ y sin 6) S3p +(y cos 0–8 sin 6) Syp

=(1-cos 6) aSap—p cos 6 - Wap sin 6. -
Forming the quantities m, m, m, as usual, we have

$”— (1 + 2 cos 0) {^+ (1 + 2 cos 6) 4- 1 = 0,
or (q – 1) ($*–2 cos 0% + 1) = 0, .
or ($-1) (p-cos 0–V-1 sin 6) ($-cos 0+./-T sin 6)=0.
Now
—(? – 1) p = (1 – cos 0) (aSap + p)—sin 6 Wap,

-($-cos 0–J-1 sin 6) p =(1-cos () asap + sin 6 (p J-T-Vap),
-($-cos 0+./-l sin 6) p =(1-cos 6) aSap—sin 6 (p J-1 + Vap).
To detect the components which are destroyed by each of these
factors separately, we have, by (II.), for (4,-1), the vector
($*–2 cos 0% + 1) p = -2a Sap (1 – cos ?);
so that (q – 1) a = 0,
which is, of course, true. Again
($–1)($-cos 0–V-Tsin 6) p =-sin 9(1-e-ºvº)(V-1 a + 1) Wap,
which we leave to the student to verify. The imaginary directions
which correspond to the unreal roots are thus, in this case, parallel
to the Bivectors
(a + V- 1) Wap.
Here, however, we reach notions which, though by no means
difficult, cannot well be called elementary.
A very curious case, whose special interest however is rather
mathematical than physical, is presented by the assumptions
a' = 3 + y,
B = y + a,
'y' = a + 8,
for then ºp=(8+y) Sap + (y-a) S3p + (a + 3) Syp
= (a+ 8 +7) S (a + 8+y) p – (aSap + 8SBp 4 ySyp)
= 38 Söp +p,
~
where 8 is a known unit vector. This function is obviously self.
conjugate. Its cubic is
$”— 3% + 2 = 0 = (# – 1)" (# + 2),
which might easily have been seen from the facts that
1st, $8 = -28,
2nd, ſha = a, if Saô = 0.
The case is but slightly altered when the signs of a, B, Y are
changed. Then
ºpp = – 38,88p–p,
and the cubic is
$”— 3%–2 = (p + 1)*($–2)=0.
These are mere particular cases of extension parallel to the single
axis 8. The general expression for such extension is obviously
$p = p – eSSöp,
and we have for its cubic
(q – 1)*{q –(1 +e)} = 0.
We will conclude our treatment of strains by solving the
following problem: Find the conditions which must be satisfied by
a simple shear which is capable of reducing a given strain to a pure
strain.
Let }, be the given strain, and let the shear be, as above,
p = 1 + B.S. a,
then the resultant strain is
pq = q + 8S. aq,
= p + £3S. #'a.
Taking the conjugate and subtracting, we must have
0 = };} – }''/= } – }' + 8S. #'a — $'aS. B
= 2.W. e – V. Vºſa B,
so that the requisite conditions are contained in the sole equation
2e = Wip'a 3.
This gives (1) S. Be = 0,
(2) Sq'ae = 0 = Sade.
But (3) Sag-0 (by the conditions of a shea),
so that aca = W. Bºbe.
Again, (4) 2é*= S. #'a Be = S. aq. (3e)
2ace”- S. Bºbe * (8é) = — m/8"e",
Or —ma = 2 W. 67'de.
Hence we may assume any vector perpendicular to e for 8, and
a is immediately determined.
When two of the roots of the cubic in q are imaginary let us
suppose the three roots to be
ei, e, *e, M-I.
..Let 8 and y be such that
$ (8+y V-1)=(e,4-e, V-1) (8+y V-I).
Then it is obvious that, by changing throughout the sign of
the imaginary quantity, we have
4 (8-ys/–1)=(e, -e, V- 1)(3–). J-1).
These two equations, when expanded, unite in giving by
equating the real and imaginary parts the values
$8= e,8–e, y
‘by = e,y ...}}
To find the values of a, B, y we must, as before, operate on
any vector by two of the factors of the cubic.
As an example, take the very simple case
$p = e Vip.
Here it is easily seen by (m, s) that m=0, mi- + e”, m, =0,
so that $” + e”q = 0,
that is % ($4 eV−1)(?-e V-T)=0.
As operand take
p =ia, +jy 4-kz,
then a |V(4 + ex/-T) ( – e V-1) p
|e V. ($4 e V-1)(ky—jz—p M-1)
|(-jy— kz +p)
| i.
x.] VECTOR EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST DEGREE. 205
Again
B-yv-T | }(§ 4 e V-1)p
|ed (ky—jz+V-T p)
|-jy-kz + J-T(ky—jº)
|jy+kz-V-I (?-ky).
With a change of sign in the imaginary part, this will represent
B+y V-1,
so that B=jy+ k2,
'y =jz– ky,
Thus, as the student will easily find by trial, B and y form
with a a rectangular system. But for all that the system of
principal vectors of p, viz.
a, B+y V-1
does not satisfy the conditions of rectangularity. In fact we see
by the above values of B and y that
S. (8+y V-1)(3–7 W-1) = 8*4 y' =–2(y'42").
It may be well to call the student's attention at this point to
the fact that the tensors of these imaginary vectors vanish, for
T*(8+y W-I)=–S(8+y V-1)(3+y V-1)=y’-3’=0.
This gives a simple example of the new and very curious
modifications which our results undergo when we pass to Bivectors;
or, more generally, to Biquaternions.
As a pendant to the last problem we may investigate the
relation of two vector-functions whose successive application pro
duces rotation merely.
Here # = |x"
is such that by (w)
$' = }T',
i.e. X"/=x]",
Or xx = WW = ~',
206 - - QUATERNIONS. [CHAP.
since each of these functions is evidently self-conjugate. This
shews that the pure parts of the strains iſ and X are the same,
which is the sole condition.
One solution is, obviously,

X = x', '+ y^*,
i.e. each of the two is itself a rotation; and a new proof that any
number of successive rotations can be compounded into a single
one may easily be given from this.
But we may also suppose either of ſº, X, suppose the latter,
to be self-conjugate, so that
X=x=x,
Or - !// x',
-
which leads to previous results.
EXAMPLES TO CHAPTER X.
1. If a, 8, y be a rectangular unit system

S. Waqa V8º37) by =–m S. 84/T'a S. 8 ($ – ‘b’) a,
and therefore vanishes if q be self-conjugate. State in words the
theorem expressed by its vanishing.
2. With the same supposition find the values of
XV. Vada. V838 and of X.S. Waqa V848.
Also of X. aSaqa.
3. When are two simple shears commutative 7
4. Expand 1 º:q, in powers of $, and reduce the result to

three terms by the cubic in p.
5, show that ºr ºp-ºººº

S. pºp$ºp
y.º.
= m Vpºp.
6. Why cannot we expand $ in terms of $", $, $*?
7. Express Voºp in terms of p, bp, ºp, and from the result
find the conditions that ºpp shall be parallel to p.
8. Given the coefficients of the cubic in $, find those of the
cubics in p", $”, &c. p". -
9. Prove -
$ W. aq'a – m V. aq'T'a = 0,
(p + m,) V. aq'a = Waq,”a.
10. If m = | A, b, c | shew that M, = 0 may be written as
a, B, c'
a', b’, C
g
3. d”
*I— -
d \ -
{ dAaBag" * (ºntº)+c(i+2)+1}m-0.
d
or ."(iâ“) m = 0.
11. Interpret the invariants m, and m, in connection with
Homogeneous Strain.
12. The cubics in pip and pºp are the same.
13. Find the unknown strains $ and x from the equations
§ 4 X = w,
$X = 0.
14. Shew that the value of V (paxa + $8x8 + ºx)) is the
same, whatever rectangular unit system is denoted by a, B, Y.
15. Find a system of simple shears whose successive applica
tion results in a pure strain.
16. Shew that, if q be self-conjugate, and £, m two vectors,
the two following equations are consequences one of the other:—
§ _ _Y. mºn y
s". §§'; S. mºnºn

m V. §§
sº, ºn sº
Trom either of them we obtain the equation :
Sººn-s”. {{#s". Mºnºn.
208 - QUATERNIONS. [CHAP. x.
17. Shew that in general any self-conjugate linear and vector
function may be expressed in terms of two given ones, the ex
pression involving terms of the second order.
Shew also that we may write
4 + 2 = a (or +a) + b (a + æ) (0.4-y)+ c (0 + y)*,
where a, b, c, ac, y, z are scalars, and ar, w the given functions.
What character of generality is necessary in aſ and of How is
the solution affected by non-self-conjugation in one or both }
18. Solve the equations:
(a) V. apg= W. ay9,
(b) ap+ pſ3 = y,
(c) p + apº = aff,
(d) apa'48E6*=ypy",
(e) appp = pap8.
A PPEND IX,
WE have thought it would be acceptable to many students

if we should give as an Appendix a brief, and in some cases
even a detailed, solution of the most important and most difficult
of the ADDITIONAL ExAMPLEs. In doing so, we would add as
a word of advice, that our solutions be employed simply for the
purpose of comparison with those which shall occur to the
student himself.
CIIAP. II.
Ex. 4. If AB = a, BC = 8, AP=ma, AP=m'a, DQ =mg,

&c.; then *
AE = AP + acPQ = AP' + æ'P'Q'

gives ma + æ {(1-m) a + m2} = m'a + æ' {(1-m') a +m'B},
whence a = m/, and PE = m/PQ.
Ex, 6, ABCD is a quadrilateral; AB = a, AC = 8, AD = y,

AP = Ina, BQ = m (3- a), &c.
The condition PQ + 1:.S = 0
gives (1 – m) a + m (8– a) + (1 – m) (y – 3) – my = 0,
Or (1–2m) (a — 8+ y)=0;
an equation which is satisfied either when 1–2m = 0, or when
a – 8 + y = 0.
The former solution is Ex. 5; the latter gives ABCD a
parallelogram,
Ex. 10. Let a, b, c be the points in which the bisectors of
the exterior angles at A, B, C meet the opposite sides, Let unit
T. Q. 14
210 QUATERNIONS.
vectors along BC, CA, AB be a, B, y; then with the usual nota

tion we have
aa + b|3+ cy = 0........................(1).
Now Aa = a (8+ y)=-b|3+y (b|3+ cy)
e bc.
gives *= . .;
bc
and Aa = 5 – c. (3 + y).
- - COM,
Similarly Bb - c-a (y + a),
b
ce = *,(a +B),
therefore Ab = - .*.6 (by 1),
bc
Ac= § Y.
Q –
Iſence (b-c) Aa + (c.—a) Ab + (a-b) Ac = 0,

and also (b – c) + (c-a) + (a-b) = 0,
therefore (Art. 13) a, b, c are in a straight line.
CoR. ba : ca :: b – a ; c.—a.
Ex. 12. If the figure of Ex. 11, Art. 23, be supposed to re

present a parallelepiped; then, with the notation of that example,
the vector from O to the middle point of OG is #6. + 3 +8),
which is the same as the vector to the middle point of AF, viz.
0. -- : (6 + 8– a),
Ex. 13. With the figure and notation of Art. 31, the former
part of the enunciation is proved by the equation
arty- (“j”
4.
248 18ty, Yºº
s— 4-3-4-3-4-5
r
APPENDIX. 211 .
Also, if the edges AB, BC, CA be bisected in c, a, b, the mean

point of the tetrahedron Oabc is evidently
1 (*.*.*.*; ),
4 \T2 2 2
which proves the latter part of the enunciation.

Ex. 14. Here we have to do with nothing but the triangles
on each side of O.D.
If 00 = a, QA =pa, AP = 8, PD = q.8;
TO = a-OD = TQ – 00 = y QP – OQ
- 1
guves gº - pq - I - -
Similarly, if OS = a, SB = p'a', BR = 8, RD = 7'3";

T'O = ac'OD
gives ac' = –– -
p'g' – 1
But the data are . -; , p = mq'; hence
pq=p'g', and a = x: ;
therefore T’’ coincides with T.
Ex. 15. If AB = a, AC = 8, MM =pa, PQ = q8, RS = r(8– a),

we shall have, by making AO = AP + PO = AR + RO,
(1 – q) a + (1-p) B = ra + (1-p) (8 – a);
therefore p + q + r = 2,
Ex. 17. Tet RA = a, RB = 3, AP=ma, AD=pa + q8; then
PD = pa + 78 – ma,
and RS = RP + PS = RQ-1 QS gives
(1 + m) a + æ (pa + q8-ma) = (1 + m) B+ y (pa + q8-m3),
1 + m,
whence QC = Tw,
and Is–H." (p. 16)–: "AD, Jº,
14–2
212 QUATERNIONS.
CHAP. III.
Ex. 5. Let ABCD be the quadrilateral; D.A, DB, DC, a, 8, y

respectively.
Now 8 (y-a)+(y-a)/3-y(3-a)+(8–6))
+a (y-B)+(y-8) a.
Taking scalars, and applying 22.3, there results,
S3 (y-a)=Sy(3–0)+ Sa (y–8),
which is the proposition.
Ex. 6. If a, B, y be the vectors OA, OB, OC corresponding
to the edges a, b, c ; we have - -
W(CA. CB) = V (a –Y) (8–7)

= V (ag + By + ya)
= abk+bci + caj,
the negative square of which is the proposition given.
Ex. 7. If Sa (8–7) = 0 and S8 (a — y) = 0, then, by sub
traction, will Sy (a – 3) = 0.
Ex. 8. If a =(3–7), 6'-(y-o), Y=(a-6); then will
B + y ..) y+ a £3\
s(*º- (** -á)-0. &c. &c.,
for these are the same equations in another form ; and they prove
that the corresponding vectors are at right angles to one another.
Ex. 9. If OA, OB, OC, OD are a, B, y, 8;
triangle DAB : DAC :: tetrahedron ODAB ; ODAC
:: Sağ8 : Say8
:: triangle OAB : OAC,
because the angles which 8 makes with the planes OAB, OAC are
equal. - -
APPENDIX. - 213.
CHAP. IV. -
Ex. 1. Let O be the middle point of the common perpendi

cular to the two given lines; a, -a, the vectors from 0 to those
lines, unit vectors along which are 3, y; p the vector to a point
P in a line QR which joins the given lines; P being such that
RP = m. PQ; therefore
p + a -y) = m (a + æð–p).
Now since a is perpendicular to both 8 and y, the equation
gives (1 + m) Sap = (m – 1) a”; a plane. - - -
Ex. 2. Retaining what is necessary of the notation of the

last example, let OS = 8.
If PR perpendicular on y meet 3 in Q, we have
– a + yy + RP = p, which gives y)*= Syp;
RQ = 2a+ æð–yy, which gives yy”; a Sºy;
and SP = e^PQ’ gives
(p −3)*= e” (a + æð–p)"
– 29 Syo -
2
=6 (a s; 8 2)
+ »
which being of the second degree in p shews that the locus is a

surface of the second order. See Chap. VI.
Ex. 3. The equation of the plane is
Syp = a,
which, being substituted in the equation of the surface, gives
what is obviously the equation of a circle.
Ex. 4. With the notation of Ex. 1, let 8, 8' be the perpen
diculars on the lines,
then p4- 8 = a + æð gives V83 =– V8 (p-a),
and the condition given may be written
V*@3–e"V"yô';
214 - QUATERNIONS.
... W*B (p-a) = e Vºy (p + a).

Now (22.9)
V*6 (p – a)=– 8* (p – a)' + S-B (p-a),
whence p”— 2 Sap + a” + S-3p = e” (p” + 2Sap + a”+ S'yp),
a surface of the second order.
Ex. 6. Sp (8+7)=c, a plane perpendicular to the line which

bisects the angle which parallels to the given lines drawn through
0 make with one another.
Ex. 7. a, 8 the vectors to the given points A, B,
Syp = a, Söp =b
the equations of the planes, y, 8 being unit vectors.
acy, yā the vector perpendiculars from A on the planes, then
a: = Say-a, y = Saô–b,
... a + y = Sa (y--8) — (a + b)............... (1).
Hence by the question
Sa (y--8) = S3(y 4-8)
or S(8–a) (y--8)=0.................... (2).
Now equation (1) will give the sum of the perpendiculars on
the planes from any other point in the line AB by simply writing
a + 2 (8– a) in place of a ; and from equation (2) this will pro
duce no change.
Ex. 8. If 3’ be the vector to C, equation (2) of the last
example gives
S (8– a) () +8)=0, S (8' - a) () + 3) = 0.
Now the sum of the perpendiculars from any other point in
the plane will be found from equation (1) by writing
a + 2 (8–0) + 2 (3'- a)
in place of a. Hence the proposition.
Ex. 10, Tait's Quaternions, Art. 213.
APPENDIX. 215.
Ex. 11. Let a, B, y, 8 be the vectors 0A, OB, OC, OD;

then (34.5, Cor.)
8 = S. affy. (Vag + V8y +Wya)"
_abe (cit
(ab)” caj4
+ (bc) abº)...................
+ (ca.)" (1) •
Now
triangle ABD : triangle ABC

:: tetrahedron OABD : tetrahedron OABC
:: S. a63 : S. affy
:: S. abij} : S. abcijk
:: (ab) : (ab) + (bc) + (ca.)"
:: (triangle AOB)* : (triangle ABC)’.
(Chap. III., Additional Ex. 6.)
Ex. 12. This is merely the equation
B
p = at + # *
with t eliminated by taking the product of Wap, V8p. (See 55. 3.)
CHAP. W.
Ex. 3. Let a, aſ be the radii of the circles; a, p the vectors

from the centre of one of them to that of the other, and to the
point whose locus is required; then
To 7(0– a)
Gº, a' "
Ex. 7. This is the polar reciprocal of Ex. 3, Art. 40.

Ex. 8. Let A be the origin, AB = B, AC = y, the vector to
the centre a then -
– V (A.B. BC. CA) = W. B(y–8) y

= y^3–8°y -
= 28Say–2)Sağ from the circle;

... S. a V (A.B. BC. CA) = 0.
216 QUATERNIONS.
Ex. 9. Tait, Art. 222.

IEx. 10. Tait, Art. 221.
Ex. 11. Tait. Art. 223.
Tx. 12. Tait, Art. 232.
CHAP. VI.
Ex. 1. Let 8 be the vector to the given point, r the vector to

the point of bisection of a chord, 8 a vector parallel to the chord,
all measured from the centre ; then
8 = r + æg,
Sribà = Stºr........................ (48);
from which by making
--prº,
we get }
Spºp = Söqö,
an ellipse whose centre is at the point of bisection of the line
which joins the given point with the centre of the given ellipse.
Ex. 2. Let 2b be the shortest distance between the given
lines; 6 their angle of inclination; 2a the line of constant length;
then as in Ex. 2, Chap. IV.,
–4a’ = (2a+ æð–yy)",
2p = aft + yy;
the former gives
a” + y” – 23-ycos 0 = 4 (a”—b')..................... (1),
the latter
4p = (a +y) (8+7)+(a, -y) (8–7),
which, since 3+ y, 3-y are vectors bisecting the angles between
the lines and therefore at right angles to one another, is an equa
tion of the form of that in Art. 55. 2; whilst equation (1) satisfies
the condition
(a +y)"+ m (a – y)" - c,
which is requisite for an ellipse.
APPENDIX. , 217.
Ex. 3. Let a be a vector semi-diameter, parallel to a chord

through 0; 8 the vector to 0: then
p= 8 + aca
gives Söqö + 22S6%a + a "Saga º 1,

which, since Saba = 1,
shews that the product of the two values of a is constant ; hence
the rectangle by the segments of the chord varies as a”, which is
the proposition.
Ex. 4. With the usual notation, let CE, CE’ be semi
diameters parallel to DP, D'P, arſd let their vectors be m (a — 8),
m (a + 8); then since P, D, E, E' are points in the ellipse,
m°S (a — 8) # (a – B)= 1,
... 2m” = 1. Similarly 2n” = 1, m = n,
and DP : D'P : T (a – 8) : T (a + 3)
:: Tm (a — 8) : Th (a + B)
:: OE : CE’.
CoR. Since m == J. CE : DP : 1 : V2.

Ex. 5. Put na', mp' in place of a, p in equation (1), Art. 43.
Ex. 6, 7. With everything as in Ex. 4, CE, CE" being now
semi-diameters in the direction of diagonals of the parallelogram,
scrºck-ºs(a-b)*(x+8)
=0 ;
hence CE, CE" are conjugate.
Ex. 8. S(a + 3) # (a + 3) = 2 gives an ellipse, whose equation
is
Spºp'p = 1, where p' = q, -
>
2
hence the diameters of the locus are to those of the given ellipse
: V2 : 1.
4
218 QUATERNIONS.
Ex. 9. If y be a unit vector to which the lines are parallel,

p, p points in which the lines cut the ellipse,
p= at + my, p =bj+ n),
and Spºp = 1 gives
- 2aSiºby + m Sydy = 0 1
Similarly 2bSjºby + n Syðy = } - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1).
Now Spºp' = an. Sidy + bmSjöy 4 mmSydy
= 0, by equations (1);
... p, p" are conjugate.
CoR. The same demonstration applies when the diameters
from whose extremities parallels are drawn, are any conjugate
diameters whatever, i, j being parallel to those diameters.
Ex. 10. Let CP, CP be any two semi-diameters, their vec
tors being a, aſ; PQ the semi-ordinate to CP; CQ = na'; then
S(PQ. ba') = 0
gives S (a — na') ba' = 0,
... n = Saqa'.
Now the area of the triangle QCP is proportional to
V(CP. CQ),
i.e. to n Vaa' or to
Saqa'. Waa',
which, being symmetrical in a, aſ, proves the proposition.
Ex. 11. If the tangent at P' meet CP produced in T,
CT = ma ;
then, since PT is perpendicular to ba',
S(CT'-a') ba' = 0.
-- " .
..". 772 = Saqa' >
and area PCT is proportional to V(CP. CT), i.e. w;*

which is symmetrical in a, a.
APPENDIX. 219
Ex. 12. Let a, 3 be the vector semi-diameters of the larger

ellipse; C the centre; 0 the centre of the smaller ellipse, whose
equation is
Spºp = c,
y a vector along PQR ; then
a+ 8
00---4 ty;
•. s(****)? (****)-.
a+8 , a+8
=s*.*.*.*.*,
- S(a + 3) dy
- -
'yºpy '
and since CQ = a + 8 + æ),
S(CQ#y) = 0;
hence PR is conjugate to CQ, and therefore bisected at Q.
Ex. 13. This is simply a combination of 49. 2 and 49. 1.
CHAP. VII.
Ex. 3. The equation of the circle is
..) – "...
(e–)-isº,
which by 52. 1 gives
5
(a”—Sap)”—a’Sap = 16 a",
2
... Sap = . 3.
which (52. 11) is the proposition.

Ex. 5. If O be the centre of the circle, Q a point at which it
meets the tangent at A ; then, with the notation of 55. 1,
wo-ſeat (6-a-spy-30-acy,
220 QUATERNIONS.
‘. .2°3°–2S8p + aSap = 0,
2
i.e. *—ay 4% = 0,
which gives two equal values of 2 ; hence the proposition.
Ex. 6. With any point as origin, let B, y be the vectors to
the two given points, it the vector to the focus of one of the
parabolas. Write aa in place of a in equation (1), Art. 52, a
being a unit vector; -
then -(8–1)=a+S, (3-1).............. (1)

- (y – tr) = (a + Sa (y–T)}*,
whence, by subtraction,
B”—y”–2Sir (8–7) = – Sa (8–7) {2a+Sa (8–7)-2Sair),
which gives a by a simple equation in tr; and then equation (1)
becomes a quadratic in T.
Ex. 8. If two tangents meet at T, it is easy, as in Ex. 5,
Art. 55, with the notation available for the focus, to find
ST
, Vy'
4a . . y + y'a +** 8-aa,
ST" _J/,
= ... " +19+!" a aa,
-ā |3–
and S(ST. ST")=0 will follow at once, from the fact that
/ Az
y'y" + 4a’ = 0.
Ex. 9. Let P be the point of contact, PQ the chord, TEF the
line parallel to the axis cutting the curve in Ej; E the origin;
tº **
EP=3 a + tº, ET=–3 a,
Ep-er rp-, -}. Gºa. (t-t') 8):

l f #’
WIlence *= a- iſ , v=-2 .
. APPENDIX. 221
. ... PF : FQ :: t : t'
... tº tt'
-- 2 • 2
:: TE : EF.
Ex. 10. This is evident from equation (1) Art. 52.

Ex. 11. With the notation of Art. 52, let
SQ =&PS= - acp, Ay---AP-2 (-) *.
... a' (a – 2p) = a + 8,

a' (a”–2Sap)= a”.
But p, —ap being vectors to the parabola, equation (1), Art.
52, gives
a' (a’–Sap)*=(a” + æSap)",
‘. 2 (a” – Sap) = a + æSap,
a (a’–2Sap) = a”,
‘. a' = aff,
and the proposition is true (Euc. VI. 2).
Ex. 14. Tait, Art. 43, Cor. 2.
Ex. 15.
.# gives C7'-2at,
CP = at
co-2a+ º-crº- #. 2at +
so that the equation of RQPR' is
p-tº-(4-5),
whence for R and R' the values of a are 2 and – 1 ; therefore
B
CR = 3at, CR' = 32 t '
222 QUATERNIONS.
B 1 nm,
QR = at-j-PQ-3 RR'.
Ex. 16. If CR = aa ; a + m3, a - m3 vectors parallel to the
given conjugate diameters,
CP=aa +w (a + m3) = at +},
CD = aa +a;'(a — m/3) -a, -ś,
give t = t”; therefore CP, CD are conjugate.
Ex. 18. Adopting the figure and notation of Ex. 2 of the
hyperbola, Art. 55, we have
cR-2xu, cr-2x};
therefore QR = (X– Y) (a #) - 3.
ro-Gr-r)(-),
and r0. QR = (X*— Y’) (a hy -
= PO", since X*— Y” = 1.

As an example of combining not merely the forms but the
results of the Cartesian Geometry with Quaternions, we will add
one more example.
If CP, CD, CP, CD' be two pairs of conjugate semi-diameters
of an ellipse, PD' will be parallel to PD.
Let CP, CP be denoted, as in Art. 55.2, by wa + y&, aſ a +y'8
respectively; then CD, CD' will be represented by
cº, b a , , b ,
- ya: , ºff, - Vatiº,
with the conditions
a’y” + bºo." - a "b", a”y"+ bºx” = a "b"............(1).

Now vector D'P = (. +. y) ( . •) B,
O. -- -
APPENDIX. 223
DP'- (**. y) (/-. 2)6.

0 +
But equations (1) give, by subtraction,

0 2, . * ... .. a 2, . b ...
* + i v : y-, * **; y
- - : y-, *;
therefore D'P is a multiple of DP' and consequently parallel to it.
CoR. PD' : P'D :: ay' + ba : ay + baſ.
CHAP. VIII.
Ex. 1. With the notation of Additional Ex. 1, Chap. IV.,

the perpendiculars are
p– a – aff, p + a -y),
so that S3p = affº, Syp = y)";
and by the question,
(p – a – 8T'S3p)*=e” (p + a -y"Syp)",
a surface of the second order in p.
Ex. 3. The equations Spºp = 1, Strºbp = 1, with the condition
tr = a ſpp., give
1. Srđ't = 1 ’ *
ac" ac = 1 respectivel
p y,
therefore Srđ-'ºr = 1°,

whence the Cartesian equation.
Ex. 4. If a, B, y are the vector radii,
Sada (Sitſa)' , (Sjöo)" + (SKUd)?
-
(Tay Taº +*, *- c” ”

&c. = &c.
Adding and observing that Saqba = 1, &c., there results

1 1 1 1 1 1
224 QUATERNIONS.
Ex. 5. As in Ex. 8, Art. 64,

1
g--(+),
l
and if vector OQ, - acºba, the ellipsoid gives.

º
a "Sqaq’a = 1.
Now l -*- Sºap"a
0y,'. Uw, wº -
S; 2 (Ska)”
S; 2
– º & +---
+ 2
and, since -
- (Sia) + (Si6)*4 (Siy) = a” -
(Ex. 7, Art. 64), the result required is obtained by simply

adding. - -
Ex. 6. Let pk be the vector distance from the origin, of the

plane parallel to acy, it a point in it; then Sk (tr-pk) = 0 gives
Mirk = const. -
Now Spºt = 1 is the equation of the plane of contact, and if

2k be the point in which this plane cuts the axis of z, zSkºtr = 1,
i.e. zStripk = 1, gives 2. -
Now ºpk is a multiple of k, and since Sirk is constant, z is

constant.
Ex. 7. The equations of the ellipsoids
Spºp = 1, S(0–2): (p-a)=1,

give Spºpa = const. as the plane of contact.
Ex. 8. If pa be the vector to the point in the line 04; the
equation of its polar plane is Spaq p = 1; and the square of the
reciprocal of the perpendicular from the centre on this plane is
—p’ (‘pa)”. Hence the conclusion by Ex. 8, Art. 64.
Ex. 9. Let p be the vector to P; a, 6, y vector radii parallel
to the chords; then
p + aca, p + y&, p + 2y,
APPENDIX. - 225
will be the vectors to A, B, C ; and since P, A, B, C are

points in the ellipsoid
Spºp = 1, 2Spqa + a = 0, 2Spºp/8+ y = 0,
2Spºy +z=0.
The equation of the plane ABC is (34.5)
S. (tr-p) (ryag + y28y + zaya) = xyzS. affy,
and since a, 3, y are at right angles to one another,
•8--ºws . affy, &c.
therefore the equation of the plane ABC becomes
- Aſ 2 . * * : * *}
* *-ºſºy sº; dº sº why ~sº -
which is satisfied by
tr–p = mºp,
where
*{ºy +++ tº-3 e
(Ta)' ' (T8) (T,)') " '

and therefore Ex. 4 above gives
2
772 =
*...*.*.*
… " ' " …
CHAP. IX.
Ex. 2 and 3. Employ formula 11.

Ex. 5. Since
a’8°y’= a&y. YBa,
formulae 4 and 6 give the required result.
Ex. 6. Apply formula 10 to Ex. 5.
Ex. 8. (agy)*= affy. affy = affy (S. a6) + W. a6))
= affy (S. affy + W. YBa)
= affy (YBa +2S. affy)
= a”8°y” +2a3).S. affy,
T. Q. - 15
226 QUATERNIONS.
Ex. 9. Formula 10 gives the vector of the product of three

vectors a, B, y, under the form a' – 8 + y where a' = aSBy, &c.
Hence the required scalar may be written
S. (a’–3' +y) (a' + 8' – Y) (– a' + 8 +y);
and as the scalar part of this product is that which involves all of
the three vectors aſ, B, y' we have exactly as in the demonstra
tion of formula 5,
S(Waffy'VBya Vyag)
= S. |a', -3', y
a', B', – y
– aſ, B'3. y
= 4S. a'8'y.
10. The scalar part, by formula 16, is reduced to
SaôS8) — SayS38–SaôS3) + SağSy3+ SayS3y–SağSyö,
which is identically 0.
The vector part, by formula 12, is
a.S. yö3–8S. yèa + aS. 88) — yS. 88a + aS. Byö–8S. Bya,
which, by formula 13, reduces to
2a.S. By3.
12. If, for brevity, we denote S. agy, V. affy respectively by
S and V, we have, by formula 7,
2a'8") + a”(8)*4-8°(ay)" --) (aft)*-(ağy)"
= 2a3y. yſła + 3)a. affy 4 ayB. Bay 4. a6 y. Yağ-(aſy)"
= 2 (S+ V) (– S + V)+(S-V-E 2a S3y)(S+ V)
+ (– S- V4-2aS3)(– S- V-2)Sağ)
+ (S+ V)(S– V-2)Sağ) — (S+ V)*
= 4aySaff S8).
The student is recommended to verify a few examples such as
the above, by putting
a = i, (3= at +bj+ck, y=a'i + bi + cº,
APPENDIx. 227
with the conditions

a + b + c = 1, a” + 5° + c = 1.
The quaternion equality will then reduce itself to four alge
braic equalities, one of which is obvious, and the others are
p” + r"—a"—a” +2aa'm- 0,
pq — mr- a'c'+ ac-2ac'm = 0,
qr + mp + ab'+ ab–2ab'm = 0,
where m = aa' + bb'+ cc, p = ab’—a'b',
- q=bc'—b'c, r = ca'—c'a.
Ex. 13.
S. (a —8) (8–8) (y–8)=S. a6)—S. Byö + S. y8a–S. 8ag.

Ex. 14. By 34.8, we have *
- a S. 88) ... BCD :

- - -
d T.S. affy TT ABU ’

therefore the same Article gives
+ a. BCD+8. CDA +y. DAB+8. ABC =0;
and since the scalar of the product of this vector by the vector
perpendicular to the plane in which A, B, C, D lie gives the right
hand side of Ex. 13, we obtain
a. BCD–8. CD4+y. DAB-8. ABC = 0.
CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY, M.A. AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.

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This is a reproduction of a library book that was digitized

by Google as part of an ongoing effort to preserve the

WITH NUMEROUS EXAMPLES.

AND * Cº. º.º.

PROFESSORS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS IN THE

[All Rights reserved.]

THE present Treatise is, as the title-page indicates, the joint

great as any of them, Sir William Rowan Hamilton, who

Besides, there is no branch of mathematics in which

to say what could not otherwise have been said, that

power and originality in its development. For my own

being my pupil in youth is my teacher in riper years,

WECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION - - - - e . 6–31

Definition of a VECTOR, with conclusions immediately resulting

WECTOR MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION - . 32–57

Definition of multiplication, and first principles, Art. 15–18;

Equations of a straight line and plane, 32, 33; modifications and

THE CIRCLE AND SPHERE - - - - - - - . 72–89

Equations of the circle, with examples, 36, 37; tangent to circle

THE ELLIPSE . - - - - - - - - - . 90–104

Equations of the ellipse, 43; properties of ºpp, 44; equation of

THE PARABOLA AND HYPERBOLA . e - - e e ... 105–126

Equation of the parabola in terms of ºpp with examples, 52–54;

Bquation of the ellipsoid, 56; tangent plane and perpendicular

FoEMULE AND THEIR APPLICATION - - - - - . 153–179

Formulae, 69, 70; examples, 71.

WECTOR EquaTIONs of THE FIRST DEGREE . .. - - . 180—208

THE science named Quaternions by its illustrious founder, Sir

Treatise on Arithmetic (i. e. Arithmetic extended to Algebra)

VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION.

1. Definition of a Vector. A vector is the representative of

If we now start from B and advance to C in the same direction,

Other circumstances will determine the starting point, and in

2. In order to apply algebra to geometry, it is necessary to

transference from A to B be represented by + a, the transference

3. Further it is abundantly evident that so far as addition and

be limited to express transference in a certain direction, and can

5. If we now join AC, and thus form a triangle ABC, and if

ma+ ng = 0, where m and n are numerical quantities; then must

Another form of this consequence may be thus stated. If

7. We now proceed to exemplify the principles so far as they

To avoid prolixity, we shall very frequently drop the word vector,

then (Art. 1) vector CD is also repre- 9 D

... line AO = OD, CO = OB.

Ex. 3. The sides about the equal angles of equiangular triangles

Now AC is a multiple of AE, call it p (a + 8).

Ex. 4. The bisectors of the sides of a triangle meet in a point

Let jø-m, º, = n ; also let vector DC = a, vector CE = 3;

and ac, i.e. BE

Again, let BF = p/BA = p (ma + m3).

The two values of BF being equated, and Art. 6 applied,

or A.F. B.D. C E = AE. C.D. B.F.

Ex. 6. When, instead of as in Ex. 4, where D, E, F are points

Let the points of intersection be respectively G, G., G,..

Retaining the notation of Ex. 4, we have

=3a + y (CA – CD)

and from equation (1) BG, = (2a+38).

which being symmetrical is a, B, y in the same as the vector to

Let P, Q be the middle points of AC, D C

40-45 ſo-crº-º-º: Y),

i.e. R is the same point as X in the last example; and is therefore

and AB is a multiple of AD = 2 (a + 3) say.

A B** BC4. CA = 3 (OA* + O.B'4. OC’) — (306).